GCM 2015

Qualifications
The General Certificate in Malting (GCM)
Learning Material © Institute of Brewing and Distilling

& Maltsters’ Association of Great Britain 2015
Qualifications
Section
1. Cereals; their uses for malting and beer/spirit production. Page 3

2. Malting; overview and requirements. Page 7
3. Barley growing and harvesting. Page 14
4. Malting – barley intake and storage. Page 20
5. Malting - steeping. Page 27
6. Malting - germination. Page 38
7. Malting - kilning. Page 48
8. Malting - storage and dispatch. Page 54
9. Speciality malt production. Page 57
10. Malt quality and process control. Page 61
11. Beer types; raw materials and sweet wort production. Page 70
12. Distilled spirits; raw materials and wort production. Page 78
13. Safety in the malt plant. Page 86
14. Quality management. Page 92
15. Plant cleaning; cleaning in-place (CIP), pest control and general hygiene. Page 100
16. Engineering maintenance. Page 111
17. Utilities; energy, water and effluent in malting Page 115
18. Malting and the environment. Page 120
Examination Syllabus page 128
2 General Certificate in Malting

Section 1 Cereals; their uses for malting and beer/spirit production
CEREALS IN BREWING AND DISTILLING wheat, barley and rye beers and the beginnings of the
‘national drinks’ of a number of countries.
The history of the cultivation of cereals and the production
of beer and distilled spirits are closely linked. It is widely Wind forward to the present day and what has changed?
claimed that the invention of bread and beer was Mankind’s (and industry’s) reliance on wheat and barley as
responsible for humanity’s ability to develop technology food crops continues, and the demands for cereal crops
and build civilisations, but this was not possible until the today seem to come under the influence of more diverse
widespread development of the first ‘domesticated’ cereal factors such as climate change, exchange rates, sustainable
grains which can be traced back to around twelve thousand industry, population growth etc.
years ago. It is these early Holocene farming communities in
southwest Asia, and the development of the first crops of CEREALS – PRODUCTION
wheat and barley, that gave rise to the brewing and
distilling industries we now take for granted. Cereal grains are members of the monocot families
Poaceae or Gramineae, more commonly known as grasses,
Beer was first believed to have been brewed as early as
cultivated for the edible components of their fruit seeds –
11.5 thousand years ago or shortly after cereal was first
the endosperm, the germ, and the bran. They are grown in
farmed. It is recorded in the written histories of Egypt and
greater quantities and provide more food worldwide than
Mesopotamia, although it is probable that beer-like
any other crop. As whole grains, their natural form, they are
beverage were produced as a result of natural fermentation
a rich source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils
of starches or sugars throughout the world where cereals
and proteins. When refined by removing the bran and
were available. Distillation has been around since around
germ the remaining endosperm is mostly carbohydrate and
2000 BC, with perfumes and aromatics being distilled by the
the remaining nutrients are lost. Cereals form the basic diet
Babylonians. Distillation was brought to Europe by the
in some developing nations, with grains in the form of
Moors, and its use spread through the monasteries, largely
maize, rice, wheat or millet being prevalent. In the
for medicinal purposes, such as the treatment of colic,
developed world, cereal consumption is a smaller portion of
palsy, and smallpox. Between 1100 and 1300, distillation
the diet but is much more varied and, in terms of total
spread in Ireland and Scotland, with monastic distilleries
consumption, substantial.
existing in Ireland in the 12th century. Since the islands had
few grapes with which to make wine, barley beer was used
Table 1 shows the growth in annual world cereal production
instead, resulting in the development of whisky. Unlike beer
from 1961, data from the Food and Agriculture
production, it took the development of the art of distillation
Organisation of the United Nations. All but buckwheat and
before specific distilled spirits were first available – rather
quinoa are true grasses (these two are pseudocereals).
than the availability of starch/sugar supply – and it wasn’t
until around 1400 when it was discovered how to distil from
Worldwide production
Grain (millions (106) of metric tons) Notes
2013 2012 2011 2010 1961
A staple food of people in America, Africa, and of livestock worldwide; often called corn or Indian corn in
Maize (corn) 1016 872 888 851 205 North America, Australia, and New Zealand. A large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other
than human consumption.
The primary cereal of tropical and some temperate regions. Staple food in India, Brazil, Korea, Japan and
Rice 745 720 725 703 285
China
The primary cereal of temperate regions. It has a worldwide consumption but it is a staple food of North
Wheat 713 671 699 650 222
America, Europe, Australia and New Zealand.
Barley 144 133 133 124 72 Grown for malting and livestock on land too poor or too cold for wheat
Sorghum 61 57 58 60 41 Important staple food in Asia and Africa and popular worldwide for livestock
Millet 30 30 27 33 26 A group of similar but distinct cereals that form an important staple food in Asia and Africa.
Formerly the staple food of Scotland and popular worldwide as a winter breakfast food and livestock
Oats 23 21 22 20 50
feed
Triticale 14.5 14 13 14 35 Hybrid of wheat and rye, grown similarly to rye
Rye 16 15 13 12 12 Important in cold climates
A pseudocereal, as it is a Polygonaceae and not a Poaceae or Gramineae, used in Eurasia. Major uses
Buckwheat 2.5 2.3 2.3 1.4 2.5
include various pancake and groats
Fonio 0.6 0.59 0.59 0.57 0.18 Several varieties of which are grown as food crops in Africa
Quinoa 0.10 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.03 Pseudocereal, grown in the Andes
Maize, wheat and rice together accounted for 87% of all Cereal crops, including malting barley, are traded as
grain production worldwide, and 43% of all food calories in commodities around the world where grain from an area of
2003, while the production of oats and rye have drastically surplus (lower price) is traded with an area of deficit (higher
fallen from their 1960s levels. Other grains that are price). This matches supply with demand and brings prices
important in some places, but that have little production together to make a global market and a global price. The
globally (and are not included in FAO statistics), include: availability, and therefore price, of cereal crops is
determined in the short term by the crop size in any
 Teff, popular in Ethiopia but scarcely known particular year and the stock level brought forward from
elsewhere. This ancient grain is a staple in the previous year.
Ethiopia. It is high in fiber and protein. Its flour is
often used to make injera. It can also be eaten as a A look at definitions of ‘beer’ available from various sources
warm breakfast cereal similar to farina with a shows an interesting range of ingredients – as well as
chocolate or nutty flavour. Its flour and whole water, hops, and yeast various definitions also call for
grain products can usually be found in natural ‘malted barley’, or ‘malted cereals’, or just ‘cereals’ , so
foods stores. despite a reliance on barley crops during beer’s long history
 Wild rice, grown in small amounts in North there are alternatives to all-barley malt brewing. Clearly this
America is not a new proposition; looking back over the 125 years of
 Amaranth, ancient pseudocereal, formerly a staple the Institute of Brewing and Distilling’s history there are
crop of the Aztec Empire and now widely grown in many references to these ‘alternative’ uses of cereals. The
Africa Brewers Journal’ of November 1886 reported “a very happy
 Kañiwa, close relative of quinoa idea that was originated by Messrs Gillman, Spencer Ltd,
who had a competitive exhibition of beers brewed with
Several other species of wheat have also been their patent rice and torrified barley malts. Over 100
domesticated, some very early in the history of agriculture: brewers responded to the invitation, their prospects of
substantial prizes apparently having proved an incentive
 Spelt, a close relative of common wheat not to be neglected.” This ‘idea’ eventually evolved into the
 Einkorn, a wheat species with a single grain Brewing Industry International Awards, which today
 Emmer, one of the first crops domesticated in the demonstrate how far the brewers have moved from being
Fertile Crescent almost exclusively dependant on malted barley. There is
 Durum, the only tetraploid species of wheat also a long history of beers made with malted wheat
currently cultivated, used to make semolina around the world, as well as brewing in areas where the
 Kamut, an ancient relative of durum with an most popular cereals are not available, such as with
unknown history sorghum and millet in Africa.
Increased production of cereals over the last 40 years has The distilled spirits industry, outside of the traditional of
largely kept pace with population growth over the same grain distilling, has managed to diversify during its
period of time (3.0 billion to 6.9 billion estimated). A development into fruit, sugar, and simple-starch based
fourfold growth in maize, a staple food of people in the products as were able to be locally sourced. There has also
Americas, Africa, and of livestock worldwide, has been the developed a much more varied use of cereals, and less of a
biggest driver of this increase. Wheat as the primary cereal reliance on a supply of a single malted cereal. A good
of temperate regions, and barley grown for malting and example of this is the North American whiskey industry
livestock, have both increased threefold, whereas rice (as where a wide variety of cereals, both malted and un-
paddy, or wholegrain rice) as the primary cereal of tropical malted, are used to produce a wide range of whiskey styles.
and some temperate regions has seen a doubling in
production. Oats and rye have seen a fall in production as Key types of American whiskies listed in the US Code of
demand for them has fallen, oats once being the staple Federal Regulations:
food of Scotland and other cold climates. - Rye whiskey, mash contains at least 51% rye.
- Rye malt whiskey, mash contains at least 51% malted
Today’s brewing and distilling industry competes with a rye.
number of sources for this farmed resource. Traditional - Malt whiskey, mash contains at least 51% malted
food and drink now is competing with other industries such barley.
as the bioethanol, and with world population expected to - Wheat whiskey, mash contains at least 51% wheat.
hit 9.5 billion people by 2050 it is expected that this growth - Bourbon whiskey, mash contains at least 51% corn.
in cereal production will continue. Some people may argue - Corn whiskey, mash contains at least 80% corn.
that we will reach crisis point with our abilities to feed
ourselves, and sustainability of food and drink supplies of
the future will become increasingly important or indeed
critical, but I will leave these discussions to others and focus
on the use of the cereals available today for the production
of beer and distilled spirits.
Learning Material 2015 5

WHY MALTED CEREAL? As well as these lighter coloured malts there are more
‘speciality’ malts which are used exclusively for flavour as
Malting is the controlled rehydration and germination of they have no enzymic activity remaining. They typically
cereals, followed by a termination of this natural process by have been heated to high temperatures during which the
the application of heat. Further heat is then applied to 'kiln' storage starches in the endosperm have been converted by
the grain and produce the flavour and colour required by heat and the moisture inside the grain to produce some
the brewer or distiller. In simplistic terms, the maltster and complex, un-fermentable sugars. These ‘crystal malts’ can
the malting process fools the cereal grain into thinking it is impart caramel or toffee flavours dependent on the degree
spring! If this germination were allowed to continue then of heating, and are available in a range of colour,
the resulting plant growth will consume all the starches and fermentability, and flavour to suit the product style. Also
sugars that the brewer or distiller need for fermentation, available as speciality malts are the roasted malts which
the skill of the maltster therefore is to monitor this undergo an intense heating giving them a deep red tending
germination closely and know exactly when to stop the to black colour due to the charring of the sugars, which
process. impart more chocolate, roasted, or even treacle flavours to
a product.
The malting process, and the use of malted grain, therefore
provides the basis by which the mashing process can fully Malted barley is also widely used in the distilling industry,
convert the storage starches in the cereal grain into with a typical Pot Still Malt being produced to deliver high
fermentable sugars. levels of fermentable extract and potential for subsequent
distilled spirit yield. Malting therefore needs to be carefully
From a brewing point of view there are two kinds of cereal controlled to maintain the correct degree of endosperm
in use within the mashing process, those that need to be modification and kilning has to maintain the highest
mashed and whose primary function is to provide enzyme level to enable the high fermentability. A further
fermentable sugars (for alcohol production and ‘base’ malt specialism for some Scotch whiskies is that peat is burned
flavours such as grainy or malty descriptors), and those during the kilning period so that the smoke, or ‘reek’,
cereals (malted or unmalted) that do not need to be permeates the malted barley to give the distinct phenolic
mashed as they are used primarily for other reasons. flavour characteristic of many west coast Scottish island
malt whiskies.
These basic light coloured malts, generically referred to as
pale ale malt, lager malt, pilsner malt or malted wheat,
make up the bulk of a wort's fermentable sugars. These
traditional malts are now being complemented by a range
of other malted cereals which are available from a number
of maltsters for the use in a range of beer styles both new
and old.
Malted wheat, when mixed with malted barley, can

improve head retention and improve mouthfeel. Malted rye
has similar qualities to malted wheat, but is said to
introduce a toffee/caramel flavour at lower inclusion rates
and a spicy after-palate at higher rates. Rye malt will also
introduce a reddish colour to beers.
Malted oats can introduce a toasted, biscuit aroma and

palate. Oat malts can also contribute beta glucans,
otherwise known as soluble fibre, to add a health-
promoting property to a beer, but this has to be balanced
against increased mash and wort viscosity and a reduced
ability to separate clear wort from spent grain.
Barley malts can also be kilned at a higher temperature to

lend different tastes for example Munich, Vienna, or Brown
malts. This darkening of colour by heat destroys some of
their enzymes and makes them more and more (as time
and temperature increases) unusable as sources of
enzymes for production of fermentable sugars via the
mashing process.

Section 02 Malting; overview and requirements
breaking down the cell walls around the starch and
The key raw materials used in brewing are: make the starch available for subsequent
 Yeast breakdown into simple sugars.
 Water
 Hops c) The husk, formed by two overlapping halves, which
 Malt (primarily barley) cover the grain surface, to protect the germ and
endosperm.
Barley traditionally and technically can be considered the
most important. In its malted form barley provides the The maltster's task is to get the endosperm modification to
carbohydrate, protein and vitamins for yeast growth. a certain point, and then stop the process, "locking it up" by
Hydrolytic (reducing) enzymes derived from the malt reducing the moisture content. The brewer will then
release and convert these latter substances into assimilable "unlock" the process when he mashes his milled malt, and
forms for the yeast to metabolise. Malt also provides beer completes the conversion to sugars which will feed the
with its colour and flavour, whilst contributing a proportion yeast to produce alcohol, whilst other characteristics in the
of essential polypeptides and polyphenols to generate malt produce strong contributions to the quality of the final
beer’s characteristic foam. Hop products impart the bitter beer. The malting process, and the use of malted grain,
and related aroma effects and can confer microbial and therefore provides the basis by which the mashing process
flavour stability, whilst also supplying foam stabilising can fully convert the storage starches in the cereal grain
polyphenols. into fermentable sugars.
Barley and other cereals such as wheat, maize, rice, oats, As stated before, malted barley is the main raw material
and sorghum belong to the family of grasses (Gramineae). used in the brewing of beer. Malt provides the sugar that
Barley is classified as: will be fermented into alcohol in the brewing process.
Barley is a cereal traditionally grown in mild varying
 Family = Gramineae. climates and for centuries it has been used in the
 Subfamily = Festucoideae production of beer.
 Tribe = Triticeae
 Genus = Hordeum
Malting Barley
Maltsters commonly malt two species of barley:
 Hordeum vulgare – 6 rowed barley

 Hordeum distichon – 2 rowed barley
Malting is the controlled rehydration and germination of

cereals, followed by a termination of this natural process by
the application of heat. Further heat is then applied to 'kiln'
the grain and produce the flavour and colour required by All cereals contain carbohydrates in the form of starch
the brewer or distiller. In simplistic terms, the maltster and which is the source of food for the growing plant when the
the malting process fools the cereal grain into thinking it is seed is germinating. Usually the starch is locked away or
spring! If this germination were allowed to continue then protected until it is needed.
the resulting plant growth will consume all the starches and Close up of the
sugars that the brewer or distiller need for fermentation, starchy 'endosperm'
the skill of the maltster therefore is to monitor this
germination closely and know exactly when to stop the Starch granules
BARLEY
process. CORN Gum cell wall
A simple way to consider a cereal grain is that it is Protein

composed of three parts:
Husk
Shoot
a) The embryo, or germ, which will eventually grow
into the roots and shoots of the new plant. Aleurone layer
Endosperm
b) The endosperm comprises hard insoluble starch, Germ
which is the food reserve to be used by the
growing germ of the grain. The embryo calls for
the release of enzymes and production of further Root
enzymes which travel into the endosperm,

The diagrams above illustrate the key features of the barley There are three stages in the process of converting barley
corn. It shows the location of the starch granules which are into malt:-
the main carbohydrate food reserves.
1. Steeping: Barley is soaked in water to simulate the
Starch is present as granules which are embedded in a conditions that start germination or growth. This is
protein matrix. This matrix is surrounded by cell walls done in a steep tank and usually the tank is aerated to
containing a gum called -glucan. The starch granules are encourage fast moisture uptake by the barley.
therefore inaccessible and initially protected from attack by
the amylase enzymes that are produced during 2. Germination: On completion of steeping, the barley
germination. seed is allowed to grow.
During the malting process however, the cell walls and the During germination two major changes occur:
protein will be dissolved by other enzymes which are
produced naturally as the seed grows. The barley selected Firstly, hormones stimulate the production of enzymes in
for processing into malt must meet certain specific the aleurone layer.
requirements:-
Secondly, these enzymes start to act.
 It must be capable of growth. The key stage of the During malting they will break down the gummy cell walls
malting process is germination when the barley seed and break down the protein matrix. This breakdown
starts to grow. This growth needs to be rapid and even; releases the starch granules making them accessible for
barley that is ‘dormant’ takes a long time to start conversion into sugar.
growing.
The changes taking place during germination are called
 It must have a relatively low proportion of protein. The
‘modification’. The maltster can influence the degree of
lower the protein, the higher the amount of
modification during malting by controlling the moisture
carbohydrate. (Protein levels are measured by
content of the grain, its temperature and the time allowed
measuring nitrogen content.)
for germination. During germination the seed grows
 The corns should be of an even size. That way they are
rootlets and a shoot.
more likely to grow evenly and will be more consistent Close up of the effect
of enzymes on the
in milling at the brewery. endosperm.
GERMINATING
 The corns should be bold. Bold corns contain more BARLEY
starch by proportion and therefore have a higher extract Cell walls dissolved.
potential.
Protein dissolved.
 The barley must be of a ‘malting variety’. Malting
varieties have a more open endosperm which accepts Starch granules
water readily during steeping, encouraging rapid and Shoot
released
even breakdown of endosperm cell walls.
 The corns must be undamaged and free of disease.
THE MALTING PROCESS

Enzymes released from
the aleurone layer
Roots
STEEPING GERMINATION
Malting 'Box' Turner

KILNING
Air Conditioning
Water
Growing Barley
Barley
Plant
Burner
Steep Tank
or Boiler
The barley grows

The seed is soaked The malt is dried
under controlled
in water to start it out and colour and
conditions and the
growing flavour are
'changes' occur
developed
inside the seed

Germination usually takes place in a chamber or vessel be 4-5%. The table below details the changes that occur
where air is blown through the growing malt to control its during the malting process:-
temperature and moisture content. Also turners mix the
malt to prevent the growing roots from matting together. The extent to which the barley is converted into malt is
termed the ‘Degree of Modification’. Lager malt
3. Kilning: During this stage of the malting process, water specifications are sometimes less modified. For this reason,
is removed from the green malt. The malt then brews containing lager malt may require some additional
becomes stable and can be stored without processing, for example further protein and  - glucan
deterioration. The malt also develops colour and breakdown, during mashing in the brewhouse.
flavour.
TYPES OF MALTING PLANT
A combination of high grain moisture and high temperature
could destroy the enzymes developed during germination. Floor Malting
Some of the enzymes, for example those required later in Floor Malting is one of the oldest malting methods in use.
the brewing process for starch and protein conversion must Its use dates back to the origins of brewing and it was the
be preserved. The malt kilning process is manipulated so only method of malting in use until the 1850’s.
that the malt is dried at a relatively low temperature using
high flows of air. Then when the malt is drier with a In floor malting, steeped barley is laid in piles on tiled or
moisture content of around 10%, the kilning temperature is concrete floors and allowed to build up some heat and
increased so that the malt develops colour and flavour. At begin growth. At some point, the malt is manually levelled
the completion of kilning, the malt’s moisture content will off to a depth of 10 to 15cm. The green malt is turned with
Parameter Barley Steeped Barley / Green Malt Malt
Moisture. About 12% after About 45% after steeping 4 - 5% after kilning
drying on the farm
or after intake.
Extractable Very low, as Very high because the starch Kilning does not change the level of
carbohydrate. enzymes have not granules have been released. extractable carbohydrate but it does fix
developed. They are now accessible to it by reducing moisture and stopping
enzymes that convert starch germination.
into sugar.
Colour. Very low. Very low. Colour is produced when sugars and
soluble protein react together at high
temperature.
An increase in colour occurs depending

on the degree of kilning and the levels
of sugar and soluble protein present.
Protein Malting grade Nitrogen level reduces slightly Kilning does not change the nature of
2 row barleys for during germination as rootlets the proteins and carbohydrate but it
(measured from the pale ale malts have and shoots are produced. does fix them by stopping germination.
Total Nitrogen nitrogen levels of Much of the protein is
content – about 1.4% to 1.9%, solubilised by enzyme activity. Kilning temperatures will reduce some
depending on the enzyme activities by denaturing the
% w/w TN brewer's malt Important parameter is ratio of protein.
x 6.25 specification the Total Soluble Nitrogen
= % Protein) (protein from 8.7% (TSN) to the Total Nitrogen Lighter kilned malts (lower colour) tend
to 11.9%) (TN) in the malt. to have higher enzyme levels).
Brewers in some Known as Soluble Nitrogen Roasted malts have no enzyme content.
countries may use 6 Ratio (SNR) or Kolbach Index.
row barleys, which
have protein levels
up to 14% (2.0-2.3%
nitrogen) and
correspondingly
higher enzyme
content.

wooden shovels to reduce heat build-up and to aerate the introduced turning machines and helixes in the 1880s.
grain. Room temperature may be controlled to a limited Galland then moved on to develop drum malting.
extent by windows on the outside walls.
Saladin Box Pneumatic Malting
The Saladin box or compartment pneumatic malting, with
turning machines, became the dominant malting
technology and is the process in use today across the world.
Figure 1 shows an old floor malting crew. For many years, The Saladin box eliminated manual turning and allowed
malt houses employed crew such as this to produce high green malt depths of 1m to 1.5m. This allows the greatest
quality malt. use of floor space, especially when compared to floor
malting.
Saladin boxes are thought of as rectangular compartments

because that was his original design, but as a process,
round compartments are also pneumatic malting with
turning machines and are a version of Saladin malting
Drum Malting
Figure 1 Floor Malting (Source: Warminster Maltings)
Galland developed the drum malting process and built his
It is important to note that in floor malting there is no air first plant in 1873. Drum malting would become the most
flow through the germinating barley and there is no common commercial malting process of the late 1800’s and
automatic turning machine. This results in the need to turn early 1900s.
the malt frequently by hand using shovels. As a result, floor
malting is very labour intensive. Drum malting makes use of a rotating drum for
germination. The rotation of the drum gently turns the
If done with proper care, floor malting can produce green malt, preventing matting of the rootlets, provides
consistent malt; however it is very labour intensive. Also temperature regulation, and facilitates air flow.
piece size is very small compared to modern malting
methods.
Figure 2 shows a typical drum malting system. A large door
Floor malting is most practical for small batch sizes. in the side of the drum allows for loading of grain into the
Because the grain is spread out fairly thin, a large amount drum via a loading conveyor. The same door is used for
of floor space is required for large-scale operations. There unloading when the drum is rotated such that the door
are currently no large-scale commercial floor malting faces downward to an unloading conveyor.
facilities in existence. The last large commercial operation
was in association with the Stella Artois company in A mechanical drive system consisting of wheels and gears
Belgium. This operation shut down in the late 1980s. At the slowly rotates the drum. Drum motion is slow, nearly
present time, floor malting, is only performed by small imperceptible to the human eye.
specialty maltsters and hobbyists.
Pneumatic Malting
th
In the 19 century, the first pneumatic maltings were
developed. Pneumatic malting is any process alternative to
floor malting that forces a stream of cool, humidified air
through the germinating grain. The invention of pneumatic
malting represented the first major advancement from
floor malting. It was first introduced in the mid-1800s, and
reached commercial success in the late 1800s.
Two Belgian malting engineers: Galland and his assistant

Saladin, were responsible for major developments of the
pneumatic malting process. Galland and Saladin are the
most significant names in the development of the
pneumatic malting process and are considered to be the
fathers of modern malting equipment.
Galland introduced the first aerated rectangular boxes in

1873, but they required manual grain turning. Saladin Figure 2 Drum Malting System

Air is forced through the grain bed by a system of air ducts steep tanks. The transfer conveyor moves the green malt
and flapper doors. As the drum rotates, the flapper doors from the steep tanks to the kiln as the germination cycle
open and close in sequence to direct the air flow though progresses.
the grain bed instead of the empty space above the grain.
Drum malting is best suited for small batch sizes due to the
limitation of drum size. Automated turning allows for less
manual labour compared to floor malting yet it is still
relatively labour intensive. Other disadvantages include
high maintenance costs and difficult sanitation.
Maintenance problems are complicated due to the complex
mechanical turning mechanisms that must be located in
areas of high humidity. Figure 3 shows a typical layout for a
drum malthouse. Note that a significant amount of floor
space is dedicated to the drums and the supporting
machinery.
Figure 4 Wanderhaufen System
Lausmann System
The Lausmann system is another type of moving batch
system, similar in many respects to the Wanderhaufen
system. This system, shown in Figure 5, uses a series of
moveable germination beds. The green malt is moved
forward from one bed to the next as the germination cycle
progresses. To accomplish this, the beds are equipped with
jacks to raise and lower them as needed. As one
compartment is raised, the turner moves the green malt
from that compartment to the next compartment, which is
Figure 3: Drum Malthouse slowly lowered as it fills with grain. As in the Wanderhaufen
system, one advantage is that the conveyor reverses bed
The Wanderhaufen System top to bottom on each transfer.
The Wanderhaufen system is another modern malt plant However, the Lausmann system has the following
design. Unlike the other methods that perform the disadvantages:
germination cycle in one place, the Wanderhaufen system  Batch size is limited.
is a moving batch process. The Wanderhaufen system uses  Irregular air flow. The edges of the piece are
a long bed area called a germination “street” that holds sloped.
multiple pieces. A transfer conveyor that is similar to a  High maintenance costs. Mechanically complex.
large excavating machine advances the green malt to a new  Difficult sanitation.
location on the bed in place of a turning machine. One
advantage of this system is that the action of the conveyor
reverses the bed top to bottom on each transfer.
The Wanderhaufen system has the following disadvantages:

 Poor batch integrity. The edges of the piece
comingle.
 Irregular air flow. The edges of the piece are
sloped.
 High maintenance costs, mechanically complex.
 Difficult sanitation
Because of the poor batch integrity, only one type of malt

can be germinated. Otherwise, mixing of types would most
likely result. These disadvantages outweigh the practical
advantages and as a result this system has lost favour over
the years. Figure 4 shows an example of the Wanderhaufen
system. The newest piece is loaded on the bed from the
Figure 5 Lausmann System diameter than the germination beds, resulting in more
Tower Malting surface area and a thinner grain bed.
Tower malting uses the same malting process as

rectangular design malt houses previously described in this
course. The main difference is in the equipment
configuration. In tower malting, the components in the
process are stacked vertically to make maximum use of
gravity and conserve space.
All vessels are round. Round vessels provide an ease of

loading and unloading as well as providing superior
evenness of the grain bed when compared to rectangular
vessels.
The Germination compartments are stacked on top of each

other. This stacked design requires the least amount of
space for construction (small footprint). The vertical design
also requires a lesser amount of grain conveying compared
to earlier designs. Tower malting facilitates the uses of large
flat-bottomed steeping vessels, but they are not Figure 7 Seeger Tower Malting Design
mandatory.
Combined Germination and Kilning Vessels (GKV) Malting
A number of different tower-malting systems are used. Systems
Figure 6 shows one type of tower malting system called the
Buhler-Miag System. In this system, the building forms the The Flexi Malt system is an example of a GKV design. This
process vessels and therefore the utility functions are system, shown in Figure 8, has an enclosed germination bed
located outside the building. The steeping vessels are that is similar to the Saladin box. The main difference is that
located at the top of the tower. Germination compartments that the germination compartment also doubles as a kiln.
are stacked on top of each other, each being individually Green malt does not have to be transferred to separate
controlled. The furnace for kilning is located at the bottom kiln.
of the tower.
The primary advantage of this system is that is that malt is
not moved for kilning and that germination box is heated
each cycle for sanitation.
The main disadvantage of Flexi Malt systems is high energy

consumption. A significant amount of energy is required to
alternate the vessel between cool germination
temperatures and high kilning temperatures. The repetitive
thermal cycling also tends to shorten the life span of
concrete structures. Another disadvantage is that bed
depth is a compromise between germination and kilning
levels
Flexi Malt systems were very popular in the late 1960s and
early 1970s, however after the energy crisis of the 1970s,
their popularity waned due to excessive energy costs.
Recently there has been some new interest in Flexi Malt
systems, particularly in Europe, where some Flexi Malt
houses have been built using stainless steel structures
Figure 6 Buhler-Miag Tower Malting System instead of concrete. Construction of the vessels in stainless
steel overcomes much of the energy potential associated
The Seeger tower design, shown in Figure 7, is another type with this design.
of tower malting system. This system is similar to the
Buhler-Miag tower malting system except that it uses a
separate kiln building to house the kiln. For optimum
kilning, the depth of the grain bed should be less than the
bed depth in the germination bed. Having the kiln located
in a separate building allows the kiln to have a larger

throughout the endosperm (elongating process time).
However, modification will be thorough.
 High germination temperatures will accelerate

modification of the grain, reducing process times.
Malting loss can be reduced if the period that the
embryo utilises nutrients from the endosperm is
shortened. However, the quality of the malt produced
will be inferior, with incomplete and non-homogenous
modification.
Figure 8 Flexi Malt Unit
MALTING LOSS
During the malting process, barley respires producing
energy for growth. As the grain respires it consumes and
expends integral substrates (e.g. carbohydrates and
protein) in the production of new tissue, CO2, water and
heat energy. This consumption depletes the extract
available to the brewer, recognised as a reduction in the
total dry weight of the grain and represents malting loss.
Malting loss is also enhanced as materials leach from the
grain during steeping. Typically malting loss is described in
Table 1.
Table 1. Typical malting loss expressed as percentage dry

weight of the grain.
Malting Loss % Reduction in grain total dry

weight
Steeping 1%
Rootlet production 3.5%
Respiration 3%
What Affects Malting Loss?
In general, the longer the grain is allowed to germinate and

grow, the greater the malting loss will be.
Reducing malting loss, however, works in opposition to

requirements of the maltster and brewer alike. For trouble-
free brewing, the malt must be sufficiently modified. To
achieve good quality grain modification, the barley must
have sufficient time to germinate. If this is allowed, extract
potentials are reduced because the embryo is allowed to
grow, not to mention the increased capital expenditure
associated with an extended malting process.
 For example, low germination temperatures restrict

embryo growth (reducing malting losses) but slow the
synthesis, release, and diffusion of hydrolytic enzymes

Section 3 Barley growing and Harvesting.
BARLEY GROWING
World Barley Production ‘000 Mt 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13

North America 14,996 12,224 11,771 13,369
South America 2,443 3,869 5,535 6,604
European Union 62,149 53,511 51,826 54,372
Other Europe 1,407 1,292 1,363 1,376
Former Soviet Union - 12 35,988 21,682 32,245 25,977
Middle East 11,320 11,100 11,670 10,275
North Africa 7,340 4,589 4,448 3,408
Sub-Saharan Africa 1,933 1,865 2,049 2,058
East Asia 2,646 2,215 2,602 2,652
2,192
South Asia 2,330 1,957 2,327 Source: Malteurop
Oceania 8,300 8,303 8,717 7,498
Total 150,852 122,607 134,418 129,916
Source USDA FSA
Barley is a tough cereal, grown in a number of

environments where other grains can't grow - from arctic
latitudes and alpine altitudes to saline desert oases. Barley
is the fourth most important cereal crop in the world after
wheat, maize, and rice. Although generally a temperate
crop, barley is also grown in many tropical countries,
typically by poor farmers in hostile, dry, cool environments.
The main barley growing countries in the world are Russia,

Canada, Germany, France, Ukraine, Spain, Turkey, UK,
Australia, USA, and Denmark. In Tibet, Nepal, Ethiopia, and
the Andes, farmers cultivate barley on the mountain slopes
at elevations higher than other cereals. In areas with little
irrigation in the dry regions of North Africa, the Middle East,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, Eritrea, and the Yemen, barley is
often the only suitable cereal. Developing countries account
for about 18% of global production and 25% of the
harvested area of barley.
Barley and other cereals such as wheat, maize, rice, oats,

and sorghum belong to the family of grasses (Gramineae).
Barley is classified as:
 Family = Gramineae
 Subfamily = Festucoideae
 Tribe = Triticeae
 Genus = Hordeum
Brewers commonly malt two species of barley:
 Hordeum vulgare – 6 rowed barleytetrazolium
 Hordeum distichon – 2 rowed barley

1) Barley kernel with glume. 2) Barley kernel. 3) Barley Kernel – longitudinal section. 4) Barley kernel – cross
section.
Kernel growth proceeds as follows: Source: GoodMills Innovation GmbH
1) Growth initiates with chitting, i.e the emergence of
the coleorhiza from the proximal end of the grain.
This extends and branches forming the seminal
roots.
2) The coleoptile (leaf sheath) grows along the grain
between the aleurone and testa, breaking the husk
to emerge at the distal grain end.
3) Leaves then grow through a pore at the tip of
coleoptile, each originating at a swollen joint or
node. Leaves are numbered in order of
appearance and used as developmental markers Barley Fertilisation
for the application of field treatments e.g. Once formed, the spikelet develops its reproductive organs.
fertilisers and pesticides. The stamens grow anthers which develop and release
4) The first node develops into additional pollen during anthesis. The ovary bears the style upon
adventitious or coronal roots at the base or crown which the stigma rides to receive the pollen. Once released
of the plant. These roots will sustain the plant from the anther, the pollen grain germinates on the stigma
into maturity. of the translucent embryo sac, to produce a pollen tube.
5) Apical bud(s) form, and new stems or “tillers” This pollen tube contains two haploid male nuclei
evolve from these (the tillering stage), forming a (gametes). The pollen tube grows down from the stigma
rosette close to the ground. The number of tillers and penetrates the embryo sac. One of the male nuclei
that develop is variety dependent. Since only one (containing seven chromosomes) fuses with the haploid
ear of grain will form on each stem this is female egg nucleus, to form the diploid embryo or germ
important in terms of yield and kernel size. containing fourteen chromosomes. The remaining male
6) The stems elongate prior to flowering, elevating nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei of the embryo sac
the ear, which develops at the apices of the to form a triploid endosperm (twenty one chromosomes).
uppermost leaf sheaths (flag leaf or boot stage).
This phase is known as shooting or jointing. Barley has evolved to be pollinated by neighbouring plants,
7) The ear develops upon the rachis. The rachis is a their pollen dispersed and carried by the wind and insects.
differentiated extension of the main tiller. It is However, due to the close proximity of the anthers and
here on the rachis that flowers grow into the seeds stigmas of individual spikelets, self-pollination is most
(barley grains). The type of ear produced is common.
determined mainly by the morphology of the
rachis. A rigid strong rachis is required to prevent
the ear shattering and breaking during maturation
and harvesting.
8) The rachis, like the stem, is divided by nodes
where at each joint spikelets form. Each spikelet
has the potential to form a single grain. Every
spikelet comprises, amongst other parts, the
lemma and palea, which will envelop the flower
and later form the husk of the mature grain.
Figure 2 Internal structure of an unfertilised barley grain.
BARLEY VARIETIES
Two and Six Rowed Barley
Each individual spikelet (a floret) belongs to a triad of

florets which, emerge at alternating nodes along the rachis.
Each triad comprises one central and two lateral spikelets.
The central spikelet is fertile in all barley.
staggered. Staggering the harvest realizes added benefits
 If only the central spikelet develops into a seed, including ensuring a continuous supply of barley for
one grain per node develops on the rachis, giving a malting, without incurring excessive storage costs. Storage
two rowed barley ear. costs are further maintained through careful purchase and
use. Staggering the harvest also assures a tide over supply
 If all of the six spikelets are fertile and develop, if levels of spring barley are low and/or expressing high
three grains arise at each node. This generates a levels of dormancy.
six rowed barley ear where the lateral spikelets are
skewed either side of the symmetrical central
spikelet.
Awn(s)
Lateral grain in 6
rowed; sterile
spikelet
in 2 rowed
Central grain,
develops from the
central spikelet in
both varieties
Glumes
Segment
of Rachis
Spikelet Spikelet
Ear Ear
group group
Two Rowed Barley Six Rowed Barley
Figure 3. A diagram showing the structure of two and six

rowed barley ears and individual spikelets. For example, in the Northern Hemisphere
 Winter barley is typically sown in September and

Traditionally, European barley has been two rowed; six harvested in July.
rowed barley is more commonly grown in the Americas.
Two rowed barley varieties produce plumper more  Spring barley is typically sown in March and
symmetrical grains than six rowed and as a result, six rowed harvested in August.
barleys incur greater losses when harvested as smaller
grains are screened out. Over the past thirty years there Typically in the U.K, malting quality barleys have been
has been a global move towards growing and malting two spring sown, but winter varieties such as Flagon have
rowed barleys. become more common. Some sources suggest that the
earlier the seed is sown, weather permitting, the greater
the starch accumulation and the lower the total grain
Spring and Winter Barley Varieties nitrogen, but others believe it to be more the effect of
warm summer ripening compared to cooler conditions
There are two types of barley grown for malting. These during final development. This produces a crop with
winter and spring varieties are grown primarily for greater yield and potentially higher extract values.
agronomic and climatic reasons, the different species
producing maximal yields under different growth  Spring Barley varieties include: Concerto (UK),
conditions. By sowing varieties that ripen at different times Harrington (USA), Commander (Australia), AC
or by planting fields of both winter and spring barley, the Metcalfe (Canada), Steffi (Germany)
latter usually ripening later, the harvest can then be

acreage. Therefore, breeders that develop higher-yielding
 Winter Barley Varieties include: varieties find a ready market for their seeds.
Pearl (UK, Maris Otter (UK).
Why Develop New Barley Varieties?
Harvesting
Barley traits can be classified two ways: agronomic traits
Traditionally, harvesting included the cutting of near-ripe that are important to the grower and malting traits that are
plants, which were then bundled into sheaths and allowed
important to the maltster and to the brewer. The traits in
to dry in the field. Threshing would occur later at the
farmers’ convenience. This technique was far from ideal as each classification are shown in table 1.
the cut grains were liable to microbial attack, which would
reduce the quality of the grain. Table 1 Agronomic and Malting Traits of Barley
Today, harvesting and threshing are combined with the use

of the modern combine harvester. As one process that Agronomic Traits Malting Traits
occurs in the field, the mature plants are cut, the grain Yield Kernel Size
threshed, separated and retained, whilst the straw baled to
Plant Height (Ease of Harvest) Extract Potential
be discarded or collected later. However, the slightest fault
in thresher adjustment can lead to incomplete threshing Days to Maturity Grain Protein
and significant grain loss. If threshing is too close, this Grain Protein (Malt vs. Feed) Grain Starch Content
results in damaged grains. These grains are unacceptable
Kernel Size Enzyme Potential
for malting as there is increased susceptibility to infection
during storage and uneven germination will also occur. Disease Resistance Husk Strength (mash separation)
The most important factor during harvesting is the moisture The grower wants varieties that have high yield, are easy to
content of the grain. Following harvest the crop must be harvest, will mature within the local growing season, won’t
sufficiently dried to prevent germination and reduce the succumb to disease, and will garner the extra money when
risk of microbial infections occurring prior to use. If dried sold for malting. The grower is thus very likely to buy seed
incorrectly the quality of the grain will deteriorate in store. with improvements in any of these areas without reducing
the quality of other traits.
The barley harvest differs from growing region to growing
region because of weather conditions. Likewise, the maltster wants barley with plump kernels,
high extract potential, moderate protein, high starch
In some regions harvest weather conditions are typically content, high enzyme potential, a strong husk for efficient
dry, so the barley can be cut and immediately threshed. The mash separation in the lauter tun, and low beta glucan for
mature barley kernel moisture content must be less than good filtration in both the lauter tun and the beer filter. The
13.5% before it can be harvested. Moisture content above maltster will encourage the grower to produce varieties
13.5% leads to quality problems during storage, such as loss that meet these malting needs.
of viability, increase in microorganism growth, development
of off odours, and heat damage. However, elsewhere the If a plant breeder develops a variety that meets all the
cut barley is laid on the stubble to air dry for a few days needs of the grower and the maltster, the breeder will sell a
before it is combined and threshed. Rain or heavy dews lot of seeds and benefit financially. Unfortunately, the
during the harvest necessarily alter the harvest time line. perfect malting barley does not yet exist, and in theory it
never will. The very foundation of breeding and the nature
European harvest practice is to cut and thresh the barley of the intricate end-use (brewing) requirements means that
when its moisture content is about 15% to 25% and then even the best current variety can be further improved for
lower the moisture to less than 13.5% with air dryers prior agronomic and malting characteristics.
to storage.
BARLEY BREEDING
Development of new varieties
Traditionally barley breeding has involved the selection and
Barley, rice, corn, and hops form the agricultural foundation crossing of varieties. Barley, as a self-pollinating crop
of brewing and distilling. The higher the quality of these produces genetically identical offspring. Breeders introduce
raw materials, the higher the quality of the finished variety by preventing self-pollination (removing the
products. Over time, these individual agricultural anthers) and then fertilising the plant with pollen from
components have been manipulated to provide specific, another. Superior plants from the progeny are then
desired characteristics. selected and allowed to grow and pollinate naturally. For
example the variety Proctor was created in this manner.
Development of new crop varieties is driven by competition
among plant breeders. Farmers and growers are forever
looking for ways to increase the yield from their planted
In the simplest cases two parent barley varieties are strain should show improvements in yield, malt quality and
crossed, seed is harvested and grown normally. The first disease resistance by the third generation.
(F1) generation grown from the cross, which contains
chromosomes with genes from both parents, is said to be Potential new varieties must then pass through micro-
heterozygous and does not breed true. malting and brewing trials before full plant trials prior to
trade acceptance.
Successive generations become more homozygous (purer)
and selections are made initially for the first three or four Alternative methods of plant breeding have involved
generations on visual appearance and disease resistance. producing induced mutations or have examined naturally
Occasionally backcrossing is employed where the F1 occurring ones. However, many mutations are deleterious
generation is immediately re-crossed to one of the parents. and many otherwise desirable mutations have associated
Alternatively, multiple crosses may be carried out where characteristics that make them undesirable. Examples of
two F1 generations with different parents are crossed. mutated barley that has been successful or have created
interest are Golden Promise (gamma-ray mutant of
Various techniques have been developed to shorten the Maythorpe) and Glacier, a natural mutant of an American
time taken between the initial cross and the production of a six-row barley. Glacier had 40% amylose in its starch
pure strain. The earliest method was to grow spring barley instead of the normal 20%. There are various chemical
crosses in New Zealand during the UK winter and thus mutants of Triumph that lack anthocyanogens.
obtain two generations within a year.
Before the new cultivar can be recognised and
Newer techniques involve producing haploid plants with recommended by national regulatory body’s (e.g. DEFRA in
half the normal number of chromosomes, treating them the UK, or The Malting Barley Research Institute in Canada)
with a chemical (colchicine) which induces chromosome it must first be seen to show distinctiveness, uniformity and
doubling, resulting in a diploid (normal chromosome stability. This is known as the DUS test and this test can
number) homozygous plant. The haploid plants can be take up to three years to complete. National List (NL) trials
produced either by tissue culturing pollen from the F1 establish DUS.
generation or by crossing the F1 generation with a wild
barley Hordeum bulbosum. In the latter case, the DUS is the acronym for:
chromosomes from Hordeum bulbosum are lost during
division, resulting in a haploid plant.  Distinctiveness - that a variety is in some way
distinct from other varieties.
SPRATT ARCHER X SPRATT PLUMAGE  Uniformity - that a variety is not a mixture.
 Stability – that the variety will remain the same

over the trail period, i.e. it will not out-pollinate.
Plumage Archer x Kenia After each challenge has been accomplished is it surprising
to note that less than one in every 100,000 crossed
offspring make it to variety status.
Below is an overview of the evaluation process for new UK

Proctor malting varieties. Similar protocols exist around the global
barley industry.
Figure 1. Crossing of barley varieties to produce a new
cultivar. F8
NL1 (National List 1)
Up until NL1 a varieties progression has been solely up to
Maris Otter is another variety generated through repeated the breeder.
hybridisation.
At NL1 varieties are taken for official trials and enter the
This method of cereal development is not as simple as may approval system. Assess all varieties for yield, disease
first seem. From initial hybridisation, to final release of the resistance and agronomic characteristics. Varieties showing
new cultivar into the market place takes a staggering ten promise progress to NL2.
years of rigorous trials and testing (see Table 1).
F9
Following the initial cross, the seed is grown either in the NL2 (National List 2)
field or in growth chambers. From these, certain selected Varieties progressing from NL1 undergo further Micro-
plants (the F2 generation) are again grown out and the malting. All NL1 and NL2 trial data is pooled and assessed.
cycle continued. For a viable program to continue the new

F10 F11
RL1 / Scottish Variety Trials (SVT) Full Approval
Varieties progressing from NL2 in England undergo micro- In commercial use
malting trials carried out by the English micro-malting group
and in Scotland by the Scottish micro-malting group. Pilot
Malting and Brewing trials are also carried out at Brewing Marketing options for barley include the open market or
Research International (BRi). Data on all varieties is collated forward contracting based on quality. This option may
and scrutinized by the respective micro-malting groups. provide a premium for growers.
Recommendations on varieties with malting potential are
made to the English and Scottish working parties that in Malting barley is commonly grown under contract to a malt
turn make decisions on which varieties remain on the list. house or brewery, and most contracts specify a premium
These decisions are then taken to the Malting Barley for grain that meets specified quality standards.
Committee which effectively “rubber stamps” them and
deals with any subsequent appeals. Successful varieties
progress to Provisional Approval 1.
F11
RL2 Provisional Approval (1)
Candidates for Full Approval will normally have been
awarded Provisional Approval 1 based on micro-malting
results. To gain Full Approval, the Malting Barley Committee
must have evidence of satisfactory pilot scale and
commercial performance in the maltings/brewery/distillery.
For Full Approval in the UK

1 pilot malting and brewing trial (BRi)2 commercial
malting and brewing trials (if lauter tun trial
undertaken)
Or
2 commercial malting and 3 brewing trials (if mash
filter trial undertaken)2 commercial malting and
distilling trials
For Full Approval for Brewing

1 pilot malting and brewing trial (BRi)2 commercial
malting and brewing trials (if lauter tun trial
undertaken)
Or
2 commercial malting and 3 brewing trials (if mash
filter trial undertaken)
For Full Approval for Distilling

2 commercial malting and distilling trials
F11
Provisional Approval (2)
A variety should normally progress to Full Approval with
one year of commercial trials. Where there has been
insufficient satisfactory malting, brewing or distilling trials
to award Full Approval in one year of commercial trials, the
Malting Barley Committee may award Provisional Approval
2 to denote that a variety has not been rejected and is still
progressing through the approval process.
A variety should progress to Full Approval within two years

of commercial trials. Any variety failing to gain Full Approval
within two years will be removed from the List.

Section 4 Malting – Barley intake and storage.
the delivery fails to meet the standard it should not
BARLEY INTAKE AND STORAGE be accepted at any price. See Section 5 (b), (d) and
(e) for analysis methods.
Barley Intake at Maltings
Barley may be delivered directly from the grower – usually  At harvest intake it is essential to establish that the
undried – or barley that has been dried and stored by supplier has not damaged the grain by poor drying
growers or merchants will be delivered to the maltings. on-farm. Drying at too high a temperature can
This can be by road, rail or water. Both primary destinations result in damage to the embryo and subsequently
and subsequent destinations will need analysis of the load in failure to germinate. Farm drying may be
to plan storage allocation and to ensure that the barley is as suspected if the moisture content of a load is less
expected – that is it matches the important parameters of than that of loads being received from other farms
the purchase/sale contract. in the area. The drying operation costs money so
this is reflected in the price paid for the barley – if
Sampling the moisture exceeds contract maximum, an
Prior to discharge, each load should be representatively allowance will be taken against the price to reflect
sampled by approved methods. The grain can be analysed this.
in a few minutes for germinative capacity (GC), moisture
content, screening level, total nitrogen content, and  Barley must be free from insect infestation. Again,
contamination/admixture. If all of these parameters are this is non-negotiable and infested barley will be
within specification the load should be allowed to proceed rejected outright.
to the intake point. If, however, the load fails on any
analytical parameter it should be re-sampled, re-analysed Other criteria are carefully thought about when assessing
and may be rejected if found still to be out of specification. barley for purchase and these are described in the following
For some parameters, there may be a scale of deductions to text.
the price if the load is accepted out of specification. Once
sub-standard barley has been taken into a maltings it is an (a) Nitrogen (Protein) Content
expensive and troublesome operation to return it to the Part of the premium paid for malting barley is associated
supplier through the maltings despatch system, especially with its low nitrogen content compared to feed barley,
when these plants are operating at maximum production giving the farmer a lower yield. Nitrogen is used as a
capacity. measure of protein content because most of the nitrogen in
barley is in the form of protein; 1% nitrogen is equivalent to
6.25% protein. At high nitrogen content, the grain could be
‘steely’ and difficult to hydrate properly in steep, yield too
little soluble extract and may bring about processing
Sampling points.
problems. It would therefore be rejected. In certain years
when barley growers encounter a very dry summer it may
be impossible to obtain sufficient barley at the specified
The sampling probe takes several representative samples. Barley
nitrogen content. The nitrogen specification would have to
trapped in the probe is vacuum transferred to the lab for analysis.
Before testing, the samples are thoroughly mixed to ensure the test be relaxed in this situation, and processing parameters
is representative of the entire shipment. There are considerable adjusted accordingly. Nitrogen contents are measured
differences in sample numbers and sizes with numbers varying using automated equipment usually using near infra-red
from 1 to 10 samples and sizes from 0.4kg to 11kg.
(NIR) technology which is calibrated against a standard wet
chemistry method. NIR machines give rapid and repeatable
Characteristics of Malting Barley results, coping with the intense workload at harvest time.
Introduction (b) Moisture Content

It is essential to buy barley of the desired quality at This specification will vary from country to country: grain
reasonable cost, then dry and store this valuable raw harvested at around 12% moisture in a relatively dry
material so that it remains viable and does not deteriorate country will not require drying. Grain harvested above this
before use. Barley drying, screening and storage may be level will need to be dried to maintain the barley in good
managed completely “in-house” or can be outsourced, in condition in storage. UK standard moisture is 14.5%: above
whole or part, to barley merchants. Barley may be this level a calculated allowance against purchase price is
purchased in several different ways and there are a number applied, which just reflects the reduced dry matter in the
of different criteria on which the final purchase price is grain as the moisture rises. Above 18%, the charge rises to
based. match the cost of fuel used in drying the grain.
 In any delivery of barley a minimum proportion of
the corns must be alive – this specification varies
between countries, but is generally at least 96%. If
β -glucan. Some varieties also have inherently high levels of
High moisture in grain can cause rapid deterioration, β -glucan. This may not be a problem if the variety
through loss of germination capacity to mould growth. produces high levels of β -glucanase. However a
HGCA have published a guide to safe storage times at a combination of high β -glucan and naturally low levels of β -
range of moisture contents: drying plans should be made glucanase could result in malts with high wort viscosities.
using such information as guidance. The approval of new varieties of barley for malting will
assess this tendency, but may not catch a seasonal peak
(c) Grain Size which may therefore cause difficulties in later commercial
use.
At intake barley is assessed by passing it through a sieve or
screen. The larger the average corn size the less barley will (g) Endosperm Structure
pass through a 2.5 mm screen, and there will be a lower
screenings content. Larger corns have the potential to The endosperm structure can be influenced by nitrogen
produce higher soluble extract, and a good malting barley content. Mealiness (when the endosperm of the barley is
should contain >90% corns larger than 2.5mm and <5% low in protein and appears “mealy”) and steeliness (when
corns smaller than 2.25mm. the endosperm is higher in protein and more densely
packed, appearing “steely/glassy”) have an effect on water
Uneven corn size distribution causes: uptake steelier grains will have a lower rate of water
uptake. A Farinator may be used to reveal
 Variable rate of moisture uptake. mealiness/steeliness in grain kernels.
 Uneven germination.
 Increased screenings and losses. (h) Pre-germination
 Milling and brewhouse processing problems.
In very wet years at harvest time, grain may begin to
Another method of measuring grain size is Thousand Corn germinate in the ear. In the malting process, such grain will
Weight (TCW) which is simply the weight of a thousand initially germinate very rapidly compared with other corns
corns. Although laboratory equipment is available for in the bulk. However, if stored for any length of time the
counting out corns, this takes time and is impractical under corns tend to die. In either case the result is unevenly
harvest intake conditions – it is no longer a key parameter modified malt.
during intake but is often carried out before processing.
(i) Husk Content
(d) Mycotoxins
Malting varieties tend to have thin husks allowing more
In most seasons, barley will not be at significant risk of rapid moisture uptake, whereas feed barley has thicker
mycotoxin contamination above legal limits. A due diligence husks resulting in slower rates of water uptake and less
extract.
approach will indicate random sampling to confirm low and
legal levels. Rapid test kits are available for the commonly Hand Evaluation and Inspection
sought mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON), Barley quality is influenced by the environment in which it is
zearelenone (ZEA) and ochratoxin A (OTA). grown, handled, and stored. The degree to which barley is
affected by certain deficiencies in quality can be
(e) Dormancy determined by a physical, non-chemical examination of a
sample of the barley, although some determinations do
In the natural environment it is important that the grain
does not start to grow until conditions are ideal. There is a require laboratory analysis. The sample to be evaluated
biological system within the grain that holds it in a dormant must be representative of the entire lot, so proper sampling
state for a certain length of time. The duration of this techniques are very important to ensure the quality
dormancy varies with barley variety, location and crop year. evaluations are correct with respect to the crop, truck
delivery, or rail car.
Severely dormant barley cannot be malted and therefore it
is important that the level of dormancy can be assessed
before allocating this barley for production. Using the GE Visual Inspections
Test assesses the level of dormancy and vigour, also parallel Visual inspection is an essential component of barley
water sensitivity (WS) test can be undertaken to guide evaluation. A good inspector identifies potential problems
steeping schedules. that might otherwise not appear until much later in the
process. Visual inspection with the husk intact covers the
(f) Endosperm Cell Wall Composition following barley characteristics. Skill in hand evaluation of
barley may be gained from training courses, but particularly
The overall levels of β-glucan in the cell walls can be
by experience on the job.
dependent both on variety and on growing season.
Drought years tend to produce varieties with high levels of

 Colour Barley colour varies from bright the interruption of grain respiration, the barley is ventilated
golden to dull brown-black. during storage, or may even be moved between stores.
Such movement of the grain may be combined with
Weathered barley has a grey or
cleaning and pest fumigation, in preparation for malting.
steely appearance and may not
be acceptable. The silo transfer equipment consists of machinery that is
used to transfer, store and clean either barley or malt. The
 Odour Barley should smell fresh and
system is designed to provide efficiency, reliability, and
clean. Off odours include musty, flexibility. Separate machinery is used for the transfer of
raisin or winey and chemical barley and malt, though in some cases systems may be
(from pesticides). cross-connected to allow grain transfer under special
conditions. System design and operating procedures must
 Ergot Hard, reddish-brown or black
prevent inadvertent mixing of malt and barley. Different
grain-like mass of parasitic fungi.
choices may be made with regard to conveyor selection,
Presence will cause rejection of
 Insect bearing in mind prevention of grain damage, flexibility of
the load.
presence multiple points of origin and discharge, hygiene, and energy
Insect infestation – even a single efficiency.
dead insect – will normally cause
rejection. If the insect is a field The grain first passes over revolving or vibrating screens
insect, not a storage pest, the and sieves, in combination with air jets and magnets. These
load may be accepted. act to remove any non-barley material that is not of equal
 Insect Kernel has holes or evidence of size or weight. The material that is removed can contain
Damage twigs, leaves, straw, stone, pieces of metal and dust.
chewing.
 Foreign Seeds Any non-barley seed in the Throughout malting, and indeed any grain-handling
sample, including wheat, wild environment, great care is taken to remove both dust and
any material that could generate a spark. This is to prevent
oats, weeds etc.
dust explosions which can be both violent and dangerous.
 Varietal Separate other varieties using Each machine is hooked up to a dust collection system and
Purity morphological identifiers will not run if the dust collection system is not running.
(rachilla hair length, awn
Barley Separation
smoothness, husk adherence,
Separation takes place in long, rotating cylinders (Figure 1)
husk smoothness, number of that remove all grains that are shorter than barley,
lateral vein barbs) on varietal including broken half grains and small weed seeds. The
identification flowcharts. cylinder has pockets or indentations on its interior surface
into which only the weed seeds and half grains will fit. Only
 Blight Tan to dark brown spots distal to debris is retained in these indentations. As the cylinder
the germ or dark brown to black rotates further the retained material is ejected at the apex
coloration at the germ end of into a central trough for extraction. Broken grains are
the kernel. Fusarium infection especially undesirable as they will not malt normally; they
can manifest as pink corns. pick up moisture easily and they harbour bacterial and
fungal infections.
 Mould Microflora growth along the
crease of the kernel. Barley Grading
The barley is next subjected to grading, a relatively slow
 Skinned and One third or more of the husk is process. Grading is used to segregate grains of different
Broken missing or a loose husk that sizes. Different sized grains germinate at different rates,
Kernels exposes the germ, or part of the leading to non-homogeneous batches of malt. For instance,
germ is missing. small grains will hydrate and respire vigorously expending
oxygen faster than large grains. The small grains will bolt,
 Immature The kernels are green. malting more rapidly and modify to a greater extent than
Kernels the larger grains. If unchecked, the malt will contain
proportions of under-modified large grains, and over
modified small grains, each of which will behave differently
PREPARATION OF BARLEY FOR MALTING in the brewhouse.
Barley and malt are stored in deep silos, some with During grading barley flows over vibrating screens or sieves
capacities in excess of 3000 tonnes, or flat stores which may fabricated with slots of defined sizes (Figure 2). Plump
be much larger. As a living tissue, prolonged storage in grains pass over the screen, whilst the thinner grains fall
such conditions can suffocate the barley grain. To prevent through and are subject to further screening.

Broken corns Cleaned,
and weed seeds ungraded barley
Sequential
sieves
Barley
1st 3rd Thin 2nd
grade grade s grade
1) 2)
Figure 2. Schematic representation of 1) barley separation Three types of by-products are generated.
and 2) barley grading.
 Feed barley - Small kernels of barley that pass
Repeated sieving can result in two or three grades of through a 2.25mm screen during barley cleaning.
barley:
st  Offal or dockage - Straw, husk, hull and some dust
 1 grade: The plumpest grains, usually comprising from the aspiration of all machinery. (Mainly
over 95% of the grain bulk, used to produce barley cleaners and dust systems)
standard malt.
nd  Culms (also rootlets or sprouts) - Small malt
 2 grade: Thinner grains, may be used for kernels, rootlets, husk, and husk from kiln and malt
speciality malts. cleaning.
rd
 3 grade & “thins”: Are unacceptably small for
 Any material which has safe nutritional value to
malting and are sold as animal feed.
animal feed may be pelleted for ease of storage
and transportation. This would not normally
Usually two grades are sufficient separation – one bold include barley screenings (feed barley) as it is easy
grade for malting, and the smaller corns (screenings) to be
enough to handle by itself.
sold into the feed grain market. Once graded the barley is
stored ready for use. Grain is transported around the Drying and Storage
maltings in various ways including:
Grain harvested from the field will vary in moisture content
from around 12% in some growing regions, to 15% in a dry
year in others, to 30% in a wet year. Whatever the moisture
 Bucket elevators. at intake, the grain must be dried down to 12 - 13% (or less)
 Screw conveyors.
for safe storage. Above 13% moisture, barley is susceptible
 Pneumatic systems. to insect or mite attack and since the grain may be stored
 Endless belts. for many months it is obviously essential that this risk be
removed. Even if the eggs of grain weevil or saw tooth
The barley and malt cleaning processes result in the
beetle are present they are unable to grow and multiply if
creation of a significant amount of co-products. While the moisture of the grain is less than 12% and the
o
these co-products represent barley mass that cannot be temperature is below 15 C.
turned into malt, they are not simply thrown away.
If moisture levels exceed 13%, the grain can start to respire
and generate heat, leading to moisture transfer through the
bulk and possible condensation in cooler areas. If action is
not taken to correct this, further heat build-up will occur
and further respiration. Concentrated areas of heat known

as “hot spots” can occur in the grain silo or store. Hot spots a tray or compartment dryer). The most commonly used
both harbour and promote microbial growth whilst the heat dryer of this type is the tower dryer where the grain is
itself can kill the embryo making it unsuitable for malting. elevated to the top and then allowed to cascade down
To avoid heat build-up, the grain must be ventilated, which through the plant, being dried in the process.
both cools the grain and removes CO2 from respiration.
However, if moisture levels fall below 12% the grain will The tower is constructed with 3 or 4 sections; the bottom
dehydrate and become more susceptible to skinning and one of which is used for cooling. All sections are serviced by
breakage during handling. fans and those sections used for drying have either burners
or radiators. As the grain falls through these sections warm
Whilst safe storage is the principle reason for drying barley air is blown through an arrangement of ducts. The warm air
we also benefit in a second way. The process of drying then passes through the grain, removes moisture and exits
barley accelerates the grain from its natural dormancy. The the dryer through a second set of ducts.
actual mechanism by which this works is still unknown but
experience shows that barley that has been dried is ready In all types of dryers it is essential that the grain
o
for steeping sooner than that which has not. This temperature does not rise above 35-40 C otherwise severe
phenomenon has been taken one stage further – research heat damage will result. In a tower dryer the actual air
o
indicated that if the grain was stored warm (after drying) temperature has to be between 60-65 C in order to allow
then the recovery from dormancy was accelerated further. drying to be achieved from a relatively low volume of air.
Extreme caution, therefore, has to be taken to ensure that
In cooler countries the harvest will be slightly more moist, localised overheating of the grain does not occur. At higher
whilst warmer countries will yield drier grain at harvest. moistures, the temperature must be lower in order to avoid
Maltsters often take on this responsibility themselves, in grain damage. Guidance tables of temperature at different
the belief that they can accomplish the task more moisture contents are available.
successfully than the farmer can, although specialist store
keepers will also have the expertise to dry grain carefully. Barley
The basic principle of grain drying is the use of warm, dry air
to heat the grain and remove the excess water vapour.
Air
Drying is a delicate process, as undried grains are more on
prone to heat damage than grains with lower moisture.
60°C
Air off
After drying, the grain is cooled (either immediately or after
25°C
a number of weeks) and stored until it is ready for use.
During storage the grain respires, albeit at a low rate, and Air off
must be kept fresh by aeration. All medium to long term
40°C
barley silos are fitted with low volume fans for this purpose. Cooling air
As mentioned earlier the grain in store has to be protected
against fungal growth and insect infestation. This is
achieved by drying the grain to 12% moisture and holding Barley
o
the temperature below 15 C. out
Regular temperature monitoring and physical inspection of 30°C
grain in store are essential to ensure that localised Figure 1. Schematic representation of a Cimbria dryer
infestations are not occurring and pre-cleaning/fumigation (Source: Cimbria).
of silos/stores is imperative.
Over-cooling of grain must be avoided, however, since it is

possible to chill the barley back into dormancy. Timing of
warm storage, cooling and aeration is important so that
recovery from dormancy is optimised and pest free storage
is guaranteed.
There are two principle methods for barley drying,

continuous and batch, and both will be described.
Drying Methods
(a) Continuous Drying

By definition the barley being dried is continuously moving
and leaves the dryer at the required moisture (12%).
Movement of the grain is achieved either by gravity (as in
the case of a tower dryer) or by mechanical conveyance (i.e.

The manufacturer Cimbria offers a drying system which is a
tower dryer, schematically shown in Figure 1. If cooling is Barley
turned off the grain will exit and be stored at 40°C. At this
temperature, grain dormancy will be broken after only 2-3
weeks storage.
If the grain is stored in such a condition (at 40°C) daily

monitoring must be carried out to check for infestation. It
is normal practice to store the grain at 30°C for a short time
before being cooled to ambient temperatures. Cooling Air on
relies on ambient temperatures being cool enough to 55°C
ventilate the bulk, and may happen best overnight if
summer daytime temperatures are high.
The first main difference between a batch dryer and a

continuous dryer (Figure 1) is that the dryer is charged,
fired, cooled and discharged in steps as opposed to
continuously. The second difference, and perhaps the most
important, is that normally the fan arrangement of the
batch dryer is such that a much greater volume of air is
available. This means that the actual air temperature
o
required to dry the grain is much lower (typically 40 – 45 C)
and the risk of heat damage is much reduced. This means
that the grain is dried with a higher volume of cooler air
than in a tower dryer.
Dedicated batch dryers are expensive compared to tower

dryers for a given throughput.
(b) Batch Drying

In batch drying the grain is dried un-homogeneously due to
a lack of turning. The grain at the bottom dehydrates most
and is more susceptible to heat damage than grains nearer
the top of the silo. Batch drying may be undertaken on a STORING BARLEY
maltings kiln, with malt production suspended for the (Source: USDA)
duration of harvest. The majority of the barley crop is harvested in late summer.
However, malting, brewing and distilling are year-round
activities, necessitating the need for storing barley until it is
ready to be used. Harvested barley may be stored at the
barley store (elevator) or it may be stored on the farm if the
farmer has adequate facilities. Whether on the farm or at
the elevator, barley is usually stored in large metal bins that
have been cleaned and which may have been sprayed with
insecticide.
Fumigation
Air On 45-55°C Insect infestation in barley creates sanitation problems in
the storage bins and malt house, and can damage barley
On-farm drying can be poorly managed, as dryers are often quality. If infestation is detected in a bulk, specialist
specified for drying feed wheat, which can be done at contractors can be employed to administer phosphine
higher temperatures and therefore higher throughput treatment, usually from solid formulations such as
rates. This information is misleading to those unaware of aluminium phosphide. The time of treatment needs to be
the vital importance of germ viability to malting barley. In long enough to kill active insects as well as insects
itself, on-farm drying is not a problem - it is the subsequently hatching from eggs.
management and control that has given rise to problems in
the past. Phosphine is the only fumigant approved by some brewers
for direct contact with barley. It is extremely poisonous to
insects (and people), but leaves no post-application residue.
Phosphine is usually not detectable 7 to 10 days after
fumigation.

Aeration and Temperature Control
The storage bins are equipped with aeration fans to control
o
temperature. Lower temperatures (to 10 C) are preferable Fermentation may begin and additional heat will be
to high temperatures. A low temperature minimizes insect generated, leading to heat damage, mould development,
activity and allows barley to be stored for long periods of and loss of viability.
time and still remain in a desirable “cool, sweet” condition.
Barley may be stored for as long as 18 to 24 months before
being shipped to a maltster for processing into malt. If it is
properly stored, there is no discernible deterioration in
quality.
Proper temperature of stored barley is maintained by

operating aeration fans as needed. Keep in mind that it
takes a long time to reduce the barley temperature by a
significant amount. Typically, barley arrives at the barley
elevator or into a maltings at an average temperature of
o o
18 C. After drying it may be at 30 C, after which it may take
two weeks of constant or overnight ventilation to lower the
o
barley to a more desirable temperature of 10 C.
o
Temperatures below 10 C will stop insect activity from Proper aeration will also maintain moisture content
occurring. throughout the bin and will prevent hot spots in the bin.
Stored barley is a population of living organisms. Even
Proper aeration will also maintain moisture content though the kernels may be dormant, the embryos are alive.
throughout the bin and will prevent hot spots in the bin. If the kernel moisture content exceeds 14 per cent, the
Stored barley is a population of living organisms. Even barley respires at an accelerated rate. It takes in oxygen
though the kernels may be dormant, the embryos are alive. and produces moisture, CO2, and heat. If the moisture and
If the kernel moisture content exceeds 14 per cent, the heat are not dissipated properly, the respiration rate will
barley respires at an accelerated rate. It takes in oxygen continue to rise. When the available oxygen is depleted,
and produces moisture, CO2, and heat. If the moisture and respiration will turn anaerobic, that is, without oxygen.
heat are not dissipated properly, the respiration rate will Fermentation may begin and additional heat will be
continue to rise. When the available oxygen is depleted, generated, leading to heat damage, mould development,
respiration will turn anaerobic, that is, without oxygen. and loss of viability.
Fermentation may begin and additional heat will be
generated, leading to heat damage, mould development,
and loss of viability.

Section 5 Malting - Steeping.
The objective of steeping is to raise the moisture content of (b) Germinative Energy
the barley to a level which will start the germination The germinative energy of the grain sample is the
process and then allow it to continue so that the enzymes percentage of kernels that germinate at the time of testing
of the grain modify the starchy endosperm. The aim of and gives a measure of the dormancy potential of a sample.
modern steeping is to have the grain uniformly chitted but
no root growth at the end of the steeping period. The grain Method:100 grains are placed on top of filter
should be uniformly hydrated and have a rapid, uniform paper in a petri dish and 4 ml of water added. The
and controllable growth rate. number of grains that have chitted each day are
counted and removed from the plate. After
incubation for 72 hours at 18°C, the grains that
It is crucially important that the moisture content of the
have germinated are expressed as a percentage of
resultant germinating barley is distributed as evenly as the total.
possible between each kernel. If this were not the case then
each kernel would grow at a different rate and unevenly (c) Water Sensitivity Test
modified, poor quality malt would result. The objective of this test is to determine the potential of
the grain sample to grow in excess water – this reflects
conditions during steeping. The method is similar to the GE
METHODS FOR ASSESSING MALTING BARLEY
test, but 8 ml of water replaces the 4 ml and corn counts
are made at 24 hour intervals. Water sensitivity is
Using some basic analytical methods and data it is possible
expressed as the difference (as a percentage) between
to predict the eventual malt quality. Some of these
germination in 4 ml of water and germination in 8 ml of
methods are described below. The predicted data are
water.
compared with customer malt specifications and barley is
then provisionally allocated to individual customers or malt
types. It is common to keep details of each barley Example
reference including variety, merchant, location, contract
After 72 hours incubation, 91 grains of the 100 grain sample
specification and tonnage. Additionally it is good practise
to keep analysis results for nitrogen (TN), TCW, and the have germinated in 4 ml water; only 75 of the 100 grains
placed in 8 ml of water have germinated.
Varietal Constants for each variety. This information may
be used for calculating extract potential.
Therefore, Water Sensitivity = (91-75) = 16
(a) Micromalting
Micromalting is a laboratory process where small samples
of barley can be germinated using processing conditions (d) Germinative Capacity
resembling those in the commercial malting plant. During The germinative capacity of the grain sample is an attempt
micromalting, measurements are recorded for water to quantify the percentage of viable corns within a sample.
uptake and evenness of germination so that This may include the forced growth of grains expressing
recommendations can be made about the readiness of the degrees of dormancy. Most commonly this is achieved
barley for malting, the processing conditions to use, and the using a solution of hydrogen peroxide, to supply the corns
likely quality of the finished malt. with excess oxygen forcing the viable, yet dormant grains to
germinate.
Barley samples that have recovered from dormancy
naturally, or conditioned in the laboratory, are micromalted Method:200 corns are steeped in 200ml of 0.75% (v/v)
to determine the actual malt quality that will be achievable hydrogen peroxide for two days at 18-21°C. The corns are then
when the barley is fully mature. There are different strained and 200 ml of fresh hydrogen peroxide added and the
methods for micromalting ranging from glass jars to barley again incubated at 18-21°C for one day. The germinated
sophisticated commercial equipment. Although these grains are counted and the germination capacity expressed
methods are useful in predicting malt quality they have overleaf.
their pitfalls if the sample size is too small. Basically, the
bigger the sample the more representative it will be of the Germination capacity % (hydrogen
batch of malting barley. peroxide) = 200 – n
With this detailed information at hand, confident decisions

can be made when committing large tonnages of barley for n = corns that do not show roots
production. This information also provides realistic targets
for the maltings production teams to aim at, together with
indications of processing. In the IBD official recommended methods corns that fail to
germinate after three days are peeled back and allowed to
grow for a further 24 hours. The additional number of corns
that germinate are divided in half and subtracted from n. E = A – 11.0TN + 0.22TCW
Example E = Extract potential [x 2.96 = (l°/kg)]

A = Varietal constant
After 3 days germination 158 grains out of the 200 tested TN = Nitrogen level (% dry weight)
have germinated. TCW = 1000 corn weight
So, GC = (200-42)/2 = 79% The Bishop Equation derives potential soluble extract from
the relationship between thousand corn weight (TCW),
After a further 24 hours incubation another 12 grains have total nitrogen content (TN) and a varietal constant. This
germinated. last parameter represents the capability a particular variety
has for achieving good soluble extract. The higher the
The adjusted GC = (200-30)/2 = 85% varietal constant then the higher the malting grade of
barley.
The varietal constants for several of the malting barley

(e) Tetrazolium Viability Test
varieties are shown in Table 1.
Staining the grain with Tetrazolium chloride is used for
rapid assessment of the potential viability of the embryo.
Table 1. Varietal constants for the 1991 barley crop.
This method relies upon the action of dehydrogenase
enzymes that reduce tetrazolium salts causing them to turn
red. Viable grains are split in half along the ventral furrow Varietal Barley Variety Malting
and incubated in tetrazolium chloride solution. Red Constant Grade
embryos and aleurone layers indicate active 114.5 Chariot, Derkado, Prisma High
dehydrogenases are present and that the grain is viable. 114.0 Alexis, Camargue, Halcyon,
Although this test is important in the initial screening of Puffin, Sprite, Volga
barley for potential germinability, the red coloration of the 113.5 Pipkin
embryo does not necessarily guarantee that the embryo 112.0 Tyne Low
will germinate and that the grain will malt satisfactorily. It
is quite feasible for dead grains to contain active enzymes.
Cross section with the embryo The varietal constant depends on the following criteria:
stained red by tetrazolium dye,
showing that it is capable of full  Germination potential.
germination. Source: MAGB.
 Potential to produce gibberellic acid.
KEYPOINT: A viability test determines the proportion of  Rate of transport of gibberellic acid to the
living cells or organisms in a sample. aleurone layer.
For germinative and viability tests maltsters demand a high  Potential of aleurone to produce
proportion of viable grains – 98% in the UK, down to 92% endosperm degrading enzymes.
for some European futures contracts. Maltsters have no
way of separating live kernels from dead, so the final malt  Rate of enzymatic breakdown and
will always have a small proportion of dead grain. modification of the starchy endosperm.
(f) Extract Potential  Proportion of starchy endosperm material

The extract potential of malt may be determined by the IBD in the corn.
mixed mash method. There are other methods and here
the Bishop Equation is described. This equation predicts
how well a barley sample should malt, using a numbered THE MALTING PROCESS
scale.
STEEPING
 Good grades (7-9)
 Average grades (4-6) Introduction
 Poor grades (1-3) Malt is the major raw material used in brewing and malting
is therefore an influential process. Malt determines final
KEYPOINT: Maltsters quote hot-water extract in litre- beer quality. Put simply, the process of malting is the
degrees per kilogram (l°/kg), expressing how many litres of controlled growth of the barley grain, with the maltster
wort each kilogram of malt will yield. directly manipulating the grain to achieve the required
modification.

Endosperm modification is achieved by malting the grain. Conical steeps
By allowing the grain to germinate under controlled Conical steeps (more properly called cylindro-conical
conditions, the ability of the grain to produce hydrolytic steeps) have limited air flows due to the small area
enzymes can be manipulated. Hydrolytic enzymes released of perforated plate available for the passage of air
during germination are required to partially degrade (or and CO2. Rates are approximately 30-50 cfm/te. The
modify) the starchy endosperm during malting and later to air flow can be increased by enlarging the perforated
release fermentable extract during mashing. cone area (ventilated conical steeps) with a resulting
greater degree of flexibility in steep cycles. A
The processes that take place during steeping are: ventilated cone is shown in below. Both
conventional and ventilated steeps are often fitted
 Moisture content of the grain is increased to with compressed air aeration, which is used in the
44% - 47%. immersion stage of steeping to overcome pressure
 Increased respiration rate. and temperature gradients. In some vessels, this
 Initiation of enzymatic activity that will continue rousing is assisted by a vertical central pipe.
during the germination phase.
 Washing dust off and leaching of substances from
outer layers of grains.
 Production of waste steep liquors with high
biological or chemical oxygen demand (BOD or
COD).
 "Chitting" - the appearance of the coleorhiza,
surrounding the first rootlet.
KEYPOINT: Grain modification is the overall enzymatic

action in the endosperm during malting, which transforms
the hard starchy endosperm of barley into friable
(crushable) malt.
The malting process combines three separate stages: -
1. Steeping: Initiation of growth through grain

hydration.
2. Germination: Controlled growth of the grain to

effect endosperm modification.
Flat bottomed steeping
In terms of degree of aeration and air distribution,
3. Kilning: The termination of grain growth to fix
flat bottomed steeps have major advantages. Water
extract potential and malt specifications through
and effluent costs, however, are higher when
grain dehydration.
compared with a conical steep due to the volume of
the space under the grain floor. Flat bottomed
The Steeping Process
vessels are also more difficult to clean due to the
During steeping, barley grains are placed in vessels with
capacities ranging from 15-500 tonnes. During the steeping difficult to reach space under the grain floor. A
diagram of a 'Nordon' type of flat-bed steep.
process, the grains are submerged in steep water, which is
Provision is made both for aeration from below the
changed between one and three times as required. During
perforated deck, and for carbon dioxide extraction
wet phases, air is blown through the grain suspension;
between wet phases, the grain is left in air (known as an air from beneath the grain bed during air rests. Such
steeps may be large, e.g. have capacities for more
rest) and ventilated for the following reasons:
than 200 tonnes of barley.
 To remove CO2.
 To remove toxic metabolites.
 To discharge excess heat.
 To replenish oxygen.
Steeping can be carried out in dedicated conical or

flat bottomed vessels, combined steeping &
germination vessels (SGV’s) or steeping, germination
and kilning vessels (SGKV’s). Most modern maltings
utilise micro processor control systems throughout
the process such as SCADA, DCS and PLC.

Pockets of grain
Moderate grain that do not join
circulation the circulation
Air in
CO2 and water

removal
Barley exits to
germination
vessel
Figure 1. A traditional steep system. The rising

air separates and mixes the grain, dispersing the
heat generated by grain respiration, whilst also
providing aeration. The conical vessel bottom Pockets of grain
allows easy liquor and grain extraction when Good grain that do not get
casting to germinating vessels. These pockets of circulated
grain that do not join the circulation within the
steep are likely to grow less well than the rest of Air
the grain and so such pockets should be avoided
where possible by good steep design.
During steeping, hydration stimulates the embryo into

growth and respiration commences, slowly at first, but
quickly gaining vigour. Grain respiration (the production of Figure 2. A Flat bottomed steep vessel.
energy to drive metabolic processes) produces heat, CO 2, Mixing of the grain in these vessels is more
and metabolites. even compared to the conical vessels.
Removal of the grains is by rotating arms to
Encouraging Even Malting push the grain out.
If unchecked, the heat generated during steeping as the
grain respires has a cumulative effect and forces the grain Steep Water
to respire more rapidly. Uncontrolled respiration causes The steep water can also be removed and changed to
the grain to hydrate quicker, but in an irregular fashion maintain optimal temperatures. Substitution of the steep
throughout the grain population. The malt that results will water has additional benefits. Throughout steeping the
be non-homogeneous and poorly modified with the grain produces metabolites such as ethanol and CO 2 . Such
potential to cause brewhouse problems. metabolites are, in sufficient quanitites, toxic and can stifle
grain growth and hydration. This can lead to the
To encourage even malting, the grain can be turned or production of poorly modified malt. Refreshing the water
agitated during steeping. Mixing of the steeping barley reduces the accumulation of these compounds and so
takes two forms: lessens their toxic effects. In addition, a specific
germination inhibitor is leached from the grain, and it is
 The grain can be agitated by bubbling air through useful to remove this by changing the water.
the steep, as seen in Figures 1 and 2.
 The whole grain slurry can be pumped and re-

circulated to effect mixing, as shown in Figure 3.

and rootlet growth (hence NDMA levels) but
inhibits some proteolytic enzymes and suppress
DMS precursor (so avoid using bromates for lager
malt). A mix of gibberellic acid (GA) and bromate
may reduce malting loss by 2%.
 Improve germination: add hydrogen peroxide,
ozone or gibberellic acid* to steep water.
* As gibberellic acid treated malt increases the soluble
nitrogen content of beer, bromate may be used in
conjunction with GA to control these soluble nitrogen
Air The Grain slurry is levels. Gibberellic acid is not efficiently absorbed by un-
germinated embryos. Application rates are 0.05-
pumped round by 0.25mg/kg.
Grain Gibberellic acid increases-
removal
the air flow  Extract (initially)
 Soluble protein
Figure 3. A Conical steep vessel with central
circulation. The grain slurry is circulated  Colour
around the vessel aided by the action of the
rising air. The vessel design gives easiest  α- amylase
grain removal, either under gravitational  Friability
force or pumped to exit.
GA Decreases
 C/F diff
The steeping process physically washes and cleans the
grain, leaving dirt suspended in the steep liquor. This can  Malting loss
be removed when steep liquor is changed.
Steep Regimes and Air Rests
The phenolic components leached from the barley husk are Reliable information regarding the quality of barley to be
important as they can contribute an astringent character to steeped from laboratory tests, determines the steep
beer. If the steep liquor is not refreshed the phenol build regimes to be used. These tests could include variety,
up will taint the malt and be conveyed into the beer. The moisture, germination energy, water sensitivity tests, total
maltster may use alkaline steep waters to combat the nitrogen, TCW and screenings, steeping and germination
astringent contributions of leached phenolics. Chalky, data, soluble extract and modification analyses of the
alkaline waters also check microbial growth, as well as micromalt. With this information it is possible to
extract the astringent phenols. Caution must be taken as confidently select a steeping cycle. Typically, multiple steep
highly alkaline treatments can kill the grain. Effective regimes will incorporate several air rests. The only critical
methods can involve the use of sodium carbonate or factor in determining the frequency of air resting is the
sodium hydroxide, used in short immersions at the start of economics of malting, with the quickest and most efficient
steeping. These preliminary steeps also help to clean the process the most profitable – as long as the malt meets
grain, remove musty odours and lighten the grain colour. specification. A selection of typical commercial regimes can
be seen below.
Additives may be used for various reasons:
 Reduce microbial contamination: add to steep (1) (2) (3)
water any of the following: hypochlorite+ or 8 hours steep 8 hours steep 6 hours steep
chlorine, alkali, hydrogen peroxide or   
formaldehyde (0.1%). + hypochlorite deactivates 16 hours air rest 10 hours air rest 10 hours air rest
gibberellic acid (at high concentrations).   
24 hours steep 10 hours steep 6 hours steep
 Reduce soluble polyphenol content (associated  
with beer haze): add formaldehyde or alkalinity 2 hours air rest 6 hours steep
builder (CaOH, NaCO3, NaOH) to steepwater. 
6 hours air rest
 Reduce soluble nitrogen: add bromates or salts of
octanoic acid to final steep (or spray onto green
malt). During air resting, air is passed through the grain. Although
 Reduce malting loss: sodium or potassium barley has no capillary action, spraying during air resting
bromates added to final steep (or sprayed onto can prevent grain dehydration. Replacing the surface film
green malt) at 50-125mg/kg –reduce respiration of moisture also helps prevent heat build up, as barley
respires more vigorously when out of water. Spray steeping
was originally developed to reduce water consumption (by (d) Steeping Cycles
approx 20%) and hence effluent costs, while maintaining Two typical examples of steeping cycles are shown below.
malt quality. Water channelling in the steep tanks leads to The first programme is designed to cope with water
uneven moisture content and therefore uneven sensitive barley and produce malt using a conical steep
germination and difficulty in producing good quality malt. system. The second programme is designed for fully
Spray steeping is more successful when used in the mature vigorous barley to produce malt using a flat-bottom
production of lager malt. Lager malts tend to be less well steep system. In example two the use of only two steeps
modified than ale malt and have a requirement for SMM also has the added benefit of economising on water use.
which is found in the acrospire - spray steeping may
enourage more acrospire growth. Example 1
Grain profile: 4 ml test = 96%; 8 ml test = 79%; water
(a) Even modification - Multiple Steeping sensitive; average nitrogen (1.7%).
Barley is immersed in water at a given temperature in order Malt type required: well modified, high enzyme, medium –
to increase the moisture content and to initiate high moisture (47.5-48%).
germination. It is important that the moisture content of Programme Hours Comments
the resulting germinating barley is distributed as evenly st
1 S 5 Short first steep to combat
through each corn as possible. If this were not the case water sensitivity.
then uneven, partly modified malt may result. Also, the st
1 AR 14 Long air rest to promote
steeping of water sensitive grains must be considered. germination.
These requirements can be met by the use of multiple nd
2 S 5 Increased water uptake.
steeping cycles where an air rest with good CO2 extraction nd
2 AR 14 Long air rest to encourage
follows each immersion. In the case of water-sensitive vigorous growth.
grains, experience has shown that if the amount of water rd
3 S 5 High moisture to help
taken up by the grain in the early stages of steeping is enzyme development.
limited then the water sensitive grains will begin to rd
3 AR 5 Short time in steep to
germinate. prevent heat build-up.
(b) Initiation of Germination

If the grain moisture can be raised to a suitable level to Example 2
initiate germination (30 - 33%) and then a long air rest is Grain profile: 4 ml test = 99%; 8 ml test = 96%; low nitrogen
carried out, the grain will be able to accept more water (1.6%); small grain size (20%<2.5mm).
without being damaged. If too much water is given too Malt type required: well modified; high enzyme; medium –
quickly the grain will be saturated and slower to progress to high moisture (47.5 – 48%)
chitting. Programme Hours Comments
st
1 S 14 Long first steep to attain
Other benefits arising from the use of multiple waters are moisture of about 37%.
st
that germination vigour can be enhanced and higher 1 AR 20 Long air rest to promote
moistures can be achieved in shorter times compared with germination.
nd
a single immersion. The duration of the air rest periods is 2 S 12 Long second steep to
dictated by the volume of air available (i.e. fan size) for CO 2 achieve final moisture.
nd
and heat removal. Also in multiple steeping there is 2 AR 12 Extended germination
efficient removal of substances leached from the grains that period by holding in steep.
provide a medium for the growth of microbial populations.
(c) Air Rest Temperature To save on water use and effluent production, or to prevent
As a general rule, air rest temperature should not exceed mature vigorous barleys from growing too quickly, 2 wet
o
21-23 C as damage to the embryo could occur and certain steeping may be practiced.
enzyme systems can be impaired – especially proteases that
break down the protein matrix in which the starch grains  1st wet to bring moisture up to around 37%
are embedded. A consequence of this could be that less (higher than the first wet in 3 wet steeping).
st
starch is available to the brewer leading to reduced soluble  1 air rest is longer than typical for 3 wet steeping
extract, increased viscosity leading to poor mash tun run-off to get the barley active and generating heat.
nd
– both of which would reduce the throughput of the  2 wet to bring barley up to final moisture.
nd
brewery. Once germination has commenced it is important  2 air rest to get barley active
that steeping raises the moisture of the grain to a level that Note that the total time under water will be longer for
will promote the production, distribution and activation of 2 wet steeping than for 3 wet steeping to give the same
the enzymes. Generally moisture of 44 - 47% is typical for cast moisture.
malting but, as stated previously, it is important that this
moisture is distributed as evenly as possible throughout
each grain.

2 wet steeping Pros and Cons “drowning”). The graph below uses Friability achieved at
4.5 days as an indicator of modification
Pros Cons
100
Can be used to slow Will result in reduced malting vigour
% Friability Achieved in 4.5

95
growth of vigourous
barley 90
85
Less water use Not suitable for water sensitive
Days
80
barley
75
Less effluent generated Less “washing” of grain, higher BOD 70
and solids in reduced effluent 65
volume
60
More difficult to control final 40 42 44 46 48 50
moisture – often resort to spraying Cast Moisture in % w/w
in germination vessel
Fewer but longer air rests and fewer Attaining Optimal Malt Steep Pattern Considerations
but longer wets mean total steeping The steeping process is focused on the goal of providing the
time is often increased. optimum steep moisture characteristics in the barley. Many
factors are considered when developing the times and
Temperature control at end of the
temperatures that make up a steep pattern recipe. Major
longer air rests may be more difficult
factors include:
 Barley characteristics, crop year impact:
(e) Monitoring of Steeping  Maturity/water sensitivity
From the outline on the previous page of practical steeping  Kernel plumpness
it is obvious that certain key parameters must be monitored  Barley type – 2-row vs. 6-row
and recorded in order to control the steeping process. The  Steep Time
main considerations are temperature, moisture content  Temperature
and germination count.
 Steep Pattern Layout
The temperature of the incoming steep fill and re-fill water
is monitored and controlled so that the initial mix Barley Quality Characteristics
st o
temperature of the 1 steep is attained (12-16 C depending The quality characteristics of barley can vary significantly,
on individual barley requirements). The temperature at the especially from one crop year to another. To avoid
end of each air rest is recorded, and also the time taken to unwanted surprises, we perform testing of new crops as
attain this temperature in order to maximise these periods early as possible. From this testing, we are able to develop
in subsequent batches. The laboratory analyses grain optimal steep patterns.
st nd
samples from the end of the 1 steep, end of the 2 steep
and cast stages of steeping to ensure that the moisture Barley Maturity
targets are being attained. Mature, non-water sensitive barley hydrates, or absorbs
water, in a predictable manner. Although small amounts of
Growth counts are performed after casting to ensure the water enter through the distal end and through the
batch is germinating adequately and evenly. Generally longitudinal crease in the husk, called the ventral furrow,
more than 80% of the grains should be chitting at this stage. most water absorption occurs in the embryo; and most of
the water that enters the kernel enters at the embryo end.
(f) After Steeping A typical steep cycle for normal, mature barley is shown
The germinating barley is transferred (cast) into the below.
germinating vessel by gravity or conveyor, depending on NORMAL STEEP CYCLE
the individual malting plant. The empty steeps are then Phase Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry
cleaned to maintain adequate hygiene standards. Normally, Time (hr) 4 5 4 4 3 4 3 3
grain is cast “dry” from the steep but “wet” casting may be
Total Immersion Time 18 hr
practiced. In wet casting the grain is transferred from the
Total Dry Air Rest Time 20 hr
steep as a slurry in water. The pump design must be
Total Steep Time 38 hr
chosen so as not to impair the grain by mechanical damage
from the pump impellor or by excessive pressure (>1bar) Barley Moisture Content at Steep Completion: 43 - 44%
being applied to the grain. Cast moisture has a major effect Immersion Time to Total Steep Time Ratio: 47%
on rate of germination, generally the higher the cast NormalSteepCycle.vsd
moisture the faster the rate of germination – up to a
maximum of around 49% moisture at which point the
kernels begin to lose viability (they can be thought of as

Normal Barley Steep Cycle
Mature barley hydrates very rapidly during the initial Phase Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry
immersion. Kernel moisture rises from its initial value of 11 Time (hr) 1 (10) 7 (8) 7 (5)
or 12% to about 28 -30% in the first 4 to 6 hours, but the Total Immersion Time: 15 hr
rate of moisture rise then slows. Total Dry Air Rest Time: 23hr
Total Steep Time: 38hr
Table 2 lists the moisture uptake of various kernel tissues as Barley Moisture Content at Steep Completion: 40 –
a function of steeping cycle time. 42%
Immersion Time to Total Steep time Ratio: 39%
Table 2 Moisture Uptake by Normal Barley Kernel Tissues
Percent Moisture After Steeping at Kernel Plumpness and Barley Assortment

Kernel Tissue
o
13 C Barley assortment is basically a measure of kernel width.
2 hr 4 hr 6 hr 24 hr Generally, larger kernels yield higher extract. Thinner
Embryo 26 40 51 58 kernels are higher in protein and yield more enzyme
activity. Kernel uniformity is most important to the brewer.
Pericarp and 11 16 27 36
The hulls of plump malt are generally intact for better
Aleurone
performance in the brew house.
Endosperm 10 13 21 35
Husk 41 43 45 47 The rate at which a barley kernel can be completely
Whole Kernel 21 25 28 38 hydrated is a function of its size. Larger, plumper barley
kernels require more hydration time than thinner kernels.
The final 12 to 16 hours of steeping is critical to allow the This makes sense since water must migrate through the
endosperm to become completely hydrated. Incomplete endosperm for complete hydration. If the endosperm is
hydration of the endosperm cells results in uneven or thicker, then more time is needed for water to migrate to
incomplete modification during germination. On the other its centre.
hand, if the barley is over-steeped, it will become
waterlogged, resulting in over-modified malt with a high The sizing of the finished malt product when preparing to
level of soluble protein and a higher than normal malting ship to the brewery should be kept as plump as possible. If
loss. At very high moisture levels, above 49%, the kernels it is discovered that the malt assortment is too low, one
begin to lose viability (they can be thought of as must determine where the origin of the problem lies. If a
“drowning”) lack of plumpness in the incoming barley is not the cause;
we must then look at problems in the production chain. If
Water Sensitivity an excessive malting loss is seen, growth problems may be
In the first 2 to 4 months after harvest, some barleys exhibit involved. A likely cause is possible damage done while
water sensitivity. Water sensitivity is a condition where transferring barley or malt throughout the malt house. If an
some barleys fail to germinate due to being sensitive to off-kiln sample shows proper assortment parameters,
prolonged immersion in water during the first wet. Barley elevator transfer systems or practices could be the cause. It
that is harvested in cool, damp conditions is mostly likely to has been found that rough handling may be the source of
be water sensitive. It is quite common for some assortment problems.
Midwestern US 6-row barleys to exhibit water sensitivities,
and very often Canadian-grown barleys are water sensitive Barley Type – 2-row vs. 6-row
because of the shorter growing season and generally cool, Steeping times based on barley type are partially based on
damp climatic conditions during harvest. kernel size. 2-Row barley kernels are usually larger than 6-
row kernels, so 2-row barley requires a longer steep time.
Water sensitive barley requires a longer steep cycle than Also, for well-modified malts of uniform quality, we try to
non-water sensitive kernels. A typical steep cycle for water raise the moisture content of 2-row barleys to around 44 –
sensitive barleys is shown below. Note that the water 46% and 6-row barleys to around 42 – 43%.
sensitive kernels require less immersion time and much
longer dry air rest time. The immersion time to total steep Steep Time
time ratio is 36% for water sensitive barley compared to Steep time has a major effect on water uptake. In regard to
47% for non-water sensitive barley. total steep time, other things being equal a longer total
steep time will result in higher water uptake. While the 2-
Water-Sensitive Steep Cycle day steep cycle is the established norm, it is possible to
modify this time to provide the different results. In addition
It is important to achieve a short initial hydration of the to overall steep time, it is possible to modify the individual
barley kernel followed by a long initial air rest to break steep and cycle times for immersion and CO2 removal. The
water sensitivity. Water sensitive barley needs more CO2 removal fans remove CO2 caused by grain respiration
exposure to oxygen than non-water sensitive barley which during the dry rest period. Long CO2 removal periods can
is usually more mature. Below is an example of a water generate more heat. This heat can be used to make the
sensitive steep cycle: water uptake on the next fill step faster.
Temperature IMPORTANCE OF AERATION AND CO2 EXTRACTION
Barley absorbs warmer water faster than it absorbs colder
water, so one might think that steeping would be more As the barley kernels take up water, they begin to swell and
efficiently performed with warm water. Unfortunately, respire, absorbing oxygen and releasing CO2. To allow the
barley steeped at warmer temperatures develops less - kernels to take up water and respire, the steeping process
amylase, which is critical for mashing. Also, when the consists of cycles of water immersion followed by dry
maltster uses warmer water the total immersion time is airflow through the kernels. These two phases are called:
usually shortened, often resulting in the embryo end of the  The immersion phase
kernel being saturated with water but the distal tip being in
a moisture deficient condition.
 The dry air rest phase
Immersion Phase
The benefit of using colder steep water and a longer steep
In the immersion phase, barley in the steep tank is totally
cycle is that there is a more uniform water uptake and
immersed in water. The primary reason for immersion is to
hydration throughout the entire kernel. This tends to get
raise the moisture content of the barley from about 12% to
the metabolic activity off to a slow but balanced start,
approximately 45% at the end of the steeping process. At
resulting in low consumption of endosperm starches and
the start of the phase, barley is dropped into steeping tanks
reduced malting loss. Thus, even though steeping with
that already have some water in them. This is called a wet
colder water takes more time, it does have some benefits.
steep-in. This procedure cushions the barley to prevent
For best results, barley should be steeped at a temperature
skinning, husk removal, and embryo damage.
between 12C and 16C. Hot water steeping has been used
to reduce root growth and hence malting loss. Water at 30-
During the immersion phase, air is forced into the tank
40oc is applied for 8 hours to kill the embryo. This reduces
bottom through the aeration rings. The initial aeration
root growth and respiration losses. No turning is required
agitates the barley and raises any extraneous material that
during germination. Gibberellic acid may be used to ensure
was not removed during cleaning to the water surface
modification is not adversely affected. In practice excess
where it is skimmed off into the overflow for removal.
acrospire growth occurs so that malting loss shows little
Aeration of the steep water during the immersion phase
improvement and malt quality is poor.
improves grain activity and mixes the grain to achieve more
even water uptake.
Two temperatures affect steeping temperature: steep
water temperature and barley temperature. Some malting
Another function of steeping is to leach undesirable
plants can control steep water temperature; others cannot.
components from the barley husks, primarily polyphenols
Those that cannot control the steep water temperature
and tannins. Polyphenols give beer an astringent, mouth-
must use water as it is received, whether it comes from a
puckering flavour. Tannins are oxidized polyphenols that
well or a municipal supply. In the winter, water
give beer similar flavours. Leaching these components from
temperatures may be as low as 5C and require as long as
the husks requires large amounts of water—up to four total
56 hours for a normal steep cycle.
water changes are needed per steep tank; and the tanks
may be overflowed during most of the immersion periods.
Grain temperature is only a factor for the first immersion.
Leaching during the steep does not remove all the
Grain is stored outdoors in large metal bins, so its
polyphenols from the malt.
temperature depends on the outside air temperature. In
the winter, grain temperatures can be close to freezing and,
Dry Air Rest Phase
in the summer, as high as 28C. After the barley is received Each immersion phase is followed by a dry air rest phase.
at the plant, its temperature rises a bit from indoor cleaning The water is drained from the tanks. Room air is drawn in
and handling. The maltster must adjust either the steep from the top of the tank, through the wetted barley, and
water temperature or the immersion time to compensate exhausted out the tank bottom by a CO2 suction fan.
for the grain temperature.
Steep Tank in Dry Air Rest Phase
Steep Pattern Layout As the embryo respires, it absorbs oxygen and releases CO 2
Moisture content alone does not determine the effect of and heat. If the CO2 were not drawn off the tank it would
the steeping process or germination characteristics of the accumulate and eventually displace the oxygen. CO 2 build-
barley. By making minor adjustments to the temperature up has two undesirable effects, listed below.
and time settings of the steep pattern layout, the maltster
 CO2 buildup causes respiration to slow and
can influence when the majority of water take up will occur
eventually stop, resulting in anaerobic glycolysis.
in the process (whether water take up will occur early or
 -Amylase enzyme production slows dramatically.
late in the steeping process). If a significantly, large amount
-Amylase enzymes are needed to convert
of water take up occurs early in the steeping process, the
starches to fermentable sugars during mashing. If
barley will ultimately solubilize more protein. In this case,
the malt does not contain enough -amylase, the
you are essentially starting the germination process earlier
wort will contain unconverted starches.
(in the steep tank). By the same measure, barley that
experiences late water take up will solubilize less protein.

During the air rest periods, the moisture that has
penetrated the husk migrates into the endosperm and Turbidity (Beer Haze)
eventually hydrates it most uniformly. It is important not to The appearance of cloudiness in beer is undesirable. Beer
extend the dry air rest period too long, or the kernels will haze can be caused by several factors including the
begin to dry as they take up the available moisture. Since presence in wort of soluble polyphenols originating from
water is a primary transport mechanism for the organic malt. Amongst the potential methods to address this are:
reactants and products throughout the kernel, drying out ensuring that the malt is well modified, use of alkaline or
slows the reactions and impairs the kernels’ continued formaldehyde treated steeping waters or the use of
growth. anthocyanogen free barley.
During the rest period, air is drawn in from the top of the Extract
tank and out the bottom. To help keep the barley at the top The more fully grown or further developed green malt
of the tank from drying out, cool, humidified air may be becomes, the more potential extract it uses up. Limiting
supplied to the tank room. Each dry air rest phase except overgrowing of green malt will increase extract readings, or
the last is followed by another immersion phase. at least will not lower them.
Analysis of Steeping-Related Malting Specifications Lowering steep moistures can increase extract readings.
There are many variables that affect the final product in the Limiting the speed of modification or limiting germination
malting process. One of the most difficult jobs of the time also has the potential to increase the extract available
maltster is determining the cause of undesirable at the end of malting. Starting out slow in germination has
Summary of factors governing water uptake shown promise also in saving extract.
Temperature Initial water uptake is a purely physical
process, but if germination is initiated, the Overly skinned product will show a higher reading for
rate of water uptake increases. The higher
the temperature of the steep water the extract by increasing the usable volume of the sample (less
faster the rate of uptake, especially after chaff and husk - more usable product). This is not a
germination is initiated desirable scenario, since other areas, are adversely affected
Grain size Above approx 2.3mm the variation in by skinned kernels.
water uptake is less pronounced and
hence barley for steeping is often Viscosity
screened to remove grains much smaller
than this so that more even modification is The viscosity (consistency/thickness) affects lautering time
achieved. The larger the grain size, the in the brewing process. The lower the viscosity reading is,
slower the rate of uptake increases. the better the run off times. If viscosity readings are high, it
Protein content Mealiness and steeliness have an effect is generally an indication of poor modification. An increase
on water uptake steelier grains will have a in modification, increase in steep moisture, and/or more
lower rate of water uptake. Lower protein time in germination can lower viscosity readings.
endosperm (tendency towards mealiness)
enhances water uptake.
Grain viability Once germination starts the rate of water Factors Influencing Water Uptake
uptake increases significantly. A moisture content of 45% - 47% is desired because this is
Variety and Crop Varieties that are loose husked or tend to the point at which rapid and even germination can be
Year split in wet seasons tend to take up water
more rapidly. sustained. Achievement of this depends upon the rate and
the quantity of water uptake by the grains. The following
characteristics that may appear in malt and establishing a factors governing water uptake are critical to the process.
controlled approach for correcting problems. Often the
cause and effect relationship of certain process variables is
very subtle and complex. This is truly the “art” of the
maltster. 50
Kernel Growth 45
A proper steep moisture should be found and maintained
40
Moisture (%)
by crop year and variety. Unnecessary steep moisture

manipulation can effect viscosity and cause other problems 35
to arise. The principal concern and goal during steeping is to
hydrate the kernel, as evenly as possible, all the way to the 30
centre of the endosperm. Steeping time can be
25
manipulated to control hydration; allowing control of
progression toward germination in the steep tanks. This is 20
especially helpful in controlling proper modification of 0 20 40 60 80 100
“problem varieties.” A given steep moisture can be
Hours Steeped
attained by either slow or faster uptake of water in the
early stages of steeping. 5 deg C 15 deg C

The effect of temperature on the rate of water uptake is The barley washer shown is in the simplest terms, an
shown above. The desired level of moisture is achieved inclined screw conveyor with water. Barley is added to a
after 100 hours of steeping with a water temperature of float pool of water at the lower end of the auger. If the
proper depth of water is maintained, some dirt and
15⁰C while there is still some way to go using water at 5⁰C.
lightweight material will separate from the barley and float
The higher the temperature, therefore, the faster the rate to the top of this pool. The barley settles to the bottom and
of uptake. is gently agitated and transferred up the conveyor by the
52 auger. This motion helps to further clean the barley. The
50 dirtiest water exits from the end of the barley washer.
Clean fresh water enters from the top. Some of the cleanest
48
water is recycled and reused at the lower end. Clean,
46
Moisture (%)
partially wetted barley exits from the top end.

44
42
40
38
36
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
Grain Size (mm)
As shown in the Figure below, barley with a grain size of

2mm will achieve the desired moisture content within a
single 48-hour immersion steep while larger grain cannot
achieve the same rate of water uptake. The larger the grain
size, therefore, the slower the uptake of the water. You will
note, however, that although this is the case, the Barley Washer
relationship between grain size and water uptake is not The speed of the barley washer is equivalent to the normal
directly linear. A grain twice the size, will not absorb at half conveyor speed. The barley washer is equipped with a
the rate. It is undesirable to have small grain size barley in a reversible motor to facilitate cleaning.
process batch as it has a much lower HWE potential than
Abrasion
the larger grain. It is also undesirable to steep grains of The process of abrading the grain selectively damages the
mixed size in the same steep as the grains will not complete grain to effect quicker water and GA uptake. Abrasion of
steeping with the same water content and therefore will the grain may selectively damage the grain at the distal tip.
not modify at the same rate, resulting in uneven This is due to the oscillation of the grain through the air.
modification of the finished malt. Abrasion damages the semi-permeable pericarp, permitting
quicker and more extensive water and GA uptake and
Summary distribution. The grain therefore, modifies more rapidly
As the first of the three main malting functions: steeping, and completely than would normally be achieved. Abrading
germination, and kilning, steeping is perhaps the most the grain in combination with exogenously applied GA can
critical. As we will see in subsequent modules, problems accelerate malting by one to two days and in so doing
that are introduced during steeping can cause problems reduce malting losses. The process was used by some
th
that are difficult or even impossible to correct during malting companies in the late 20 century.
germination and kilning. In addition these problems may
resurface during brewing and result in effects such as
reduced extract yield, and viscosity problems. For this ABRADE
reason, the deceptively simple steeping process takes on a D
critical importance to both the maltster and the

brewmaster. Damage
d Grains
Other Technology
The purpose of washing the barley is to remove loose
insoluble material and soluble material from the barley.
Traditionally, barley washing is performed, by overflowing
the steep tank, a process that is less than ideal. Less than Area of abrasion damage shows up as blue spot due
to binding of iodine with amylose and amylopectin
50% of the water that is consumed during steeping
contributes to the moisture uptake of the barley – Figure 5. Abraded and damaged barley shown by staining
sometimes much less. A significant portion of the with an iodine solution.
remaining water is used for washing.

Section 6 Malting - Germination.
BARLEY GERMINATION – THE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND During malting the barley grain swells by a third, replacing
BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES. the water lost as it dried in the field, prior to storage.
Water uptake occurs rapidly at first and slows as steeping
Grain Hydration proceeds. A critical grain moisture level of around 44%
The process of steeping determines final malt quality. The must be achieved. Below 44% moisture there is insufficient
purpose of steeping (soaking of the grain in tanks) is to water to support the grain during germination and
initiate grain growth through hydration. Hydration of the modification may be incomplete. Above 47% moisture the
grain facilitates even endosperm modification. Steep water endosperm can become over-modified as the grains “bolt”
must be of potable quality and free of taints. If not, the through germination, and can create poor quality malt.
impurities may be passed on through the malt to the final
beer, affecting its quality and stability. Traditionally, barley was continuously immersed under
water for a period of up to three days in order to achieve
Why does grain hydration initiate germination? Before the desired moisture content. The rapid depletion of
hydration the barley grain lies in a state of suspended oxygen in this process plus the accumulation of carbon
animation, its growth has been halted in the field through dioxide (CO2) allowed little growth to take place. Multiple
desiccation. On re-hydration of the embryo, aleurone and steeping, in which each immersion is followed by an air
endosperm, the revived aqueous condition provides a rest, is now standard practice. In this process, germination
suitable environment in which the enzymes can regain can be enhanced and higher moisture achieved than with a
functional activity. single immersion. The duration of the air rest is dictated by
the volume of air available to keep the grain cool and
prevent CO2 build up in the steep. The effects of
continuous and multiple (broken) steeping are shown in
below:
50
40
30
Figure 1. Water uptake in barley.
20
During steeping, the husk rapidly absorbs water via capillary 10

action. However, although this water will penetrate 0
through the cuticular layers of the pericarp and testa, 0 2 4 6 8 101214161820222426283032343638404244464850
transport of salts is a problem. If the husk dries out during
malting, the embryo withdraws moisture from the Broken Steeping Continuous Steeping
endosperm to survive, and as a result restricts endosperm
modification, generating poor quality malt. Endosperm Modification Progression
The most important function of the embryo during
Water enters through the micropyle region and passes into germination is the production and release of the plant
the embryo. From the embryo, water migrates to the hormone Gibberellic acid (GA) – this is one hormone of the
endosperm through the scutellum, vascular tissue and gibberellin family. It is this plant hormone that stimulates
finally via the aleurone layer. The rate of endosperm the aleurone layer to synthesise and deliver the majority of
hydration is slower than that of the embryo, which has the hydrolytic, endosperm-degrading enzymes, e.g. -
consistently higher moisture content than the endosperm. amylase.
Grain hydration follows a proximal to distal pattern.
Transfer of moisture from the embryo to the endosperm is Gibberellins are synthesised in the embryo. Production of
most efficient on the dorsal side due to a greater gibberellins is induced within the first two days of embryo
proportion of vascular tissue, whilst the ventral furrow growth, during steeping, when internal embryo reserves
hinders the migration of water. Barley has no internal have been depleted. The gibberellins are then transported
capillary action; therefore, the grain must be fully immersed to the aleurone through the vascular tissue of the grain,
in water for complete grain hydration. If total grain aided by the proximal-distal flow of water during grain
hydration does not occur modification will be incomplete, hydration. After reaching the aleurone, the gibberellins
generating brewhouse problems. stimulate the production and release of the modifying
enzymes.
The pattern of endosperm modification is determined by: Enzymes and Substrates Involved in Germination
1. The localised development of the vascular On stimulation with gibberellic acid, the aleurone layer
tissue. synthesises (de novo) and releases a wide range of
2. The ventral furrow. hydrolytic endosperm degrading enzymes, including:
3. Degree of enzymatic contribution from the  -amylase
scutellum.  Limit dextrinase
4. Mealiness or steeliness of the endosperm.  Endoprotease
5. Temperature of germination.
The aleurone also releases the following enzymes, but it is
The vascular tissue is developed to a greater extent on the unclear as to whether they are produced de novo or that
dorsal side of the grain. Therefore, water and gibberellin they are already present in an inactive form and then
distribution throughout the aleurone layer is greatest on activated within the aleurone layer:
the dorsal side of the grain. The hydrolytic enzymes are  Endo-1,3:1,4 glucanase
consequently released into the endosperm quicker and in  Endo-1,3 glucanase
greater concentration, than from the ventral side of the  Pentosanases
grain where the vascular tissue is defined to a lesser extent.  Phytase
This profile of aleurone stimulation and response results in
an asymmetrical pattern of endosperm modification when The starchy endosperm does not synthesise but already
viewed in a time course manner (Figure 3). contains the enzymes (as zymogens):
 -amylase
Movement of GA  Carboxypeptidases
Release of
from the embryo
hydrolytic Once the production of the specific enzymes has
through the
enzymes from commenced, synthesis continues through the normal
vascular tissue to period of germination and the concentrations of these
1
2 enzymes steadily grow.
3 7 Protein matrix Starch
GA3 4 granules
5 6
Outer wall
Protein (-Glucan and
pentosan)
middle
lamella
Figure 3. Asymmetric grain modification. Area of greatest Inner cell wall
modification (1) through to the least modified (7). (-Glucan)
The ventral furrow that runs along the lower side of the
grain impedes water and gibberellin distribution. This Figure 4. Endosperm cell structure
causes slower and reduced enzyme release and therefore, The location of starch
granules (stained black)
diminished endosperm modification in the ventral grain within the endosperm cells
region. of barley grain surrounded
by the protein matrix
(stained green) and
The scutellar epithelial cells are stimulated to produce protected by the aleurone
approximately 10% of total grain -amylase (dependent on layer and seed coat.
Source: FeedXL
variety). As such, this additional input of -amylase may
affect the distribution of endosperm modification,
reinforcing the proximal-distal pattern of grain modification
in relation to starch degradation only.
The abundance of enzymes noted above is necessary for
Within the endosperm, areas of localised steeliness will the release and conversion of the endosperm starch. In
hinder the distribution of water and impede enzyme sequence, the outer cell walls must be degraded (by
dispersal. In these regions of the starchy endosperm, proteases) before carboxypeptidases, glucanases and
under-modification will occur. The opposite is true for pentosanases can attack the inner cell walls. Only after
grains with localised areas of increased mealiness, creating sufficient cell wall degradation can the proteases hydrolyse
regions of over-modified endosperm. the storage protein matrix to expose the starch granules.
The - and -amylases can then liquefy and saccharify the
Increasing germination temperature facilitates quicker starch, respectively. This allows transport of the sugars,
enzyme dispersal and therefore, improved modification. along with the amino acids derived from the protein matrix,
However, excessive temperatures may dehydrate the grain through the scutellum to the embryo. The scutellum
and restrict modification. epithelial cells elongate to aid absorption of the nutrients
into the embryo.
-Glucans and Pentosans Nitrogen (FAN) for grain embryo and yeast nutrition. If
The walls of the endosperm cells comprise a mixture of sufficient proteolysis does not occur during malting, a loss
hemicelluloses and gums. Hemicelluloses and gums are of potential extract will ensue in the brewhouse, along with
mixtures of polysaccharides with similar chemical other associated problems.
structures. The relatively insoluble hemicelluloses are alkali
extractable and are degraded to gums (warm water- The proteins contained within the endosperm matrix are
soluble) probably through proteolysis. The hemicelluloses defined by their solubility characteristics.
are less soluble due to their increased molecular weights
and/or their increased degree of internal cross-linking.  Albumins and Globulins: dissolve in water or dilute
salt solutions.
The major components of the hemicellulose and gum
fractions of the barley cell wall are:  Hordeins and Glutelins: dissolve in alkaline or hot
alcohol solutions, in association with reducing
 -D-Glucan (70-75%) agents.
 Pentosans (20-23%) e.g. arabinoxylan.
Approximately 5% of the cell wall is made up of protein as a The less soluble storage proteins, hordeins and glutelins
middle lamella, but the -glucans and pentosans are the predominate in the endosperm matrix. Hordein and
most important in brewing. glutelin contain large amounts of the amino acids proline
and glutamine. Notably, these protein fractions contain
β glucan is a linear polymer of glucose comprising 70% β 1-4 disulphide bonds. These bonds have the ability to be
links and 30% β 1-3 links. broken and reform creating different molecules. This
formation of new bonds is thought to play a role in the
70% of cell wall material is β Glucan. (Note that approx. 5% production of viscous worts that are difficult to separate
of the cell wall is protein as a middle lamella) during mashing. As grain Total Nitrogen (TN) increases
during grain development hordein becomes incorporated
into the storage protein matrix in a disproportionate
2 step breakdown of β Glucan: fashion.
Grains with high TN tend to have steely endosperms, whilst

mealy endosperms will contain less TN. As described
below, it is the quality of the packing of the mealy or steely
endosperm that most influences proteolysis and grain
modification, not enzyme concentration.
Protein crosslink with ester bond to β Glucan polymer
Linked glucose units

(a) Mealy and Steely Grains
Barley starch granules are located in the endosperm cells of
1) β Glucan solubilase (a carboxypeptidase) breaks
the grain. This starch, however, is embedded within a
ester bonds to release linear polymers (solubilises
dense protein matrix.
β Glucan).
2) Endo 1-3, 1-4 β Glucanase hydrolyses β 1-4 links
The distribution and density of this protein matrix differs
adjacent to β 1-3 links to release sugars which
with barley variety and growth conditions. Excess fertiliser
contribute to extract.
applied in the field can result in barley with a high protein
content, mostly concentrated in the endosperm protein
β Glucan solubilase is more heat stable than Endo 1-3, 1-4 β
matrix. In grains with a dense protein matrix there are less
Glucanase – this can cause long chains of β Glucan to be
“water-free” or air filled spaces than in a grain
released but not broken down. These long chain molecules
incorporating lower protein levels.
result in viscous worts which are a problem in the mash
house because they:
 Grains with a high proportion of air filled spaces
are known as mealy
 Retard wort separation
 Produce wet/sticky spent grains  Grains with few air filled spaces, are known as
 Induce beer haze formation steely.
 Reduce beer filtration rate
Mealy grains allow rapid water penetration and uniform
Endosperm Protein hydration of the endosperm. This results in quicker and
The protein embedded within the endosperm cells forms a more uniform modification, producing superior quality
dense matrix surrounding A and B-Type starch granules. malt. Steely grains hinder endosperm hydration and
This protein matrix must first be hydrolysed during malting, enzyme distribution, giving uneven modification and poor
to facilitate enzymatic starch degradation during mashing. quality malt.
Additionally, protein degradation provides the Free Amino
A Farinator is a hand-held device, usually made of stainless Reduced extract potentials are created when the protein
steel, which may be used to slice open sets of 50 grains to matrix is not satisfactorily degraded to expose the starch
reveal the steeliness or mealiness of the endosperm. granules for hydrolysis.
Grain size also affects grain hydration. Large grains If hydrolysis does not occur during malting, there will be a
proportionately take up water slower than smaller grains. deficit of necessary enzymes during mashing to cleave and
The small grains will therefore “bolt” through germination. release amino acids. This FAN is essential for yeast growth
The malt produced will be non-homogeneous, with and if deficient will cause problematic fermentations. If the
proportions of over and under-modified grains generating protein is not broken down or solubilised, the large protein
brewhouse problems. molecules will undoubtedly contribute to the formation of
haze (colloidal instability) and related problems.
(b) Proteolysis of Endosperm Protein
The enzymes responsible for proteolysis include: Excessive proteolysis can lead to:
 Endoproteases  Increased malt colour formation.

 Exoproteases
 Carboxypeptidases  Destruction of essential foam forming
polypeptides.
During germination, the GA stimulated aleurone layer
synthesises and releases at least five endoproteases into KEYPOINT: The combined action of proteolysis and -D-
the endosperm. These sulphydryl endoproteases attack glucan degradation renders the malt friable or “readily
internal protein bonds, whilst the exoproteases cleave crushable”; this is due to the breakdown of the rigid cell
bonds at the terminal chain ends. The endoproteases walls and protein matrix. The friability of malt is often used
hydrolyse the large protein molecules, releasing smaller as an indication of the extent of modification.
polypeptides upon which the exoproteases act to produce
smaller peptides and amino acids.
STARCH
The acid carboxypeptidases are located within the
During the malting process, degradation of the endosperm
endosperm and their concentration increases throughout
starch is limited to preserve extract potential.
steeping and germination. Carboxypeptidases cleave single
Approximately 10% of the barley starch is hydrolysed to
amino acids from the carboxyl end (COOH) of peptides,
provide nutrition for the embryo. The majority of this
primarily during malting, but also to some extent during
degraded starch is the small B-Type granules that degrade
mashing.
more rapidly than the larger A-Type, due to their increased
surface area to volume ratio.
This enzymatic action during germination results in the
transformation of the insoluble nitrogen, much of which
Although this degradation of the small starch granules
goes into solution on mashing and is recognised as the
contributes towards malting loss, it is somewhat fortuitous,
Total Soluble Nitrogen (TSN). As germination progresses
as the small starch granules have higher gelatinisation
the level of TSN increases before declining, as a proportion
temperatures than the large starch granules. During
is consumed for continued plant growth. The ratio of the
mashing ungelatinised starch will generate viscous worts
TSN: TN obtained from the malt is used as a measure of
that are difficult to separate, whilst also contributing to
modification. Typically during malting 40% of grain TN is
carbohydrate haze formation.
solubilised by the endoproteases and carboxypeptidases.
There are four major starch-degrading enzymes present in
The endo- and exoproteases are easily de-activated by heat
germinating barley.
and are easily denatured and inactivated during kilning.
The carboxypeptidases are more heat stable and survive
 -amylase
kilning to continue with subdued activity during mashing.
 -amylase
As such, sufficient proteolysis must occur during
 Limit dextrinase
germination.
 -glucosidase
If adequate proteolysis does not take place the
consequences can be drastic, including: Barley contains no -amylase prior to germination and its
synthesis and release from the aleurone layer is dependent
 Reduced extract. upon GA stimulation during steeping. -Amylase is present
 Reduced wort -amino nitrogen. in barley within the endosperm and exists bound to the
 Decreased colloidal stability. proteins of the endosperm matrix. This latent -amylase is
activated on release from the matrix by proteases /
carboxypeptidases.

-Amylase slowly attacks ungelatinised starch during transfer from steep to germination box where a solution of
germination, but -amylase cannot. -Amylase breaks the GA is applied as a spray to the grain in conveyor. When
starch down to smaller polymers (liquefaction), whilst the β using this method it is important to synchronise the spray
-amylase acts at the reducing ends of the starch molecule and conveyor rates to ensure that there is an even
to produce maltose units (saccharification). This combined application of GA across the whole of the batch in transfer if
action is most effective during mashing and will be dealt individual grains are to show even growth rates. The rate of
with in greater detail later on in the course. uptake of GA by the grain will be dependent on:
Limit dextrinase, existing in both bound and free forms,  The surface moisture of the grain with better levels
degrades branched dextrin (partially degraded starch of uptake achieved by applications made to dry-
granules) to glucose. -Glucosidase degrades maltose to cast than wet-cast grains.
glucose providing immediate metabolic substrates for the
embryo. Limit dextrinase and -glucosidase are easily de-  Temperature and maturity of the grain with
activated by heat and rarely survive kilning to be of benefit improved uptake on well chitted and warmer
in the mash. -Amylase and -amylase are to some extent grains.
easily de-activated by heat, with a proportion lost during
kilning. -Amylase is affected by heat more than α-  The concentration of the aqueous GA solution
Amylase. applied – if this is too dilute much of the solution
will flow to waste, as the grain is unable to adsorb
Gibberellic acid in Malting the relatively high quantities of liquid involved.
(a) Discovery of Gibberellic Acid GA has also been applied in steeping and during early
The discovery of the gibberellins, a group of naturally germination. Generally applications in steeping are less
occurring plant growth regulators, dates from work of efficient because of the volume of steep water which must
Kurosawa in the 1920's. He was studying the 'bakanae' be treated and the fact that the grains are at a more
disease of rice and showed that excessive elongation of the immature stage. It is possible to improve the efficiency if
stems was due to an infection with the fungus Gibberella in-steep grain development is encouraged but the more
fujikuroi. In 1939, the active compound was isolated and mature grains that result are more prone to physical
given the name 'gibberellin A'. It was not until 1954 that damage on subsequent transfer to the germination vessel.
further progress was made when the pure compound was
isolated and characterised. By the 1990's over 80 Similarly, for treatment of grain in the germination box, it is
gibberellins had been identified, over half of which were difficult to achieve an even application of GA across the
found in developing seeds. In barley the key gibberellin has depth of the grain bed. In those situations where the
been shown to be GA 1. The first application of exogenous design of plant necessitates GA application in the
gibberellic acid to malting took place in 1959 (Sandegren germination box the usual approach is to incorporate a
and Beling). spray bar on the grain turner. This allows the application to
be made at the instant of turning when the bed is most
(b) Use of Gibberellic Acid in Malting open and the chance of penetration to the lower grain is at
There is no legislative restriction on the use of gibberellic an optimum.
acid (GA) in malting although customers who wish to
preserve the image of malt as a substance entirely The responsive of barley to GA can be enhanced by physical
produced by a natural process may choose to prohibit its treatments. At the experimental stage, these physical
use. This is particularly the case for the Scotch Whisky treatments have included 'squeezing' steeped barley
industry which, because of the long periods of storage of between mill rollers with the aim of disrupting the internal
raw spirit (which are fundamental to the process of whisky endosperm structure and enhancing hydration and physical
production) has to anticipate future restrictive legislation or transport pathways within the grain. However, the only
changes that may occur in consumer sensitivities and technique to be commercially adopted was that of abrasion
preferences. developed by Palmer in 1969.
Where the customer approves its use, GA application can In this technique, barley from store (at a nominal 11-12%
offer a number of opportunities including: moisture is passed through an abrading machine where the
grains rub or are 'abraded' against wire brushes or abrasive
 reduction or breaking of dormancy; surfaces lining the machine. Subsequently the grain is
 accelerated malt production; processed in the normal manner. Commercial operations
 enhanced enzyme production; showed that abraded barley required a considerably
 reduced malting loss via embryo substitution. reduced steeping time for satisfactory malting. This is in
Table 1 where there is an increase in the rate of water
The response to GA application is both dose and variety uptake that allowed a reduction in the overall steeping
dependent. Typically in the maltings GA is applied in time.
aqueous solution at a rate of up to 0.4 mg/kg of original
barley. The preferred method of application is at the

All steeps were used to make malts of the same of the impact of GA on the Diastatic Unit (a measure of α-
specification and it is obvious from the table that abraded amylase activity) and Diastatic Power (a measure of α- and
barley was cast at a lower moisture content than their un- β-amylase activity) and also the dose response effect is
abraded controls. This reflects the fact that abraded barley illustrated in Table 2.
inherently required less water for successful modification.
Table 2. Impact of GA addition at differing levels on DU and
Steeping DP enzyme activities (determined by IOB Methods) in
Maltings Barley Programme (h) Total % Cast barley
Time (h) Moisture
1 Control 6w 8d 8w 6d 5w 11d 44 45
Abraded 5w 7d 4w 8d 2w 8d 34 43
2 Control 8w 8d 8w 8d 2w 8d 46 46 GA level DP DU
Abraded 5w 10d 6w 8d 5w 8d 42 43 ppm (IOB) (IOB)
3 Control 8w 10d 14w 14w 46 44.5 0 33 97
Abraded 6w 10d 10w 10w 36 43.5
0.1 38 102
Table 1. Showing reduced steeping time to achieve 0.2 39 105
acceptable cast moistures when using abraded barley at 0.5 44 117
three different malt plants. Cast moistures are mean of 10 1 47 128
batches. Steep temperatures were the same for each
control/abraded pair.
There is now overwhelming evidence that the increase in
activity of α -amylase is a consequence of de novo synthesis
d = dry, w = wet
and the GA/ α -amylase system has formed the basis of
several research investigations – many of which have used
In his original hypothesis, Palmer attributes this
de-embryonated grains or isolated aleurone layers.
phenomenon to the fact that the abrasion process scarifies
the pericarp so allowing GA to enter the underlying
The incubation of isolated barley aleurone layers in GA
aleurone. This in turn induces new areas of enzymatic
solution has shown these to begin to secrete α -amylase
modification of the endosperm remote from the usual
after about 8 hours and that this release continues linearly
localised influence of the embryo and this presumably
over the next 16 hours (Figure 6). As also shown in Figure 6
reduces the dependency on hydration and transport
abscisic acid (ABA), the plant growth regulator is inhibitory
mechanisms.
to α -amylase production.
Although commercially proven, abrasion has only had a
limited commercial acceptability and its use has been 400
largely limited to brewer/maltsters. Possible reasons for + GA
the failure of maltsters to adopt the process include:
+ GA +ABA
alpha amylase (ug)
300
 Appearance – malt made from abraded barley can
have a poor appearance and be prone to breakage. 200
 Unevenness – abrasion can introduce greater

variability into the in-process behaviour of 100
individual barley grains resulting in more

heterogeneous malts. 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
time (h)
 Customer limitations on GA usage – the abrasion
process is most effective when used in
Figure 6. Time course of α -amylase synthesis and release
combination with GA treatment. Where customer
by aleurone layers of barley variety Himalaya incubated in
preference limits GA usage the normal benefits do
GA3 and following application ABA at 10 hours.
not accrue.
(d) Alternatives to Gibberellic Acid
 Loss of malt biomass – abrasion removes some
There are no real alternatives to the action of GA and
material from the grain that leads to loss of malt
practical attempts to approach the effect of GA on
revenue.
untreated malts revolve around methods that increase the
metabolism of the grain. Typically, these will include
(c) Action of Gibberellic Acid on the Grain
steeping to high moisture content (>48%), extended
The addition of GA to malting grain increases the
germination and manipulation of temperature regimes to
endogenous gibberellin levels and enhances the grain's
maximise the desired enzyme activities but generally this
metabolism and endosperm modification. The production
approach leads to high malting loss.
of enzymes that catalyse modification are enhanced more
than embryo growth and so, with GA treatment, it is
An alternative approach is to target the use of specific
possible to malt the grain (in other words modify the
barley varieties which show greater propensity to produce
endosperm) with smaller malting losses. A typical example
the malts required (e.g. in the UK the 1980's variety Torrent
had enhanced DP levels). This obviously demands the
availability of several varieties with differing characteristics.
In the past the extent of this variation between varieties Turning the Grain
has been limited by an all too consuming interest in extract Turners are initially used to lay down an even grain bed
yield. after transfer from the steeping vessel. The turners then
run at regular intervals to augment aeration and cooling, by
This means that varieties exhibiting other favourable mixing the grain. As the grain germinates and the rootlets
properties but slightly lower extracts have frequently been grow, they can become entangled. These clumps of grain
rejected as unsuitable at an early stage of the breeding trap heat as they respire and can generate microclimates
cycle. This attitude is changing as options for the use of within the bed. These are undesirable as they promote
additives and processing aids are shunned or prohibited. faster germination in localised areas of the grain bed, which
However, the success of this approach will be entirely could also promote microbial growth. If unchecked, the
dependent on the market since farmers will not grow crops grain within this microclimate will malt quicker than the
for which they receive uncompetitive returns. rest of the bed, attaining a more complete state of
modification, generating non-homogeneous malt.
Air Turners Re-circulating
GERMINATION
out lift grain air
Air in
Introduction bed
At the end of steeping, the grain moves into the second
phase of growth, signalled by chitting. As the grain strives
for further growth, its oxygen requirements to facilitate Fan
increased respiration jump dramatically. This demand for pushes
oxygen cannot be met in the steep tank. If the chitting
humid
grain is left submerged in the steep, it takes up too much
water and effectively drowns. The grain is therefore moved air
Sprays increase
to germination chambers where its physical demands can Grain through
be met more easily. moisture content
bed
There are various types of germination chambers in use
around the world, but they all operate around similar
principles: Figure 1 A schematic diagram of a Saladin Box.
Turning the grain bed using helical screws also lifts the bed
 Controlling grain temperature. to allow easier passage of the circulating air and hence
 Maintaining at least 40% grain moisture. more efficient cooling and CO2 removal. Germination will
 Turning and mixing of the grain. typically last between 3-5 days, at temperatures between
 Supplying sufficient oxygen to the grain. 15-20°C. As germination proceeds, respiration within the
grain gains vigour, and by the end of the process the heat
The grain can be transferred or “cast” between the steeping generated can result in the grain mass reaching
tank and germination chamber as a slurry or dry. The grain temperatures of up to 22°C.
is then spread out to form an even bed, typically between
1m and 1.5m in depth. Boby Drum: In this type of drum the air conditioning unit, is
situated at the end of the vessel. The air then moves up
Throughout germination, it is essential that the grain bed is from the under-bed space, through the perforated plate
kept moist. If the grain is allowed to dehydrate, floor and the grain bed. The drum can be rotated and this is
modification will be restricted. If the grain dehydrates, done occasionally to prevent the matting together of roots
hydrolytic enzymes will be unable to progress throughout and to loosen the grain bed to enhance cooling by the air
the endosperm, resulting in an under modified malt of poor stream. The drum also has a water supply feeding spray
quality that will cause serious brewhouse problems. The pipes inside the main drum body area for adjustment of
germinating barley is aerated with cool air, saturated with moisture content. To empty the drum, the discharge ports
moisture to 100% relative humidity. Although the are opened and the drum turned, allowing green malt to
circulating air is at 100% humidity as it enters the grain bed, fall out into a discharge chute.
it is warmed as it removes the heat generated by grain
respiration. This warming of the air decreases its relative
humidity and is sufficient to effect some water removal and
therefore mild dehydration of the grain, amounting to
around 0.5%/day. Bed aeration serves several purposes. As
well as helping to maintain bed hydration, circulating air
replenishes the supply of oxygen for the grain and purges
out any CO2 that could stifle respiration. By maintaining air
circulation, cooling of the grain bed is also accomplished.

A) B)
Grain
Figure 2 A) Schematic representation of a
fully perforated drum. The drum rotates
mixing the germinating grain whilst air
from
emerges from the perforated central pipe. B)
Schematic representations of a Galland drum. 1 2 3 4
Air from perforated ducts, situated around
the circumference of the drum, is exhausted
through a central pipe.
The Wanderhaufen malting plant is a

Air flow Green
variation of the Saladin box plant. It is a semi-
continuous process whereby each batch of
germinating barley, referred to as a piece, is Figure 3 A schematic diagram of a Wanderhaufen malt to
system.
moved at intervals along the germination box The grain is moved along the “street” as the turners move
thereby reducing the loading and unloading from position 1 (steeped grain) to position 4 (fully modified
times and simplifying the conveying system. grain).
In Wanderhaufen maltings the steeped barley
is cast into one end of a long rectangular
open topped box with a plenum chamber Controlling the temperature of germination towards these
below. A turner not only turns the grain but latter stages can become difficult. If relying on cooling
also moves it along the floor towards the kiln, alone, temperature regulation could be lost altogether,
this creates space on the floor for the next forcing over modification of the grain and increasing
steep to be cast onto and green malt exiting malting losses. In order to prevent this and apply more
the germination street is fed to the kiln. accurate restraints, the grain is allowed to partially
There is inevitably some mixing between one dehydrate. This manipulated desiccation of the grain is
batch and the next so Wanderhaufen plants referred to as “withering”. In combination, the air
are best suited to maltings producing long circulating through the grain bed can be enriched with CO 2,
runs on the same malt type. as it is re-circulated. These combined actions stifle grain
respiration, growth and therefore grain modification,
preparing the grain for kilning.

Grain in (b) Effect of Moisture on Modification
In general, malt modification is related to moisture content;
i.e. increased moisture gives increased rate of modification.
There is a limit to this since above 50% moisture the grain
may be killed by drowning. It must be borne in mind that
high green malt moisture also increases the rate of
respiration, i.e. the grain grows vigorously using up valuable
sugars, generating heat, CO2 and rootlets resulting in
increased malting loss and consequently less malt produced
Steeping per tonne of barley steeped.
(c) Effects of Temperature on Germination

Germination 1
In general, malt modification is related to temperature, i.e.
increase the temperature and the rate of modification
increases.
Germination 2
(d) Effects of Temperature on Enzyme Development
A very complex network of biochemical reactions is
Kilning involved in modification and the maltster must be aware
that some of these reactions are significantly inhibited by
increased temperature. Each enzyme has a specific
De-culming optimum temperature for its activity and an increase in
temperature will increase the activity of some enzymes and
decrease the activity of others.
Two of the most significant groups of enzymes in the

Malt out germination process are the proteases and amylases.
Remember that proteases are enzymes that break down
protein to soluble amino acids. The extent of this is
Figure 6. A schematic diagram of a Tower maltings. The measured by the SNR (soluble nitrogen ratio) in that a high
grain progresses down through the tower, dropping level of protease activity results in a high SNR. Amylases
through each floor with each process step. Usually only one are enzymes responsible for breaking down starch into
germination floor is visited by a batch. sugar.
CONTROL PARAMETERS Both proteases and amylases are formed within the grain
during germination. Their rates of development, however,
(a) Moisture Control are affected differently by temperature at the start of
Once the steeped grain has been cast samples are normally germination.
withdrawn and analysed by the laboratory for moisture
content and growth counts. If the moisture content is too  high temperature start suppresses protease
low the batch can be sprayed inside the vessel. It should be activity and
noted that this technique of moisture adjustment does not  low temperature start enhances protease activity
necessarily get the moisture into the centre of the
endosperm where it is really needed and can also bring
about excessive rootlet growth resulting in increased (e) Effect of Temperature on Rate of Modification
malting losses. Conversely, if the moisture content of the As both these enzyme systems are so important in malting,
cast grain is excessively high the bed can be turned with the a compromise situation has to be found depending on the
germination fan at maximum speed and air conditioning customer's malt specification. For example, a distiller
system off to remove some of the excess moisture. If either requires high levels of soluble nitrogen in the wort,
spraying or water removal is necessary then the steeping indicating that the protein matrix in the endosperm has
cycle is wrong and must be adjusted for subsequent been sufficiently broken down, whereas there is usually an
batches. excess of amylase. For this reason, moderate-low
germination temperatures should be used to enhance
Once the initial moisture content is at the correct level (44 - protease activity.
47%) it is important that this moisture is maintained.
Humidified air is therefore blown through the growing (f) Air-on and Air-off Temperatures
green malt. Even so, the grain moisture will fall by roughly In practice, the air-on temperature (air temperature below
0.5% per day of germination due to the heat generated by grain bed) is controlled. It is important, however, that the
the growing malt itself. air-off temperature (air temperature above grain bed) is
monitored and reacted to. When malting vigorous grain it
is important to keep the growth under control. If the

differential between below bed and above bed
temperatures is too great then detrimental effects, such as
moisture loss, uneven malt, increased malting loss, can
occur.
Conversely, if the grain is slow to start, i.e. above bed and

below bed temperature differential is too small; action
must be taken immediately in order to encourage
germination and modification rate. This temperature
o o
differential can be between 1.5 and 4 C depending on
individual barley and malt requirements. Control of
temperature is achieved by a combination of several
factors. Modern maltings may install refrigeration equipment in
order that the germination temperature can be effectively
(g) Control of Temperature controlled all year round. Passive cooling is achieved to
Fresh air at ambient temperature and humidity is drawn some degree by evaporative cooling from the sprays in the
into the system by the germination fan. The air is fully germination air stream.
humidified by passing through the spray chamber of the
conditioning system. At most times of the year the
temperature of this fully conditioned air is lower than
required so a portion of exhaust air, which has passed
through the grain bed and gained heat, is recirculated into
the inlet air stream.
By altering the proportion of air re-circulation the air-on

temperature can be closely controlled. The air-on
temperature is pre-set at the control system and the
amount of exhaust recirculation automatically adjusted by a
feedback control system to a damper in the air duct.
By altering the proportion of air re-circulation the air-on
(h) Effects of High Summer Temperatures temperature can be closely controlled. The air-on
At certain times of the year, mid-late summer especially, temperature is pre-set at the control system and the
the incoming ambient air is very warm. No exhaust air is amount of exhaust recirculation automatically adjusted by a
recirculated back into the system and the air-on feedback control system to a damper in the air duct.
temperature can still be too high and out of control.
Unfortunately, older malting plants were not originally (h) Effects of High Summer Temperatures
intended to work throughout the summer months, as this At certain times of the year, mid-late summer especially,
was traditionally the "silent" or maintenance period. the incoming ambient air is very warm. No exhaust air is
recirculated back into the system and the air-on
Modern maltings may install refrigeration equipment in temperature can still be too high and out of control.
order that the germination temperature can be effectively Unfortunately, older malting plants were not originally
controlled all year round. Passive cooling is achieved to intended to work throughout the summer months, as this
some degree by evaporative cooling from the sprays in the was traditionally the "silent" or maintenance period.
germination air stream. Modern maltings may install refrigeration equipment in
order that the germination temperature can be effectively
(i) Turning of grain controlled all year round. Passive cooling is achieved to
A third element used to prevent the germination some degree by evaporative cooling from the sprays in the
temperature going out of control is to turn the bed. germination air stream.
(i) Turning of grain

A third element used to prevent the germination
temperature going out of control is to turn the bed.
Section 7 Malting - Kilning.
At the end of germination, the modified barley, now (a) Free Drying
termed “green malt” (un-kilned malt) has been Initially, water can be easily removed from the moist grain
manipulated to achieve the maltster’s and brewer’s using low temperatures (50 – 65°C) if combined with high
specifications. These grain characteristics must now be volume airflow which reaches a Relative Humidity [RH] of
fixed to avoid any deleterious changes that may occur >95% during drying in this phase. During free drying, water
before the brewery can take delivery of their malt. Kilning diffuses through the grain to its surface and is absorbed by
effectively serves two purposes: the warm air passing through the bed. The action of water
removal from the grain cools the malt (due to the latent
1. To halt and capture the biological activity of the heat of evaporation). Often the internal grain temperature
germinating grain at a point of optimum enzyme will be 30°C lower than that of the air-on temperature. This
yield and endosperm modification. removal of moisture at low temperatures ensures the
maximal survival of enzymes, whilst encouraging the
2. To reduce the moisture content of the green malt development of colour and flavour compounds.
to a level at which it can be safely stored to avoid
deterioration and microbial infection.
KEYPOINT: In addition to the removal of water from the
THE PHYSICAL PROCESS OF KILNING grain, kilning evaporates undesirable flavour volatiles that
impart grainy or grassy aromas.
Kilning reduces the moisture content of the grain, which, at
the end of germination is usually between 42% and 45%. A
final grain moisture level of approximately 3 – 5% is
achieved by the end of kilning. Kilning of the grain is also Caution is taken during free drying to prevent the
responsible for the characteristic colour and flavour of malt. occurrence of “drip back” or stewing of the grain, which
This requires intense heating, which conflicts with the need prolongs and enhances colour/flavour production and
to preserve essential enzymatic activity in the grain. enzyme destruction. Drip back occurs when the air-off
reaches saturation (RH = 100%) which on cooling releases
Enzymes are considerably more heat stable when the malt excess moisture. For instance, as the saturated air leaving
is dry. Kilning objectives can therefore be accomplished the grain bed meets the colder interior of the kiln; the
with a drying regime that first removes the majority of excess water condenses and drips back down into the malt.
moisture at relatively subdued temperatures. Secondly, Stewing arises when the saturated air passing through the
more intense heating is used to obtain final moisture bed prevents evaporation and therefore cooling of the malt
removal, and colour/flavour production. – in effect stewing it. Such conditions are avoided by
increasing the water carrying capacity of the air by
Kilning consumes some 75% of the total energy utilised in increasing its temperature and/or preferably flow volume.
malting and must therefore be operated at maximum
efficiency. This would dictate that the warm air (used to Typically the “air-on” temperature is raised a few degrees
dry the grain) leaves the kiln satisfying its maximum each hour for the first 12 hours. Free drying produces malt
moisture carrying capacity. This may not always be with moistures in the region 15-20%.
accomplished or even desired.
The inherent nature of malt kilning, maintaining “air-off”
Kilns can be similar in design to germination chambers and relative humidity at above 95% makes it an inefficient and
in fact some maltings utilise vessels in which the two wasteful process.
process steps are carried out in the one vessel -
Germination and Kilning Vessels (GKVs). Other inevitably sources of energy loss are:
Within the kiln, the green malt is loaded onto one or more  Imperfect fuel combustion;
perforated floors, through which heated air can be driven  Losses associated with heating the kiln structure;
(by fan) upwards through the grain bed to effect drying. If or
there is more than one floor, the heated air from the lower  Heat losses directly to the atmosphere through
level is rejuvenated with additional flow to heat the bed limitations in the kiln structure.
above, resulting in economic savings. In dedicated kilns,
the bed is not usually turned, but in GKVs it may be. There KEYPOINT: Malt enzymes are damaged when moist malt is
are three stages incorporated in the drying process. exposed to high temperatures. To protect the enzymes and
also to minimise energy costs, drying starts with the air
o
1. Free Drying (or pre-break). temperature at about 55 C and then raised at later stages.
2. Forced drying. The design of the cycle varies according to the type of malt.
3. Curing (or the equilibrium phase).

temperature, termed “breakthrough” or the “breakpoint”.
Consequently, the “air-on” temperature and flow rate are
suitably modified; the temperature is increased (70°C) and
the airflow is reduced. Towards the end of this stage,
declining airflow volumes becomes inefficient, and
A corrective measures are implemented, i.e. re-circulating the
“air-off”.
Heat Re-circulation stages continue as grain moisture drops to

7 1 10-12%. Below 10% moisture only “bound” water remains.
exchang Bound water is associated with the macromolecules of the
er kernel (mainly attached to starch and -glucans by
Fan hydrogen bonds).
10 Relative
6
Kilning temperature (°C)

0 humidity
5 Air 80
4 (%) Air On
60 (°C)
Breakthrough
Rakes 40
2 Air Off
20 (°C)
3
Kilning Kilning
start end
B
Figure 2. A graph showing the progression of kilning.
Figure 1. A schematic representation of a KEYPOINT: It is important to remember that, in kilning,

two-tier kiln. Ambient air is drawn in and different layers of the malt bed are at different stages of
passed to the primary heat exchanger (1). drying. The driest layer will be at the bottom of the bed
The heated air is drawn through to the and will have reached the forced-drying phase while the
secondary heat exchanger (2) and blown upper layers are still in the free drying phase. The break
beneath the floor of the primary grain bed as point (exhaust air at less than 100% RH) only comes when
the “air-on” (3). The “air-off” from the first the whole malt bed has completed its forced drying phase.
grain bed (4) is drawn off and reheated, The drying front gradually moves up through the malt bed
supplemented with additional air (5) and until the break is reached and the air-off temperature
transferred to the secondary grain bed as above the bed starts to rise.
“air-on” (6). The “air-off” from the secondary
grain bed (7) is re-circulated to join the
incoming ambient air at the primary heat
(c) Curing
exchanger.
Curing is the final kilning stage, initiated as the grain
moisture levels approach 5%. Depending on the malt type
A= Green malt in. B= Kilned malt out.
“air-on” temperatures range between 84°C (modern lager
malts) and 100°C (classic ale malts) during curing. These
(b) Forced Drying
temperature profiles are maintained for the last 2-4 hours
Grain surface moisture and that in the outermost layers is
of kilning, reducing moisture contents to approximately 3-
soon depleted during free drying. Moisture must then
4%. It is during curing that the desirable malty flavours and
diffuse to the surface of the grain from the centre, an
aromas are produced.
increasingly exhaustive process. As the grain dries it shrinks
slightly reducing the internal distance that the residual
Once kilned, the malt is rapidly cooled wit with dry air and
moisture must diffuse before reaching the surface.
then often screened to remove rootlets before they can
However, the grain’s total surface area is also diminished,
pick up moisture. The cool dry malt can be stored for long
restricting the rate of evaporation.
periods of time without degradation in quality.
The efficiency of the process declines as a result of the
Kiln Design and Technology
change in grain size with the “air-off” exiting the kiln
Older kilns tend to be square, whereas newer kilns are
carrying less than maximum water levels. This point in the
usually round. Nowadays, both incorporate heat recovery
process is signalled when the “air-off” temperatures
systems, having the capacity to recirculate air in the latter
suddenly start to rise approaching the “air-on”
stages of kilning when the air from the grain bed still has

drying capacity. They also have heat exchangers to recover The three main variables that affect the kilning process
energy, most important in the early stages of kilning when include:
warm saturated air is being exhausted.  Time
 Temperature
(a) Energy consumption
Kilning is the final process in the preparation of malt. It is a  Air flow
drying operation that is carried out at carefully controlled
temperatures until the malt has reached the desired Successful kilning can be thought of as an exercise in the
moisture content. If steeping is regarded as the most balance between time, temperature, and airflow.
critical phase of malting in terms of achievement of malt
modification, it is kilning which is the most critical phase in Time
terms of operating efficiency and costs. Kilning time has a major effect on finished malt analysis.
This includes total kilning time as well as the time for each
In malting plants where measures to improve energy phase of the kilning process.
utilisation have not been carried out, kilning can represent
around 90% of the energy used. Even when extensive work While the kiln has the capability of drying the malt in a
has been carried out to produce the most cost effective period of 8 hours or less, experience has shown that to
kilns the energy requirement of this process will still achieve reasonable colour and flavour characteristics, a
represent some 80-90% of the total energy maltings use. minimum of 12 hours in the upper deck and 12 hours in the
Kilning is, therefore, important both in terms of product lower deck is required. If the grain is dried too fast, it may
quality and commercial viability. result in a lack of flavour development.
(b) Kilning Technology Today Temperature

Developments in technology over the last 20 years have Curing cycle temperature can be adjusted to meet the
been driven by the need to reduce operating costs and brewer’s specifications. For example, if the brewer wants
reduce environmental footprints. Developments in efficient malt with a low colour, the maltster uses a lower curing
heat recovery systems, highly efficient air heating systems temperature. Higher colour requires a higher curing
and high tech process control have been the most recent temperature, but at the expense of enzymes, since more
technologies Maltster’s have been incorporating into their enzymes are destroyed at higher curing temperatures.
Plants.
Airflow
(c) Indirect and Direct Kiln Firing Kiln cycle temperatures should be low enough to permit
In traditional kilning (and still used for some malts for sufficient airflow to evenly dry the malt. It is sometimes
distilling), kilns were directly fired, i.e. the products of necessary to reduce airflow to extend kilning time over 12
combustion of the fuel pass up through the malt bed. This hours per deck. Excessive air flow volumes may cause
results in a high SO2 content and low wort pH, (and is problems with malt drying out too soon. Drying too fast
considered to have beneficial effects on whisky flavour). during the free drying phase may result in not developing
enough sugars to allow caramelization – if this is desired.
With an indirect firing, the incoming air passes through a
radiator containing hot air, water or oil from a heating EFFECTS OF KILNING ON FINISHED MALT
system. The introduction of indirect firing in some cases
reduced the efficiency of the kiln because of the losses Finish Malt Moisture
associated with heat exchangers for warming the air’. Finish malt moisture is dictated by kilning time and
Modern ‘condensating’ heating systems can be extremely temperature. Therefore, a high or low off kiln moisture can
efficient in and reach theoretical efficiencies of 100%, be dealt with as follows.
significantly higher than a typical high temperature hot
water boiler of around 80%. High Moisture
Longer kilning hours, higher kilning temperatures, and/or
CONSIDERATIONS FOR ATTAINING OPTIMAL KILNING more kiln air volume will reduce the moisture levels.
Usually longer hours are used, but all three can be used
While the mechanics of the kilning process are relatively together to achieve desired specified results. Time
simple and straightforward, some very complex chemical constraints will limit kiln hour availability. Care must be
reactions take place during kilning. The scientific principles taken not to elevate temperatures too quickly, or enzyme
behind some of these reactions are not fully understood. In activity and colour will be affected.
any case, operating experience has shown that using
established practices provides consistent high quality Low Moisture
results. Shortening kilning hours, reducing temperatures, and/or
kilning air volume reduction will raise moisture readings.
Moves should be slow, since high moisture is a greater
problem than low moisture. If air is bypassed around the

lower deck of a double deck kiln, increasing the volume or
timing of this procedure can raise the finish malt moisture. Kilning Biochemistry
The skill of kilning is concerned with the preservation of
Kiln Design Considerations enzyme activities. Inactivation of the enzymes is a result of
Double deck kiln designs, in some climates, may contribute denaturation (or protein coagulation). In addition to the
to lower than desired finish malt moistures. Total kiln denaturation of enzyme proteins, a proportion of the
hours, are dictated by the desired (specified) moisture of endosperm protein is also coagulated, and this will not
the malt on the upper kiln deck at the end of kilning cycles dissolve in the wort. This removal of wort protein is
(drop moisture). If the kiln runs longer than required by the beneficial, reducing the haze forming potential of the beer.
lower deck to reach optimum finish malt moisture
(3.8% - 4.3%), a lower than desirable moisture will be Which of the essential hydrolytic enzymes survive kilning to
attained. Some kilns are designed to allow passage of act during mashing? They are:
controlled volumes of kiln drying air around the lower kiln
deck to assist with drying the upper kiln deck, while not
Most heat stable
over drying the lower deck. Although the results of
Carboxypeptidase
bypassing this air are normally good, care must be taken
α-Amylase
not to impact enzyme and/or colour development in a
-Amylase
negative manner. If the product transferred to the lower
Proteases β
kiln deck is higher in moisture than desired, and all or most
Endo β -1,3:1,4 glucanase
of the drying air prior to high heat (curing) is transferred
Endo β -1,3 glucanase
around the lower deck, problems will occur. Typically, all
Least heat stable
drying air during the high heat (curing) phase of kilning is
taken through the lower deck. If most air is taken around
the lower deck during preceding cycles, the hot air KEYPOINT: If high enzyme activity is required in the finished
(85-88°C) will be applied to the high moisture grain and malt then low temperatures (especially early in the kilning
destroy enzyme activity and accelerate colour development cycle) are used.
far above specifications.
At the completion of kilning, we should have accomplished
Wort Colour the following objectives:
Wort colour is principally a product of kilning, and levels can  Enzymes are developed
be manipulated as follows.  Protein is solubilized
 Starch is available for extraction
Low Colour
Low colour problems can be eased, by having malt moisture
 Flavour and colour developed
elevated above approximately 15 percent when going to
higher heats in the kilning cycles.
(a) Diastatic Power (DP)
Proper kernel modification is a must for optimum DP values
In theory, it is felt that avoiding as much beta amylase kill-
in the finished product. Most of the enzyme activity is
off as possible during the first three quarters of the full
released in germination; however, activity still exists in the
kilning cycle will make more sugars available for
kiln if temperatures are not allowed to climb too high.
caramelization. Limiting between bed temperatures and
Much of the enzyme activity can be lost and D/P readings
using longer hours and lower temperatures early in the kiln
drastically reduced if high temperatures reach the grain too
patterns on double deck kilns and dropping moisture on
early, or when the internal kernel moisture is too high.
single deck kilns before higher heats (above 62°C.) could
Generally, we should not allow temperatures of above 62°C
help produce colour.
and malt moistures above 15% to exist at the same time for
more than 30 minutes. A kiln temperature of over 90°C will
NOTE: In fact, having a higher internal malt moisture when
also adversely affect DP levels.
going to heats above 62°C will help develop colour. There
is, however, a trade off, since this practice will also reduce
NOTE: Raw barley with a low protein level can be expected
beta amylase, thus lowering DP readings.
to deliver lower enzyme activity. A higher protein barley
will develop higher enzyme activity.
High Colour
Lowering the moisture of the malt entering the higher heat
(b) Dimethylsulphide
cycles (above 62°C.) should help to lower colour readings.
A lower drop moisture on double deck kilns will result in a
similar drop in colour. This reduction in moisture should be Dimethylsulphide (DMS) characteristically imparts a
accomplished with longer time at lower heat settings to “canned sweetcorn” aroma to beer. This is an important
help avoid excessive DP losses. flavour note and can be desired in some beers, especially
lagers.

DMS originates from the pre-cursor S-methylmethionine To minimize DMS in the finished beer, we need to minimize
(SMM). During germination SMM is formed, in the the formation of DMS and SMM in the malt. DMS and SMM
developing grain from the amino acid methionine. On production can be controlled somewhat by barley selection
heating, in the kiln and during wort boiling, SMM is and by controlling the malting cycle. Higher curing
converted to DMS. Considerable amounts of DMS are temperatures help to control DMS levels in the malt. Also,
driven off and lost during malt kilning but some remains barley varieties with higher total protein fractions tend to
and can be oxidised to dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO). Malt produce more SMM during malting. Also, the amount of
will often contain all three compounds, SMM, DMS, and SMM produced is related to the degree of germination and
DMSO. Increasing kilning temperatures means that more modification, so longer germination times and more
SMM is converted to DMS and driven off – but the modification lead to more SMM. SMM can be controlled
increased temperature causes increased malt colour. during malting by curing at 180 F (82ºC) or greater
CH3
CH3SCH2CH2CHNH2COOH
CH3S+CH2CH2CHNH2COOH (c) The Maillard Reaction
Methionine Some of the most important chemical reactions occurring
SMM
throughout malting are the production of melanoidins.
H3C H3C Melanoidins give the malt its characteristic flavour and
colour. Melanoidins are produced from the interaction of
S SO reducing sugars with amino acids (from the malt) via the
H3C H3C Maillard reaction. The intensities of these reactions are
dependent on both moisture and heat. Ale malts require
high curing temperatures at the end of kilning unlike
DMS DMSO
distilling or lager malts.
Figure 4. Formation of Dimethylsulphide

(DMS) from methionine. KEYPOINT: -Diketones and melanoidins are thought to
limit beer oxidation and prevent the production of colloidal
instability.
MELANOIDINS R
O
Amadori re-arrangements
(pigments) Furans
-H2O
. Reducing
sugars. +NH3
REDUCTONES
+ Amino
+ R
(-Diketones)
Amino acid N
acids.
Pyrroles
H
-Amino ketones +H2S
O2
R
S
N Thiophenes
R
N
Pyrazines

 Valine + Fructose Malt flavour
 Glycine + Glucose Dark colour

An additional peat fire is burned under controlled
 Glycine + Maltose Malty aroma & conditions in order to maximise the production of peat
very dark colour “reek”. The main air fan draws the peat smoke into the
kiln. Peat reek contains high levels of phenolic compounds
Figure 3. The Maillard reaction. such as phenol, cresol, eugenol and guaiacol. Also present
are many nitrogenous compounds such as pyridines, some
(d) Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) of which have very strong flavours. The amount of peat
reek absorbed by malt and the amount present in the final
whisky is found by measuring its phenol content.
Nitrosoamines are carcinogenic compounds generated
during malting formed by the reaction of amines and
The peat used has to have a moisture content of 50 - 60%
nitrogen oxides. Malt specifications often restrict levels to
and contain high levels of decomposed organic matter. If
stating that no more than 5 ppb NDMA can be present
the peat is too wet, burning the required amount will not
within the malt. NDMA is created through the interaction
be possible and if too dry the fire will be too hot and the
of the precursor hordenine (almost exclusively found in the
flavour components will be lost.
rootlets) and nitrous oxides (NOx) during kilning. The
nitrous oxides are a result of the oxidation of nitrogen in
Approximately 100-200kg of peat per tonne of finished
the air fuels are combusted.
heavily peated malt.
To combat NDMA production many maltings now use
Burning peat has an effect on the drying rate. The time
indirect kilning. In these kilns, air is heated using heat
taken to reach the break-point is extended due to the water
exchangers to prevent the NOx containing flue gases, from
vapour produced when peat is burned. Peating is most
the burning fuel, entering the kiln and making contact with
efficient using deep malt beds and when there is a
the malt. Alternatively SO2 or elemental sulphur can be
continuous peating cycle from start of kilning to several
added to the burners in the kiln when heating air used for
hours after the break-point has been reached. Malt takes
drying the malt. When fuel containing SO x (e.g. SO2 and
up phenols from peat smoke most readily at malt moisture
SO3) is burnt, the problem of NDMA production is averted
in excess of 20%. Below this level the rate of uptake slows
as the nitrosylation reaction does not occur under acid
down. The longer malt of high moisture content is exposed
conditions.
to peat smoke then the higher the phenol content.
However, two problems still remain. The first is that even
when indirectly kilning, high NOx levels can be present the
air in some locations die to industrial processes and
emissions from vehicles. This will provide opportunity for
NDMA production. Secondly, the reaction of SO3 and H2O
produces H2SO4. This sulphuric acid can corrode the
malting plant.
To summarise, reductions in NDMA formation in modern

malts have been achieved by a number of initiatives.
 Utilising indirect heating systems
 Utilising low NOx burners
 Burning sulphur in the early stages of kilning
(e) Peated Malt

Just to complete the description of how malt characteristics
develop during kilning a short description of peated malt is
included. There are a few specialist beers that may use
peated malt but in general it is reserved for use in the
whisky industry to produce whiskies with distinctive smoky
or phenolic flavours.

Section 8 Malt – Storage and Dispatch.
purpose of this cleaning is to remove the sprout (rootlet)

PREPARATION AND STORAGE OF FINISHED MALT
from the kernel- a process referred to as de-culming. The
Kiln malt is cleaned with a malt cleaner, which is a screen
The malt storage process begins when malt is returned
from the malt house to the malt silos after kilning. This grader similar to the barley cleaner (see section 4).
process provides for the cleaning, sampling, aging, storage,
blending, and shipping of malt and malt by-products after Malt Quality
the malt house processes have been completed. The malt lab performs a minimum of two checks for malt
quality. The first check occurs when the malt comes back
Malt has been dried during kilning to somewhere typically from the malt house as kiln malt. Each piece is tested and
between 4% and 5% during kilning; this low moisture assigned its analytical values from lab results. The second
content means it is brittle and easily damaged by poor quality check of the malt is performed after blending the
mechanical handling. Higher moisture levels and there is malt prior to loading the customer specification.
danger of mould infection as well as increased
transportation costs (more water, less available extract) Bin Storage and Aging
whereas lower malt moisture levels have higher extracts, After the malt is weighed, it is transferred to bins for
tend to have higher colours (due to extended kilning) but an storage and aging. Normally, multiple production batches
increased risk of damage. Equipment must therefore be are stored in a full-sized bin. Each bin is assigned a blend
chosen carefully and the malt handled in as gentle a sheet that contains the quality of the malt in that bin. The
manner as possible. It must not be allowed to come into malt is then aged for a minimum number of days, as
contact with damp equipment or moist air, nor be allowed assigned by customer specification. Typical storage is for a
to become cracked, crushed or de-husked in advance of the minimum of 21 days.
milling process. Additionally, the malt silo is a hazardous
place, and consideration must be given to good hygiene and
housekeeping with respect to dust avoidance. MALT STORAGE PLANT AND PROCESSES
The process of moving malt, either into or out of silo, is Malt has been dried during kilning to somewhere typically
usually achieved by some form of conveyor, having between 4% and 5% during kilning; this low moisture
replaced manual handling in most medium and large sized content means it is brittle and easily damaged by poor
brewing or distilling operations. Many forms of conveying mechanical handling. Higher moisture levels and there is
systems are available, and are used according to the various danger of mould infection as well as increased
needs of the materials being moved. Generally speaking, a transportation costs (more water, less available extract)
conveyor can be classified as either mechanical or whereas lower malt moisture levels have higher extracts,
pneumatic and both types can commonly be used for malt tend to have higher colours (due to extended kilning) but an
handling. Chain conveyors are used for the horizontal increased risk of damage. Equipment must therefore be
transportation of malt over longer distances, and can also chosen carefully and the malt handled in as gentle a
overcome a slight angle of inclination minor differences in manner as possible. It must not be allowed to come into
height levels. Screw conveyors are used when malt has to contact with damp equipment or moist air, nor be allowed
be transported over relatively short distances, but can be to become cracked, crushed or de-husked in advance of the
used horizontally, vertically or at any angle of inclination. milling process. Additionally,
Most malt storage silos are constructed from steel but they
can be made from concrete. Silos have smooth walls with the malt silo and mill tower is a hazardous place, and
hopper bottoms to ensure easy grain withdrawal. Malt is consideration must be given to good hygiene and
stored at low moisture levels to discourage the growth of housekeeping with respect to dust avoidance. When
pests such as insects, moulds, fungi and bacteria, and also considering a new brewhouse project, or an upgrade of an
to prevent alteration to the biochemical structure of existing one to add bulk malt handling, there is a lot of
malt/adjunct prior to use due to an increase in moisture equipment than needs to be considered.
level).
The process of moving malt, either into or out of silo, is
Kiln Malt Cleaning usually achieved by some form of conveyor, having
Kiln Malt Cleaning is the first major step after the finished replaced manual handling in most medium and large sized
malt piece comes back from the malt house. The primary brewing or distilling operations. Many forms of conveying
systems are available, and are used according to the various Dust Removal
needs of the materials being moved. Generally speaking, a Dust is a dangerous substance because of the risk of
conveyor can be classified as either mechanical or explosion and also irritation to the lungs. It is now covered
pneumatic and both types will commonly be used for malt by COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Act
handling. A typical intake system might comprise of a UK) regulations and it is extremely important that dust is
discharge ‘pit’ or hopper into which the malt is ‘tipped’ not allowed to accumulate. If a film of dust appears,
during offloading from the bulk transport. Some form of measures must be taken to eliminate the source of dust and
vertical elevator, such as a bucket elevator, would be used vacuum any deposits – the presence of dust would indicate
to raise the malt to the top of the silos and then conveyor a failure in the dust extraction system or leak in the plant.
would transport it horizontally towards the silo. Chain
conveyors are used for the horizontal transportation of An electrically driven fan sucks the dust through metal
malt over longer distances, and can also overcome a slight ducts or pipes from various points such as the elevator,
angle of inclination minor differences in height levels. Screw dresser and weighing machine. There are several ways of
conveyors are used when malt has to be transported over dealing with the dust collected; it may be blown into a
relatively short distances, but can be used horizontally, cyclone from which it drops down into a bagging point. In
vertically or at any angle of inclination. Discharge from some installations dust is blown into sleeves mounted
conveyor is by gravity into the top of the silo. inside a metal unit, on a frame that can be vibrated at the
end of the grinding or malt intake operation to shake off
Most malt storage silos are constructed from steel but they the dust. The dust then falls into a container at the bottom.
can be made from concrete. Silos have smooth walls with A regular system of emptying the dust sacks or containers is
hopper bottoms to ensure easy grain withdrawal. Malt and necessary to allow the plant to work at maximum
also cereal adjuncts are stored at their delivery moisture efficiency, and a periodical examination must be made of
levels to discourage the growth of pests such as insects, the pipe ducts to and from the fan to avoid build up and
moulds, fungi and bacteria, and also to prevent alteration blockage by dust.
to the biochemical structure of malt/adjunct prior to use
due to an increase in moisture level). Even if there is good housekeeping, it may not be possible
to completely eliminate the risk of explosions in hoppers
Screening/Grading and Dressing and conveying equipment. For this reason, explosion vents
Prior to dispatch from the maltings the malt is screened and are provided to allow an explosion to pass harmlessly into
dressed. To ensure uniformity of milling, it is necessary to the atmosphere without damage to equipment and people.
have a reasonable consistency in the size of corns. To For hazards associated with dust, see section 13.
obtain such consistency, bulks of malt are often graded.
The malt is carried by pneumatic or mechanical means past
magnetic separators to rotating, cylindrical, oscillating or
MALT EVALUATION AND DISPATCH
flat-bed screens. Not only are corns of unwanted size
rejected (these are sold for animal feed wherever possible), Blending
but foreign matter such as straw, stones, string, sacking and After aging is completed, the malt varieties are blended to
metal particles are removed. specification. Blending is accomplished by mixing malt from
various combinations of bins. By adjusting slide gates at the
Dressing bin discharge (either automatically or by manual
The malt dresser was usually a cylindrical screen revolving adjustment) the grain flow rate can be adjusted to provide
inside a wooden casing that has detachable doors on either the desired ratios of varieties.
side for easy access. The last part of the screen consists of
a mesh large enough to let malt pass through to a small Shipping Malt Cleaning
hopper feeding the weigher or the mill. Any foreign matter After blending, the shipping malt is often cleaned again
such as pieces of wood, metal, or stone, which are too large through further malt cleaning. This cleaning removes any
to pass through this mesh, is carried forward to the end of sprouts not taken out during kiln malt cleaning. Thin
the screen where it is rejected via a spout into a bag. When kernels, husk, hull, and broken kernels are also removed.
the culms were separated from the malt during screening, Malt is transferred to a pre-delivery storage bin, from which
circular brushes revolved against the exterior of the screens it is loaded directly for delivery.
thereby ensuring that the apertures were kept clear.

Shipping Malt Sample loaded) that is traceable back through the malting
Prior to loading the rail cars, a shipping malt sample is taken process to the barley used for steeping. This in
and checked by the lab for malt quality. turn must be traceable back to the barley store
and associated delivery data (such barley delivery
Malt Dispatch date, barley variety – see section 4). This process
Road trucks, shipping containers or rail cars are loaded with allows full product traceability from bottle (of beer
malt. Once filled, the bulk units are closed and sealed with or whisky) back to the barley used to produce the
metal seals to discourage tampering. malt.
Speciality malts, or malt for small brewing operations, are Samples are collected either from a specialised sampling
also bagged and available for delivery in batches as small as device, which automatically takes a small, continuous
25kg. sample of malt from a conveyor during transfer to a
delivery bin or malt truck, or can be sampled directly from
Malt Analysis and Specification. the delivery truck/railcar by use of a sampling spear.
It is essential that all malt leaving the malthouse is
accompanied by a laboratory analysis and delivery Delivery bins, holding malt for a number of bulk deliveries,
certificate. are often analysed in advance of loading and delivery so
that the completed laboratory analysis and delivery
 Brewers and distillers purchase malt against a certificate can accompany the delivery to the brewery or
specification. A certificate of analysis / compliance distillery.
to specification is normally required as part of the
purchasing contract. For detailed information on malt specifications, refer to
 Each malt delivery must contain a batch number section 10.4 malt Specifications.
(or blend ratio, when multiple batches have been

Section 9 Speciality Malt Production.
White Malts
The palest of the malts produced is the white malt

(attaining a colour of 2 EBC units). Lightly kilned, with an air
TYPES OF SPECIALITY MALTS on temperature not exceeding 70°C, white malts retain a
large proportion of their enzyme activity. The lack of real
heat treatment restrains the development of flavour
Thanks to the skilful manipulation of the malting and kilning
compounds producing malt with a neutral, slightly sweet
regimes, the maltster is able to produce a diverse and vast
taste. Often the grassy, aldehydic aromas will remain along
array of malt types. The brewer can utilise this extensive
with sulphidic and DMS tastes due to the lack of heat to
malt family to craft beers with a multitude of qualities to
drive them off during kilning.
satisfy the ever challenging consumer. The assorted malts
range from lightly coloured white malts through to charred
Wheat Malts
black and chocolate malts, each imparting their own unique
Wheat malts differ from their sibling barley malts due to
colourful and aromatic qualities to beer. In addition, not
physical composition. Wheat has no husk, and as such
only barley can be malted; the range of malts available can
hydrates quicker during steeping than barley to generate
be extended by use of malted wheat, oats, rye and
higher extract values. The contrasting chemical
sorghum.
composition of wheat also gives the malt an altered
characteristic. Wheat contains more protein than barley,
The primary factor influencing the colour and flavour of the
which gives the resulting beer a fuller mouth-feel and
malt produced are the temperature and extent of kilning to
enhanced head stability. Wheat malt is notoriously difficult
which the green malt is subjected. However, we cannot
to produce, is often undermodified with reduced friability
forget the biological nature of the grain and the purpose for
and can generate viscous worts. Compared to barley malt,
which it is intended (to provide extract and the diastatic
wheat malts produce turbid, physically unstable beers.
power required to yield this extract). The highest coloured
Wheat malts tend to have a colour of approximately 2 EBC
malts contain little, if any residual enzyme activity after
units.
kilning, and it is essential to bear this in mind when setting
your grist recipes.
Lager/Pils Malt
The very pale Pilsner malts tend to be made from plump,
two-rowed barley with Total Nitrogen (TN) contents of
KEYPOINT: The colour of malt is measured in EBC units. 1.52-1.84%. The barley is steeped to achieve moisture
Wort is produced from a laboratory extract of malt and the content of 43%, which after a long, cool germination period
colour determined by a spectrophotometric method. (below 17°C) produces fully modified malt. This green malt
is dried quickly at cool temperatures (around 55°C), with
Table 1: Comparative ranges in the composition of barley rapid airflow to around 8% moisture before final curing at
and malt. 70-85°C. These malts are characteristically very pale with
no trace of caramel or melanoidin colour formation, and
Barley Brewers High-diastatic have weak aromas.
Kernel weight (mg) 32-36 29-32 29-32
Starch (%) 55-60 50-55 50-55 The UK lager malt has evolved into a very pale, well-
Sugars (%) 0.5-1.0 8.0-10.0 8.0-10.0 modified malt produced from two-rowed barley with
Total nitrogen (%) 1.6-2.3 1.6-2.3 1.6-2.3 moderate TN contents of 1.65-1.8%. These malts are lightly
Soluble nitrogen % of total) 10-12 35-45 40-50
kilned to produce characteristics that closely match the
Diastatic Power 50-60 100-150 150-250
alpha-Amylase Trace 35-45 55-65 European Pilsners. Historically lager malts were
Proteolytic acitivity Trace 15-20 20-25 undermodified, but this is no longer true and the light
(arbitrary units) curing to which they are subject permits considerable
enzyme survival, generating high extract yields - often more
than the pale ale malts.

Kilning “air-on” temperatures are in the range 55-70°C and Vienna Malts
curing around 85°C, which is adequate to effect removal of Vienna type lager malts or Wiener malz are much darker
most of the green, grassy aromas produced from oxidised than their UK counterpart lager malts, attaining colours of
lipids, but insufficient to break down the DMS precursor between 5-10 EBC units. These tend to be mid-range values
(SMM). This is acceptable in lager malts and is often of the Pilsner and Münchener (Munich) type malts. Vienna
specified. However, a stand of at least 30 minutes is malts are used as part of the grist in the production of dark,
required during wort boiling to ensure DMS control. Malt European golden lagers. Two rowed barley, that have
moisture levels are typically 4-6%, colours  3 EBC units, higher than average protein contents, are commonly used
and TSN values between 0.5-0.7% giving a lightly coloured to achieve increased colour. The malts tend to be well, but
malt with a malty, biscuit-like flavour. not over-modified, and production often encapsulates
raised germination temperatures on the final day.
Pale Ale and Mild Malts
The pale and mild ale malts are typically used when Kilning initiates with a slow re-circulation of air to promote
producing traditional British top fermented beers and cask the development of the soluble sugars and amino acids that
conditioned ales. The pale ale malts are produced using the take part in the Maillard reaction generating the flavoured
best two-rowed barley, with low nitrogen contents ideally melanoidin pigments. Paradoxically, compared to the
®
1.5% TN. This lower protein content helps achieve the Carapils malts, endosperm liquefaction must not occur
required good clarification and physical stability of these during kilning. Once hand-dry, the kilning regime is ramped
beers. up and curing set at around 90°C to impart the dark colour
and strong nutty, toffee flavour, whilst limiting the enzyme
 If slightly less well modified malts are used head content of the malt.
retention is favoured.
Speciality Malts
 Under-modified malts generate poor extract The following, malts are classified as special malts,
recoveries, hinder wort filtration and instability. produced through high temperature kilning regimes. Such
kilning regimes destroy the majority of the enzymatic
 Over-modified malts give wort separation activity of the grain, but consequentially release additional
problems, lend a thin character to the beer, and colour and flavour. If green malt is subjected to these high
produce weak head retention. drying temperatures prior to final curing the grain is not so
much kilned but “stewed” producing caramelised malts.
 Losses can also be incurred as over-modified malts
break up easily when handled. (a) Munich Malt
Munich malts (Münchener Malz) have characteristically
Finished pale ale malts have high extract values and high melanoidin contents producing dark, aroma-rich malts
moderate TSN values, commonly 0.5-0.7%, with TSN: TN (strong nutty flavours) and are typically used for brewing
ratios around 40%. Colours range from 4-6.5 EBC units. strong, full-bodied dark lagers. The barley used has high
Kilning regimes are sufficient to drive off any grassy notes nitrogen values, moisture contents greater than 45% and
and remove the DMS precursors to produce a are permitted a long, warm germination period. Today
characteristically malty, biscuit flavour with toffee and single deck kilns are used to kiln the green malt, where it is
caramel notes provided from the increased Maillard held in warm re-circulating air for an extended duration,
reaction products. which slows evaporation and further effect endosperm
modification. This allows the accumulation of reducing
The mild malts are prepared in a very similar manner to the sugars and amino acids for colour and flavour formation.
pale ale malts. They are subjected to higher curing
temperatures of between 110-140°C. This provides these These highly coloured (15-30 EBC units) and flavoured malts
mild malts with rich nutty, toffee and caramel flavour (mainly imparted by pyrazines) have slow conversion times
characteristics. and reduced extract yields, combined with reduced
fermentability due to their poor enzymatic content.
Table 2. Representative IOB standard analysis values for a However, due the high buffering capacity and reducing
sample of typical UK floor-malts. power of the resulting wort, derived from the high
melanoidin content, beers with good stability are produced.
Analyses Best Pale Ale Mild Ale Standard Lager ®
HWE (l°/kg @ (b) Crystal and Carapils (Caramel) Malts
307 296-304.9 301-306.2 307 ®
Carapils and crystal malts are distinctly different from the
20°C)
Moisture
1.7-3.0 1.5-3.2 1.8-3.6 1.8-3.9
rest of the malt family due to the physical and structural
Content (%) change that the endosperm starch undergoes. With
Colour (EBC ®
4-5 6-7 5-7 2-3 Carapils malt, warm air is circulated around the wetted
units)
CWE (%) 18-20 17-19 18-20 18-19 grain encouraging the degradation of the starch and
Diastatic proteins into sugars and amino acids. Once the majority of
35 33-48 39-47 63
Power (°L) the conversion is complete, the grain is heated to generate
TN (%) 1.35-1.5 1.44-1.65 1.46-1.7 1.6-1.75 colour and a glazed appearance, with flavours typically
TSN (%) 0.49-0.54 0.5-0.63 0.55-0.65 0.66-0.68

noted as “sweet biscuit” and full, but little caramelised increasingly toffee-like and malty, providing
flavour. A process that effectively liquefies, mashes and re- aromatic, luscious honey-like notes.
crystallises the starch produces Crystal malts.
 Extracts for both malt types are in the range 260-
Crystal malt (hence the name) are the only malts that truly 285 l°/kg with moistures between 3-7.5%.
undergo complete biochemical transformation of the starch
to sugar. The green malt is deliberately held wet KEYPOINT: Roasted malts start their life in the same
manner as any other malt. Initial drying is at relatively low
Crystal malts are currently prepared using fully modified temperatures, but the later conventional drying is
(not over-modified) green malt that is steeped to effect re- superseded with extremely high air temperatures effected
wetting, up to 50% moisture, and loaded into a roasting through the roasting drum, at the expense of total enzyme
drum. Initially the drum is fired directly at about 50°C to destruction.
remove any surface moisture from the grain. After this the
drum is closed to prevent excess evaporation before the
(c) Amber Malt
temperature is steadily raised to 65-70°C via external Open coke-fired kilning was used at one time to produce
®
heating (Carapils malts are dried at lower temperatures, in
amber malts. This no longer occurs and roasting drums are
the range of 55-60°C). This generates the maximum yield of
now utilised, hence the finished malt no longer has a smoky
reducing sugars, completely replacing the endosperm with
flavour. It is normal for finished malt (pale ale or more
a clear sweet liquid. When this grain is squeezed sugary commonly mild ale) to be directly heated within the
liquid comes out. At this point the temperature is increased
roasting drum with temperatures reaching between 49°C
(suddenly or incrementally) to 100°C in order to dry the
and 170°C. These malts are amber coloured, impart a
grain and re-crystallise the sugars. The final curing pleasant, dry, biscuit-like flavour with toffee undertones.
temperature can be as high as 120-160°C for more highly Amber malts are used to produce special ales with golden,
coloured products.
ruby red hues and dry palates. Extract values are typically
270-285 l°/kg, colour 35-85 EBC units and low moistures
On slicing the crystal malt grains open at least 90% should around 3.5%.
®
appear hard and glassy, as opposed to the Carapils malt
which remains floury and mealy. With both malt types,
(d) Chocolate and Black Roasted Malts
changing the initial moisture content of the grain and
Chocolate and black roasted malts are very dark coloured
kilning regimes will alter the characteristics of the product. products that have no enzyme capacity. They have quite
distinct characters, which are different to any of the
Crystal malt grains are smooth, round and swollen whilst
coloured malts already discussed. Plump barley with a
evenly coloured and bright. Final colour values attained are modest nitrogen content (1.5-1.7%) is used and is less
®
around 15-35 EBC units (Carapils ) and 10-40 EBC units modified than typical lager malt.
(Crystal). However, some British caramel malts achieve
colours in excess of 300 EBC units with values around 140
The kilning temperature is gradually increased to final
EBC units the most popular. o
curing temperatures of 215-225 C. The colour of the grain
is frequently checked throughout production and when the
 Crystal malts when added to the grist bill give beer
required degree is obtained heating is stopped and the
a characteristic flavour with greater body and
roasting process halted by quenching the grains with water.
enhanced haze and flavour stability. This causes the grain to swell. In total around 15% of grain
dry weight is lost during the process as dust and fumes.
 The crystal malts provide ruby red colours and rich,
sweet, full caramel flavours. Depending upon the quality of product the malt will be
chocolate brown to black, the husk should appear shiny and
 Caution must be taken when using grists
polished, and when the endosperm is cut open it should be
comprised of more than 8-12% crystal malt. At
floury, mealy and friable not steely or charred.
this ratio astringent notes can be produced.
 Pale chocolate malts attain colours of about 500-
 Caramel malts impart more palate fullness, and
600 EBC units.
head formation/retention to the beer.
 Standard chocolate malts have between 900-1100
EBC units colour units.
 A slight red hue is imparted to beer when using  Black malts achieve colours in the range 1,150-
caramel malts, in association with light flavours
1,300 EBC units.
whilst also contributing body.
 HWE for both are in the range 255-275 l°/kg and
 As progressively darker malts are produced the moistures approximately 3-3.5%.
flavours they impart develop and become

Chocolate malts impart a coffee caramel, burnt flavour
mainly provided by pyrroles and pyrazines from the
Maillard reaction and black malts impart an acrid sharp
taste. Chocolate and black malts are used in sweet stouts
and dark beers, whilst in small quantities they can be added
to cask conditioned beers to provide a deeper colour in
combination with a fuller flavour with a final hang or bite.
Typically addition rates are 1.5-3% of the total grist.
(e) Roasted Barley

To produce roasted barley, grain at approximately 2-16%
moisture is directly fired in a roasting drum for around 2.5
hours. The malting quality of the grain is irrelevant. Over
the first 2 hours the temperature within the drum is raised
from 80°C to 230°C. This effects very rapid colour
formation that needs to be frequently monitored by
inspecting the grain every 2-3 minutes. The heat applied to
the grain in the final stages is reduced to 215°C. At this
temperature roasting is halted and water is used to cool the
grain and prevent combustion (a massive risk in roast
houses).
The grains typically appear reddish, shiny and black whilst

swollen to almost double the size, consequently
approximately 50% will be split. Roast barley has a very
different flavour than the roasted malts and is described as
sharp, dry, acidic, astringent and burnt whilst providing no
sweetness. Roast barley achieves colours in the range
1200-1400 EBC units with extracts around 260-275 l°/kg
and moistures of 3-3.5%. Roasted barley is mainly used to
produce stouts.
Figure 1. A schematic representation of malt production.
BARLEY
GREEN MALT
Low Temperature kilning Stewed

<60°C 55-70°C
(Source: Probat)
High
Low Drum roasted
Normal Temperature Drum roasted
Temperature 220-230°C
Temperature Kilning 120-160°C
Kilning
60-75°C Kilning Drum roasted
85-115°C
85-115°C
Pilsner Malt Pale Ale Malt Black Malt Crystal Malt Roasted
Barley
Enzymatic Malt Vienna Malt Chocolate Malt
Munich Malt Brown Malt

Section 10 Malt Quality and Process Control
Barley and hence the malt are derived from living materials  Errors can be made in sampling, especially when a small
and so are subject to the variations that can occur as a sample is taken from a large batch as it may not be
result of genetic and environmental conditions. This means representative of the whole.
that no two batches of malt are identical. Malt analysis
provides guidance on the effectiveness of the malting Therefore it is usual to give specifications a ‘range’ to
process and suitability of the malt for brewing. reflect the normal expected variation in values.
Notes.
PRODUCT CONSISTENCY Write down the specifications for a raw material, product
and a process that you are familiar with.
The people who use our malt expect and deserve a
consistently high quality product. METHODS FOR RECORDING, REPORTING AND THE
INTERPRETATION OF DATA.
The key factors in maintaining consistent quality are the
establishment of, and the measurement for comparison to, (a) Sampling Schedules.
a set of process and product specifications. A sampling schedule is a plan specifying where, how and
how frequently samples of the product in process and at
There are a number of measurements that are taken during the end of process are taken.
the process and at the completion of the process which
indicate whether the process is in control and whether the A routine sampling schedule is required so that:-
malt is of the right quality.
 Key measurements are taken without exception and the
Examples of the most important of these measurements whole of the process is covered. It is too late if the first
are given below. warning of a quality problem comes from the customer.
The principle of controlling quality is based on setting  The quality picture can be seen from statistically
specifications for each of these measurements, measuring presented data. A very useful quality control method is
the process and taking corrective action if the product or to look at historical trends. Using this method, current
process is ‘out of specification’. results are compared to those obtained in previous
months/years. A sampling schedule makes sure that
Having said that, there are some factors to be taken into there are enough data to make these comparisons.
consideration:-
 The work of the people who are sampling and
 All measuring instruments have a degree of tolerance. measuring can be organised effectively.
 The raw materials used in the malting process are
naturally grown and therefore cannot be expected An example of a sampling schedule is detailed in the table
always to behave in exactly the same way. below:-
Stage. Frequency. Notes.
Raw materials (Barley) Each delivery. Frequency depends on supplier reliability and
performance.
Barley storage operations. Each batch / silo
Steeping Operations Each batch Process control to monitor water uptake and the
steeping process
Germination Each batch Process control to monitor the germination process
Kilning. Each Batch Process control to monitor the kilning process
Kilned malt Each Batch To monitor post-kiln analysis, potential for blending
Malt for dispatch Each Silo To confirm conformance to specification and therefore
suitability for delivery
Delivery sample Each delivery. Analysis of conformance to customer specification
(b) Collation and presentation of data. Control charts can be in different formats and can show:-
It is likely that there will be a large number of results from a  Individual results plotted on a graph. The
sampling schedule like the one illustrated, especially in a specifications can be drawn in as well.
large plant. The results must then be presented in a way  Average results or ‘rolling’ average results plotted on
that highlights the information as effectively as possible. a graph.
 The range of results obtained.
There are two main ways of presenting data so that  The cumulative effect of deviation from the target
problems are highlighted and action can be taken:- and the effect of any action taken.
 Defect highlighting. This is a graph plotting the malt moistures that were shown
 Control charts. above as individual results:-
An illustration of how defects can be highlighted is given 5.5

below:-
5
Sample Result for malt moisture 4.5
Number (Specification = 3.0 to 5.0)
4
1 4.1
2 4.1 3.5
3 3.9 3
4 4.0
2.5
5 4.1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6 3.9 There seems to be a trend of increasing moisture.
7 4.1
The next graph was prepared by plotting a three point
8 5.1
moving average of the same moisture results. The first
9 4.2 point is an average of moistures 1, 2 & 3 the second point is
10 4.3 an average of moistures 2, 3 & 4 and so on.
15
It can be seen very quickly that sample number 8 is out of
specification. 14
13
This type of presentation is useful, if for example, a simple 12
decision is required as to whether the malt is passed as 11
suitable for delivery. 10
9
It does not however, assist in analysing results so that some
clue as to the cause of the problem result can be 8
discovered. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 It would be useful to know the average moisture of This method of presenting data evens out the highs and
these malts. If that was high, then an adjustment to the lows and illustrates the rising trend very well. From this
process upstream could be made. graph, it can be seen that the moistures have been
increasing steadily and that, unless something is done
 It would be useful to know the range or spread of about it, they will likely continue to increase.
moisture of these malts. If the range is very wide, then
the process may be out of control and action may be The next graph below is called a ‘cumulative sum’ or
required to resolve the situation. ‘cusum’. It is designed to exaggerate very graphically, how a
trend is going and the effect of any action taken to correct a
In order to resolve these problems, statistical analysis in the problem. It is plotted by taking as a starting point the target
form of control charts is required. Pictures in the form of value which would normally be the middle of the
graphs have much more impact than simple tables. specification.
(For our malt moistures, the middle of the specification

would be 4.0.)
The next step is to calculate the difference between the

target value and the actual moisture. Then the differences
are added up cumulatively as follows.

 Recording data is quick and easy.
Sample Result difference Cumulative  It means that cumbersome paper records are not
number from target of sum required.
4.0  Defects can be highlighted automatically.
1 4.1 0.1 0.1  Records can be easily accessed from a number of
2 4 0 0.1 points on a network.
3 4 0 0.1  The sort of graphs discussed above can be generated
automatically.
4 4.1 0.1 0.2
5 4.4 0.4 0.6 PRODUCT AND PROCESS SPECIFICATIONS
6 4.1 0.1 0.7
7 4.2 0.2 0.9 Action to be taken when parameters are out of
8 5.1 1.1 2 specification:-
9 4.3 0.3 2.3 There are two points to consider when confronted with an
10 4.4 0.1 2.4 out of specification result:-
 Firstly, what to do with the current problem.
3  Secondly, what to do to prevent things going
wrong in the future.
2.5
2 When handling any problem, it is best to start with some
1.5 form of investigation and not to jump to conclusions. The
sorts of questions to ask are:-
1  Is it real? Are the results correct?
0.5  What is the extent of the problem? Are other
batches affected?
0  When did it happen? Where did it happen? What
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 else was going on at the time?
 What are the possible causes? What are the likely
causes?
The ideal situation for a cusum graph is for it to run along  What can be done about it?
the zero line because that indicates that there is zero
deviation from the target. The graph above shows that This is an example of the action that could be taken to
moistures were in control until sample number 5 and from resolve the out of specification high moisture discussed
then on they were too high. earlier in this section. (That is the 5.1 moisture of sample 8.)
Many malt houses enter the results of analyses into Investigation and action:-
computer databases. This gives a number of benefits:-
Are the results correct? Recheck the analysis.

-The result is correct
What is the extent of the Check other malt moistures.

problem? -There are no other defects.
When did it happen? Check the cusum graph.

- Moisture started to increase at sample 5.
What else was happening at the Check process activities that could affect malt moisture at the time that sample 5 was kilned
time? - An air-on temperature during curing was below specification.
What are the possible or likely It is likely that the curing temperature is causing the high moistures.
causes?
What can be done about it? For the current problem:-
Blend the batch with a lower moisture malt. The malt is acceptable and blending will not
cause any further problems.
For the future:-

Increase the temperature of the air during curing
Investigate the cause of the low air temperature

LABORATORY ANALYSIS (b) Cold Water Extract (CWE)
An alternative measure of modification, although becoming
There are three main systems of analysis currently in use: less popular, is CWE. The CWE is the amount of extract that
is soluble in cold water (20°C), and this value has a loose
 The Institute of Brewing analysis (The Institute of relationship to the F/C difference as an indicator of malt
Brewing and Distilling). modification. A CWE of 19 – 23% indicates the malt is
IOB – Recommended Methods of Analysis of acceptable for infusion mashing; lower values indicate the
Barley, Malt and Adjuncts (used in the United Kingdom). need for low-temperature mash rests.
These methods are no longer maintained, but have
been incorporated into the EBC analyses.
(c) Total and Soluble Nitrogen (Protein)
 European Brewery Convention analysis. As proteins are made of nitrogen-based compounds such as
EBC – used in Continental Europe and by many amino acids, maltsters use protein and nitrogen values
British breweries. interchangeably, where each 1% of nitrogen equals 6.25%
of protein. Whether the analysis sheet provides total
 American Society of Brewing Chemists analysis. protein or Total Nitrogen (TN), the figure represents all the
ASBC – mainly used in North America. nitrogenous matter in the malt, including insoluble forms.
Malt Analysis The reference method for TN analysis is Leco combustion,

A large number of often very detailed analyses are carried which replaced Kjeldahl digestion and distillation. The Leco
out on brewing and distilling malts and for a wide variety of method is used to calibrate Near Infra-Red Reflectance
reasons. The most commonly used analyses are briefly (NIR) spectrometry as a simpler and quicker method for
outlined below: routine samples, especially at intake.
(a) Hot Water Extract (HWE) For all-malt beers, malt protein values exceeding 12% (1.9%
This is probably the most important of all malt analyses. It TN) indicate that the beer may be prone to haze formation
gives a measure of likely yield in the brewhouse. As such, it or present mash run-off problems. European lager and
reflects the extent to which the endosperm is solubilised British ale malts usually contain around 11% protein (1.75%
during germination of the barley and also the portion that is TN). One of the major reasons brewers prefer these malts
released by the enzymes during mashing. The higher the for all-malt beers is because their protein levels are
value, then potentially the more alcohol that can be derived adequate for head-formation, body, and healthy
by the brewer or distiller per unit of malt and the more fermentation – yet low enough to present less chill haze
valuable the malt (especially if other parameters are met). potential than high-protein North American malts.
This method is described briefly – two samples of malt

(approximately 100g each) are milled in the laboratory When adjuncts are used, malts containing more than 10%
using a Miag mill, one finely (0.2 mm mill setting), the other protein are required to achieve acceptable head, body, and
coarsely (0.7 mm mill setting) and then mixed with hot yeast nutrition.
water. The modified endosperm dissolves in the water and
the husk and unmodified starch/ protein is left in the spent Total Soluble Nitrogen (TSN) is also referred to as the
grains. This process mimics what occurs in a brewery or amount of protein or nitrogen in soluble form, expressed as
distillery mash process. a percentage of malt weight. In whichever terms it is
expressed, the soluble protein or TSN parameters are used
The specific gravity (SG) of the resulting wort is found and a to calculate the soluble nitrogen ratio.
calculation is carried out that determines what percentage
of the malt has dissolved. This value may also be as KEYPOINT: The Soluble Nitrogen Ratio (SNR) can also be
o
expressed in L / kg (i.e. how many litres of wort at SG 1.001 expressed as the Kolbach Index. SNR is calculated by
o
a kilogram of a malt will give at 20 C). The difference dividing the soluble nitrogen (or protein) value by the
between the fine grind and coarse grind extracts gives an percent total nitrogen (or protein).
indication of how well modified the malt is i.e. the smaller
the difference then the higher the degree of modification. The SNR is an important indicator of malt modification. The
higher the number, the more highly modified the malt.
The fine grind/ coarse grind difference indicates the Malts destined for infusion mashing should have an SNR of
modification of the malt. A "steely" or vitreous malt, one 36 – 42%, or up to 45% for light-bodied beer. If the wort
suitable only for a mash cycle that includes a protein rest, has an SNR value greater than 45%, the beer will tend to be
will have an F/C difference of 1.8 – 2.2%, while a mealy and thin in body and mouthfeel. For traditional lager malts,
well-modified malt eminently suited to infusion mashing 30 – 33% indicates under-modification, and 37 – 40%
will have a F/C difference of 0.5 – 1.0%. indicates over-modification. More modern malt
specifications may show these figures a little higher for
lager malts.

(d) Moisture Alternatively, the beer can be compared by eye against
A weighed portion of the malt is milled, dried off in an oven standard coloured discs.
and then re-weighed. The loss in weight can be attributed
to the water driven off in the oven and the results are In the United States, colour is expressed in terms of the
expressed as a %. Standard Research Method (SRM) values set by the ASBC or
in °Lovibond, an older method of visual measurement upon
The lower the moisture content the higher the extract in which SRM is based (the two measurements are essentially
the malt. The moisture content of malt should never equivalent).
exceed 6%; otherwise there is a risk of mould infection that
can lead to processing and flavour problems. Malt with The formula °EBC = (°L X 2.65) - 1.2 gives a reasonably
moisture in excess of 6% is described as slack; the moisture accurate conversion to °Lovibond values.
content generally reflects the quality of the malting itself, a
high moisture content may indicate a poorly malted or
kilned grain. Remember that moisture is driven off during (h) Friability
kilning; this means that malts with a higher colour tend to A physical measure of how well malt is modified can be
have a lower moisture content. made by assessing how friable the malt is. This analysis,
which is carried out using the friabilimeter, measures what
(e) Diastatic Power (DP) percentage of the malt can be milled under gentle
Diastatic power expresses the strength of starch-reducing conditions. Normal range = 85 – 95%.
enzymes α and β amylase in the malt and is measured in
°Lintner (sometimes referred to as IOB units). Diastatic (i) Homogeneity
power, considered together with mealiness of the grain, Dead grains do not malt and can lead to processing
indicates how well malt will respond to mashing. The DP problems in the brewery or distillery. The homogeneity
may be as low as 35 – 40 for well-converted, low-protein analysis that is also carried out using the friabilimeter
British ale malt, about 100 for European lager malt, and 125 measures how many dead (or very poorly modified) grains
or greater for high-protein American two-row malt. Six-row are present in the finished malt. Minimum results of 96%
malts can have DP as high as 160. The latter malts have (i.e. fewer than 4% dead or unmodified corns) are normally
more protein, and thus more enzymes to reduce their own specified.
starch as well as adjunct starch, while the British malts have
enough enzyme activity to convert their own reserves (j) Dimethyl Sulphide (DMS)
under normal infusion mash conditions. Brewers are divided in their preference for the character of
DMS in beer – some say it contributes to lager qualities but
In the analysis, malt enzymes are extracted with water at others prefer low levels. All the DMS in beer originates
40°c. A standard starch solution is hydrolysed by the malt from the germinating embryo of malting barley. This
enzyme extract and the amount of sugars formed is precursor known as DMS-P or SMM (S-methylmethionine)
estimated using iodine. The result is calculated as grams of is more concentrated in a well-modified malt due to a
maltose produced by 100 grams of malt. greater embryonic development. SMM and dimethyl
sulphoxide (DMSO) are converted to DMS during kilning
and wort boiling. More intensive kilning, and longer kettle
KEYPOINT: The EBC unit of measurement for diastatic boiling, can drive off DMS.
power is °WK (Windisch-Kolbach units). The value of °WK
can be converted to °Lintner by the formula DP °Lintner = There is more SMM in lager malt than ale malt because ale
(°WK + 16) / 3.5. malts are more intensely kilned and SMM is driven off;
consequently there may be more DMS in finished lager
malts. Brewers not wanting DMS should ensure that they
use malt with a low SMM value and to use a long and
(f) Dextrinising Units (DU)
vigorous boil to drive the DMS off.
While DP gives a measure for all amylases present in the
malt, DU specifies the activity of α-amylase. A range of 35 –
(k) Fermentable Extract (FE)
50 DU is acceptable, depending on the malt type and the
The HWE described above measures all the components of
mash program. Munich malt may be less than 10, and pale
the malt that are soluble in water. Many of these
malts may be as low as 25.
components are not sugars and cannot be fermented by
yeast into alcohol.
(g) Colour
Colour is a major determinant of beer quality and type and
is derived either entirely from raw materials and processing Brewers and distillers are obviously interested to know how
much fermentable extract is present and so the wort
or from the addition of caramel. There is no connection
produced for the HWE test is mixed with yeast and allowed
between colour and alcoholic strength of the beer. The
to ferment. By measuring the SG of the liquid after
recommended method for determining colour is to
measure absorbance at 430 nm, which is multiplied by 25 fermentation, it is possible to calculate what percentage of
the malt is fermentable.
(and any dilution factor), to give EBC colour units.

Normal range of results for FE is 66 – 67%
Distillers (or high diastatic) malts are made from smaller
FE x 100 barley kernels that are higher in protein and enzyme
Fermentabi lity 
HWE content. This barley is steeped and malted at a higher
moisture content (45 – 49%) and dried at lower
Normal range of Fermentability = 86 – 87.5% o
temperatures (49 – 60 C) to a higher final moisture content
than the brewers’ type malt.
(l) Predicted Spirit Yield (PSY)
It is possible to predict the distillery spirit yield from the
Biochemical Changes during Malting
laboratory data described above.
Two important changes occur during malting. Firstly, the
barley activates its own enzyme systems to release the
In a malt distillery, this can be done using the obtained
energy reserves stored in the endosperm to germinate and
values of the malt soluble extract (SE7), the %
grow in the field. Secondly, during the malting process the
fermentability and a fixed factor:
enzymes breakdown the endosperm releasing nutrients
essential for yeast growth (fermentation).
PSY (lpa/t, dwb) = fermentability (%) x SE7 (dwb) x 6.06
(Where lpa/t = litres of pure alcohol per tonne, and
Both outcomes are important to the brewer to ensure that
dwb = dry weight basis).
they obtain the best results from the raw materials. It is
therefore necessary to use a series of tests to measure the
In a grain distillery, the calculation is a little more
changes that occur during the malting process and to give
complicated due to the use of both malt and wheat (or
some indication of the expected brewing performance of
maize). The first step is to calculate separately the PSY of
the malt.
the malt and the PSY of the other cereal. Then it is an easy
matter to calculate the PSY of the particular mash recipe in
Barley and hence the malt are derived from living materials
use at the time. For instance, in a distillery using 10% malt
and so are subject to the variations that can occur as a
with a PSY of 420 lpa/t and 90% wheat with a PSY of 370 result of genetic and environmental conditions. This means
lpa/t, the calculation and result is: that no two batches of malt are alike. Malt analysis
420 x (10/100) + 370 x (90/100) =375 lpa/t provides guidance on the effectiveness of the malting
process and suitability of the malt for brewing.
MALT SPECIFICATIONS
Malt is tested in accordance with the Institute of Brewing
(IOB), European Brewery Convention (EBC) and the
Malt Types and Products
American Society of Brewing Chemists (ASBC) methods of
Two general types of malts are produced commercially –
analyses (see above). However, malt specifications are not
brewers and distillers malts (see Table 1). Brewers malts
always the most reliable indicator on how well the malt will
are made from plumper, heavier kernels with a friable
perform in the brewery, and maltsters, brewers and
starch mass. They are steeped and germinated at moisture
distillers are continually looking for better predictions of
contents ranging from 43 – 46%; the final temperature used
o the brewing performance of malt.
in drying malts is in the range of 71 – 82 C. These malts are
dried to 4% moisture. The final curing temperature reduces
(a) Barley Variety
the enzyme activity of the malt, darkens the malt and hence
Each variety has its own characteristics; its genetic make-up
the wort made from it and also increases the flavour and
determines whether it has qualities that are important to
aroma compounds.
brewing. Some varieties produce better brewing and
distilling malts than others.
Table 1. Comparative ranges in the composition of barley
and malt.
Malt
Measurement Barley Brewers Distillers
Kernel weight (mg) 32 – 36 29 – 32 29 – 32
Starch (%) 55 – 60 50 – 55 50 – 55
Sugars (%) 0.5 – 1.0 8.0 – 10.0 8.0 – 10.0
Total nitrogen (%) 1.6 – 2.3 1.6 – 2.3 1.6 – 2.3
Soluble nitrogen (% of total) 10 – 12 35 – 45 40 – 50
Diastatic Power 50 – 60 100 – 150 150 – 250
α-Amylase Trace 35 – 45 55 – 65
Proteolytic activity (arbitrary units) Trace 15 – 20 20 - 25

The following characteristics will vary according to the  Friability. This is the amount of energy needed to
barley variety: grind the malt. As the endosperm structure is
broken down, the grain becomes easier to mill.
 Percentage of nitrogen (protein) in the grain. The friability meter (Friabilimeter) measures the
 Proportion of small to large starch granules. amount of energy required to mill the grain – the
 β-glucanase levels. lower the energy then the better the modification.
 Homogeneity of corn size. It also measures the homogeneity or evenness of
 Ability to produce the necessary enzymes. the modification.
These factors are also influenced by environmental  Cold water extract measures the amount of sugars
conditions, e.g. weather, soil type and fertiliser. The barley broken down and released during the malting
variety is also important not only because of its brewing process – a greater value for the cold water extract
characteristics, but because of special characters it gives to means a higher modification
the finished beers.
It is important to use malt that has been correctly modified.
(b) Extract Yield Under-modified malts will give brewhouse problems, for
The extract yield is a measure of the amount of sugar example, poor extract recovery and hinder wort filtration.
potentially recoverable from the grain during the brewing With over-modified grains the extract is easier to recover
process. There are a number of recognised methods for but some of the extract will have been lost to growth.
measuring extract potential. Briefly, the % extract is Over-modified malts also give wort separation problems,
measured by preparing a dilute mash in distilled water with lend a thin character to the beer, and produce weak head
very finely ground grist. After a set stand time at a retention; losses can also be incurred as over-modified
particular temperature the solids are separated by filtration malts break-up easily when handled. If slightly less well-
and the gravity of the extract is measured using a specific modified malts are used head retention is favoured.
gravity bottle. The two standard methods are the IOB and
the EBC methods: (d) Visual/ Sensory Evaluation
Lot analysis specifications are really best for making
 In the IOB method the mash stands for 60 minutes comparisons between lots and between products. You can
o o
at 65 C. The extract is expressed as L / kg. draw your own conclusion by putting the malt through a
few simple tests.
 The EBC method there are two mash stands at
o o
45 C and 70 C. The extract is expressed as % sugar Malt needs vary depending on the style of beer to be
(sucrose) over the total weight of malt. brewed and the mashing profile to be used. Experienced
brewers can often tell just by looking at and handling the
(c) Modification malt how it will perform in the mash. Take some time to
This is probably the most important measurement the compare samples of different malts to give you a reference
brewer has to gauge and this measurement demonstrates point. Any sample should include a handful of at least 50
how well the maltster has done his job! Modification gives kernels for a reasonable analysis. The main rules of thumb
an indication of how evenly the cell structure has broken are that the majority of the kernels should be of similar size,
down in the endosperm during the malting process. The modification, and colour for good milling and mashing, and
degree of modification can be measured in a number of should show no visible signs of disease (that is, discoloured
ways: or seriously misshapen kernels). The plumper and larger
the kernel, the better! In base malt, the ends should not be
 Soluble nitrogen/ total nitrogen expressed as a % vitreous, or glassy. You should be able to easily crush the
(Kolbach index) that measures how much of the malt with your fingers. Chewing the malt will also tell you
nitrogen wall structure has been broken down. about its friability, or softness, as well as its flavour and
The higher the value, the greater the modification aromatics.
of the protein matrix surrounding the cells in the
endosperm. If you are very concerned about degree of modification, you
could also cut into a handful of malt to expose the
 Difference in extract between a coarse and fine acrospire, the embryonic barley plant inside the husk. The
grind. When malt is ground the cells are crushed length of the acrospire should be three-quarters or greater
up and the extract can be recovered for analysis. of the kernel in well-modified malt. Well-modified malt will
In brewing, it is necessary to have a relatively also float in water.
coarse grind so that the residues can form a filter
bed for wort separation. The difference in extract Contribution of Malt to Wort Quality
between the coarse and fine grind shows how
much of the structure of the endosperm has Malt supplies the sugars required for alcohol production
broken down. The smaller the difference, the and the main nutrients for satisfactory yeast growth. The
better the modification. typical components supplied by the malt for yeast
fermentation include:

from H2S, present in beer as a metabolic by-
 Simple sugars for fermentation. product of yeast fermentation, or from the
degradation of the amino acids methionine and
 Amino acids (also called free amino nitrogen) for cysteine. Compounds such as methyl mercaptan
yeast growth. (CH3SH) and disulphides, (dimethyl disulphide
CH3S-SCH3) are produced during fermentation
 Mineral ions to enable enzyme function (especially imparting cooked cabbage, sulphidic characters.
zinc and copper).
 The amino acids, derived from malt, are converted
 Vitamins for healthy yeast growth. by yeast to flavour active compounds especially if
they are in excess concentrations. This excess of
 Some lipid material (fatty acids and sterols) for flavour compounds can produce beer with an
yeast cell wall production and function – although undesirable taste or unbalanced taste.
the yeast manufactures most of these compounds
itself using oxygen from the wort.  Various stale flavours are encountered during
brewing that originate from a variety of sources.
Generally, in an all-malt wort, the malt supplies all the The most important staling compounds are
necessary nutrients to meet the needs of the yeast. High aldehydes, formed from unsaturated fatty acids,
adjunct worts may have to be supplemented by the which are derived from malt and hops. Linoleic
addition of yeast food because they contribute little soluble acid is oxidised during malting and mashing to
nitrogen to the wort. Malt also contributes to the produce various “off-flavoured” compounds in
appearance and taste of the beer because: particular trans-2-nonenal. Trans-2-nonenal is
detectable at concentrations as low as 0.1 ppb and
 Most of the colour of the beer comes from the imparts a papery, cardboard taste to the beer. It is
crushed malt or is developed during the brewing usual for the aldehydes, produced from oxidation
process from reactions between malt compounds. of the unsaturated fatty acids during malting and
mashing, to be evaporated off during wort boiling.
 The colour compounds also give beer a The oxygenated fatty acids remain and have the
characteristic flavour from ‘light biscuity’ for a capacity to produce stale flavours later in the
lager to a strong burnt acrid taste from black and process.
roasted barley.
 The mouth feel and texture of the beer mostly Specifications for Brewing and Distilling Malts
comes from the residual unfermented sugars
(dextrins) derived from the malt. The essential property of any brewing or distilling malt is its
extract potential. This is indicated by the Hot Water Extract
 The pH of wort and beer is regulated through the (HWE) parameter, which determines how much sugar is
interaction of malt components and ions in the available for alcohol production. Friability and
brewing liquor. homogeneity values, based on a physical crushing
technique, are an indication of how well the maltster has
 Beer foam is made up from hydrophobic proteins modified the malt. The Soluble Nitrogen Ratio (SNR) or
that originate from malt. Kolbach Index both measure the degree of modification
based on the amount of protein breakdown during malting.
 Other proteins derived from malt cause non- Lager malt does not have to be so well modified as an ale
biological haze. Non-biological hazes are (or distilling) malt – as the "head" on a glass of lager
composed of colloidal particles that give beer a depends essentially on the protein content.
cloudy appearance. Most non-biological hazes are
comprised of particles brought about from the Yields in both distilling and brewing are important.
interaction of protein and polyphenols, derived Distillers are interested in how much spirit can be obtained
from the malt, to produce protein-polyphenol from the malt, hence the requirement for Fermentability,
complexes. Carbohydrate hazes consist of Fermentable Extract (FE) and Predicted Spirit Yield (PSY)
ungelatinised starch, pentosans, and -glucan. specifications, whereas yields in Breweries are measured in
These “invisible” hazes are produced due to the terms of extract before fermentation.
incomplete degradation of the carbohydrates
during malting and mashing. Brewers are particularly concerned about the final colour of
their beers and specify malt colour in order to control this
Malt also has an effect on beer flavour due to the action of characteristic. Lager beers, being very pale use malt with
certain flavour active compounds, including: low colour values – compared with the higher colour values
for ale malt that produces very much darker beers. The
 Dimethyl sulphide (H2S) is derived from malt and it maltster controls the development of malt colour during
has a flavour of ‘uncooked sweet corn’ and is often kilning.
associated with lagers. Off-flavours can develop
Some brewers and grain distillers make use of other cereals
as well as malt and so require a high enzyme malt to assist
in the conversion of the non-malted cereals during Table 3. Typical list of analytical parameters used in
mashing. A minimum -amylase activity (also known as
specifications for distilling malts.
Dextrinising Units) and Diastatic Power (DP) are specified
to achieve this. Diastatic power is the measurement of the
combined activities of the α- and β-amylase enzymes. Analytical Abbrev Typical Distilling Range (Dist.
These enzymes are heat sensitive and so can also be used Parameter iation Malt Malt only)
as a means of confirming that the kilning regime has not
Moisture (%) 5.0 4.5 – 5.0
been too severe.
Hot Water Extract HWE 76.5 76 - 78
Individual customers also specify certain flavour (%)
characteristics in their malt. Some distillers have Fine Coarse F/C Diff 1.5 1.0 – 2.0
requirements for peat smoke flavour and the distilling malts Difference (%)
are peated to varying degrees. Some lager beers are
Fermentability (%) 86.8 86.5 – 87.5
identifiable by particular flavours and odours, so lager malts
may often have a DMS specification. The maltster is able to Predicted Spirit PSY 402 400 - 416
achieve this wide range of flavour characteristics by Yield (litres of
adjusting the germination and kilning processes. alcohol/ tonne)
Total Nitrogen (%) TN 1.65 1.5 – 1.7

Table 2. Shows a list of analytical parameters used in
Soluble Nitrogen SNR 38 .6 37 - 40
specifications for ale and lager malts.
Ratio (%)
Analytical Abbreviation Ale Malt Lager Malt Phenols (ppm) 4 0 - 80

Parameter Colour (EBC units) 2.3 2-3
Moisture (%) 3.0 – 4.0 5.0 – 6.0
Hot Water Extract HWE 76.5 75 NDMA (ppb) <1.0 < 1.0
(%) -Amylase DU 36 35 - 40
Fine Coarse F/C Diff 1.5 1.5 – 2.0
o
Difference (%) Diastatic Power ( L) DP 88 80 - 90
Fermentability (%) - - Friability (%) 96 >95
Predicted Spirit Yield PSY - -
Homogeneity (%) 98 >98
(litres of alcohol/
tonne)
Total Nitrogen (%) TN 1.5 – 1.6 1.75 The consistent achievement of these specifications depends
Soluble Nitrogen SNR 38 – 44 34 – 40
on the maltster's expertise in the selection of barley variety
Ratio (%)
and quality, correct drying and storage, and complete
Kolbach Index - 38 – 42
Phenols (ppm) - - control of timing, temperature and moisture throughout all
Dimethyl Sulphide DMS 8 stages of the malting process. The role of the maltings
(ppm) laboratory (and effective reporting systems) in producing
Colour (EBC units) 4.0 - 6.0 2.0 – 3.0 reliable quality assurance information in order that this end
Viscosity (cP) 1.57
is achieved cannot be under-estimated.
alpha-Amylase DU 30
Diastatic Power (oL) DP 50 75
Friability (%) 90 80
Homogeneity (%) 96 96

Section 11 Beer types; raw materials and sweet wort production.
A Definition of Beer:-
Ales come from:-
In its basic sense, beer is an alcoholic beverage produced by  The use of a well modified malt and specialty malts
the fermentation of sugars derived from malted barley and which is sometimes highly coloured.
flavoured with hops.  They use of a top fermenting yeast.
There are some minor differences where malt is Ales come in various forms, bitters, pale ales and mild
supplemented with adjuncts or where the hops are beers.
replaced by other flavours, but this definition would be
recognised by the majority of people round the world.
Wheat beers are beers produced from the use of a
The manufacture of all alcoholic beverages utilises the proportion of malted wheat, often around 50%, replacing
ability of yeast to ferment sugar into alcohol. some of the "malted barley.
Stouts are very dark in colour and richly flavoured from the
use of highly coloured malts or roasted barley.
Low alcohol / alcohol-free beers are produced by several

SUGAR YEAST ALCOHOL different processes and their definition varies in different
countries.
Usually alcohol-free means less than 0.05% (vol/vol) alcohol
and low alcohol means less than 0.5% (vol/vol) alcohol (less
The full process also involves preparing the immature or than 1.2% in UK).
green beer for consumption.  Often produced by removing alcohol from standard
strength beers (for example, by evaporation or
reverse osmosis methods).
MALTED HOPS
 Can be produced by a very limited fermentation
BARLEY process, by making a very low fermentable wort.
 Not to be confused with malt drinks, which are
essentially unfermented wort.
'GREEN
BEER Low-carbohydrate beers are brewed by producing wort that
SUGAR YEAST FOR
BEER'
SALE is more fermentable than in “standard beers” by several
techniques, but usually by adding additional enzymes to
convert more of the non-fermentable sugars into
CARBON fermentable sugars. These enzymes may be produced from
DIOXIDE
unboiled wort and added to conventional wort, or from
commercial suppliers derived from fungal and/or bacterial
BEER TYPES sources and added during wort production or during
fermentation. The overall objective by making the wort
Different types of beer.
Different areas around the world have developed their own more fermentable than standard (or “super-attenuated”) is
types of beer. The variations have come about through a to brew products that have lower carbohydrate content in
combination of the materials available for its manufacture the finished beer.
and the tastes of the consumers.
Lager is by far the biggest proportion of beer sold. Its

delicate flavour comes from:-
 The use of a malt that is relatively undermodified
and lightly kilned.
 A relatively low bitterness.
 The use of a bottom fermenting yeast.
 Cold maturation.
ADJUNCTS AND COLOURED MALTS. Roasted Barley is used to contribute colour and its
distinctive burned coffee flavour to stouts.
Adjuncts are solid or liquid brewing raw materials that are
used to supplement the malt in the grist. Wheat.
Wheat is a cereal like barley and it can be malted in the
They are used for a number of reasons:- same way. It does however, have different characteristics,
for example it has no husk after threshing and its starch is
 To change the character of the beer by altering its less protected. The flavour it produces is different and the
colour or flavour. nature of its protein is different from barley protein which
 To improve the quality of the beer for example its improves head stability but it will not clarify on the addition
head stability, its fermentability or its haze potential. of finings.
 To increase the capacity of the brewhouse by the
addition of liquid adjuncts to the wort boiling vessel Malted Wheat is used as the main carbohydrate source in
(copper/kettle). Munich Weissbier. It contributes to the beer’s distinctive
 To reduce production costs. appearance, colour flavour and outstanding head stability.
Torrefied Wheat is produced by heating the unmalted grain

Categories of Adjunct. to rupture the internal structure and release the starch so
that it is accessible when mashed in the brewhouse, in a
There are four major categories of brewing adjunct:- similar process to popping corn. Torrefied wheat is used at
up to 10% to improve the beer’s head stability and (because
 Malted cereals that are used in the grist along with the it is cheaper than malt) to save costs. It brings some bisuity
malt. flavour but not to the same degree as malt
 Processed cereals that are also used in the grist.
 Unprocessed cereals that require additional processing Wheat Flour. is produced by milling wheat, the process
in the brewhouse. releases and separates starch from the embryo and the
 Sugars or syrups that are added to the wort kettle or protein that is present at high levels. It is used at up to 10%
later in the process. to improve the beer’s head stability, to reduce protein
levels in the grist and to save costs because it is much
cheaper than malt.
Coloured malt.
Coloured malts are used to increase beer colour, to modify
flavour and because of their nature they produce a more Maize.
stable beer. During the extra kilning or roasting used for Maize is a common crop grown in warm and temperate
coloured malts, the enzymes will have been destroyed. climates. It is a lower-cost source of carbohydrate. The
starch is readily accessible but it must be ‘gelatinised’ at
Crystal malt is produced by a different kilning procedure. high temperature before it can be converted into
The germinated malt with a high moisture content is heated fermentable sugar. Maize is used at up to 20% of the grist in
in a roasting drum to saccharification temperature of lager to reduce malty flavours and produce a clean delicate
o
around 65 C and is ‘stewed’ before lightly roasting and flavoured beer.
drying. This produces a high colour and a distinctive toffee
flavour. Crystal malt is used in ale brewing to provide a rich Maize grits are produced by milling the maize and at the
red colour and a distinctive flavour. same time removing the germ which contains protein and
oil. Maize grits must be cooked in the brewhouse to
Carapils and Munich malt are similar to crystal malt but gelatinise the starch. Maize grits are cheaper than malt and
they have a lower colour and a more delicate flavour from can reduce costs.
using undermodified malt followed by less kilning. Carapils
and Munich malt are used to colour and flavour lagers. Maize flakes are produced by processing grits through hot
rollers which gelatinises the starch and makes it accessible
Amber malt and Brown Malt are produced by roasting the to enzyme action.
malt in a drum to give it a slightly higher colour and biscuity
flavour. Rice.
Rice is a very common crop and a major source of
Black malt and Chocolate malt are produced by roasting carbohydrate. Rice is used in brewing for the same reasons
finished malt in a drum at higher temperatures. Both malts and in the same way that maize grits are used though
have a very high colour and a dry bitter flavour. They are usually it is milled in the brewhouse before being cooked.
used in stouts to give a very dark and highly flavoured beer,
but are also used at low inclusion rates to introduce
flavours and limited colour to paler beers.

Sugar. Mash tun – if the starch gelatinisation temperature is lower
Sugar can be grown naturally as in the case of sugar cane or than the malt conversion (or saccharification) temperature
beet. It can also be produced from starch, usually from required, or when the adjunct has been pre-gelatinised by
maize. The method of production will dictate the type of flaking (using steam or infrared heating), torrefication
sugar - sucrose from cane sugar, glucose or maltose from (expanding by heating), or pre-refining (syrups), then the
starch. A range of fermentabilities and flavours are adjunct can be added directly to the malt in the single
available. mashing vessel.
Sucrose is mostly used in liquid form, it is highly Brew kettle – sugars are typically added directly to wort
fermentable and is usually added to the boiling vessel (wort kettle where they are readily dissolved and sterilised.
kettle). It is used to supplement the malt where malt
processing plant (storage, mills, mash tuns etc.) is a limiting As well as un-malted cereals such as corn, rice, and wheat
factor. Sucrose can be added to the beer after fermentation being used by brewers as adjuncts, the use of un-malted
as ‘primings’ to provide sugar to encourage conditioning or barley is also common as it gives a rich and grainy flavour to
increase sweetness. the beer (as well as being typically cheaper than the malted
equivalent). It will help improve foam retention at the
Invert is produced by hydrolysing sucrose and it can be detriment to physical stability due to the higher level of
liquid or solid. It is added to the wort kettle and is used for nitrogen and proteins.
the same reasons as sucrose although it has a more
distinctive flavour. MALT HANDLING IN THE BREWERY
Glucose is produced from starch and is used in liquid form Raw Material Intake
in the same way that sucrose is used. Its fermentation The responsibilities of the brewer start as soon as their raw
characteristics are very similar to sucrose. materials are delivered. It is important to routinely check
the raw material consignment to ensure that what the
Maltose and Maltotriose etc. are produced from starch and brewery has ordered has been delivered.
are used in liquid form in the same way that sucrose is
used. Their fermentation characteristics depend on the (a) Sampling
sugar type so that they can be used to modify the When the consignment of material arrives at the brewery,
fermentability of the wort and therefore the character or the delivery vehicle is weighed in and then again before it
alcohol content of the beer. leaves the brewery; this is to measure and record the
quantity delivered. At this point the materials are randomly
Lactose is produced from milk whey and is used to sampled and checked for quality and specification. For
contribute a milk character to milk stout. It is added to example, malt will be checked for moisture content – the
the wort kettle. brewer wants to pay for extract not water.
Caramel is extremely dark and has a burned toffee flavour. The sampling of malt can be carried out using spears. These
It is produced from sugars and is used to contribute colour are hollow spikes that are pushed into the grain bed and
and flavour to beers like stouts and dark milds. when withdrawn retrieve a sample of the grain. Many
designs are available to the brewer, but to avoid bias results
Un-malted cereal adjuncts are typically used in the brewery samples must be taken from randomly defined points
or distillery in one of three ways. throughout the grain bed. The main priority for the brewer
is to obtain a homogeneous batch of malt; this helps avoid
Cereal cooker – in a cereal cooker the adjuncts generally production problems. For example, a delivery of malt may
contain starch in their unrefined forms, such as grits, flour, be composed of two different batches. This batch may
dry grain or starches. These adjuncts need to be gelatinised contain 95% Malt A and 5% Malt B, but if malt B is not high
(to allow the starch molecule to be enzymatically converted quality (i.e. it is undermodified or has a high -glucan
to fermentable sugars) and liquefied to allow solubilisation content) this 5% may cause production problems.
and pumping to the main malt mash in a second vessel
where the malt enzymes can now be used to modify the These problems include:
starch from the adjunct and create fermentable sugar.
 Poor extract recovery
Not all cereal starches gelatinise at the same temperature.  Sticky spent grains
Barley starch gelatinises at around 61 – 62°C, whereas rice  Viscous wort
and maize starch gelatinise at temperatures between 70 –  Poor wort separation
80°C. If the adjuncts are not pre-gelatinised they must be  Potential carbohydrate haze
cooked in a separate vessel before addition to the main  Poor clarification performance
mash.

KEYPOINT: The most important issue for malt, whether Malt and adjuncts should be delivered and stored in
during production in the maltings or during processing in sufficient quantities to defend against unforeseen
the brewery is HOMOGENEITY. Non homogeneous malt shortages that could halt production. However, storage
with some undermodification in a fraction can cause should not be excessive – providing for only a few days’
problems such as viscous worts, hazes and reduced extract requirements. Otherwise capital becomes unnecessarily
recovery. tied up in expensive material and storage capacity.
Sampling is therefore very important. In modern times a

(c) Screening/Grading and Dressing
more refined method of sampling is by use of a trickle filter
Prior to despatch from the maltings the malt is screened
or diverter system. This equipment either continuously
and dressed. To ensure uniformity of milling, it is necessary
takes small samples of material as it is conveyed to the
grain store or diverts the occasional sample into a collection to have a reasonable consistency in the size of corns. To
obtain such consistency, bulks of malt are often graded.
chamber as the conveyor transports the cereal. These
The malt is carried by pneumatic or mechanical means past
systems give a more representative cross section of the
delivery for analysis, and consequently a more accurate magnetic separators to rotating, cylindrical, oscillating or
flat-bed screens. Not only are corns of unwanted size
prediction of brewhouse performance. The majority of
rejected (these are sold for animal feed wherever possible),
breweries unload their malt into a delivery bay from where
but foreign matter such as straw, stones, string, sacking and
the malt will be transported to a storage silo, by pneumatic
methods or conveyor belt. metal particles are removed.
Magnets
(b) Storage
We are already familiar with the concerns of barley storage It is essential that pieces of metal that may be in the malt
and these are no different for cereals entering the brewery. should be removed before they reach the mill, because
such metal can cause a spark and start a fire or explosion.
The different types of materials (grains, flakes, grits, flours,
Separation is effected by placing permanent magnets either
starches and syrups) are all stored separately until required
for processing. Most storage silos are constructed from in the malt chute to the dressing machine or across the feed
to the mill.
stainless steel but they can be made from concrete. Silos
have smooth walls with hopper bottoms to ensure easy
Malt should flow over the magnet in a thin layer and at the
grain withdrawal. The malt and cereal adjuncts are stored
at their delivery moisture levels to: same rate as it is being ground, thus allowing the magnet to
extract any metal that may be in the malt.
 Discourage the growth of pests such as insects,
moulds, fungi and bacteria. Dressing
 Prevent alteration to the biochemical structure of The malt dresser was usually a cylindrical screen revolving
inside a wooden casing that has detachable doors on either
malt/adjunct prior to use (for example increasing
side for easy access. The last part of the screen consists of
in moisture or “turning slack” and losing enzyme
activity). a mesh large enough to let malt pass through to a small
hopper feeding the weigher or the mill. Any foreign matter
such as pieces of wood, metal, or stone, which are too large
Storage and handling of syrups is unique. Syrups are stored
to pass through this mesh, is carried forward to the end of
in insulated tanks and held at elevated temperatures
(glucose syrups 45°C and sucrose/invert syrups 25°C). the screen where it is rejected via a spout into a bag. When
the culms were separated from the malt during screening,
Warm storage is essential to prevent the syrup from
circular brushes revolved against the exterior of the screens
crystallising, whilst the viscosity of the syrup will hinder, if
not halt, transfer between vessels. Microbial infection can thereby ensuring that the apertures were kept clear.
be avoided by ensuring that glucose syrups contain at least
80% solids and sucrose syrups 67% solids. It is extremely
important to avoid condensation within the vessel which
can drip onto the liquid surface and dilute locally the syrup. In modern installations there is a separator/dresser to
remove foreign material based on size, and in addition a
Maintaining the syrups at such solids loadings or
de-stoner that separates material according to density. In
concentrations produces osmotic pressures within the
this way small stones of the same size as the malt grains can
syrup at which few microbial contaminants can survive.
The use of sterile air filters will also help maintain sterility. be removed and it has been found that the amount of
stones can vary considerably according to the source of the
Of course all storage silos should be cleaned at regular
barley. Stones can damage mill rolls and can also create
intervals to prevent the build up of soil and contaminants.
sparks in the mill.
KEYPOINT: Hand evaluation of the materials appearance

and odour should never be overlooked; it is a quick and
easy method of material analysis.

MILLING OBJECTIVES AND CONSIDERATIONS affected by particle size because very small particles reduce
the porosity of the filter bed, which can become
Malt contains all of the essential ingredients for beer compressed. This causes process down time, and various
production, all the brewer must do is open up the malt and quality issues associated with extended processing.
add water, yeast, hops and energy. The first step is to mill
the malt and adjuncts to produce the grist (cereal flour). There is therefore a trade-off between extract yield and
From the flour grist we extract the sugars, proteins and process efficiency.
other nutrients essential for yeast fermentation.
Large grist particles
There are two main objectives of milling malt and cereals Fast filtration = Reduced extract recovery
for brewing:
1. Particle size reduction

2. Particle size control Small grist particles
Slow filtration = Increased extract recovery
During milling, the malt grain is crushed so that the highest MASH CONVERSION.
possible yield of soluble nutrients can be extracted during
mashing. This physical degradation of the malt into an Mashing is the process where the crushed malt or grist is
array of small particles is called comminution. The greater mixed with water under specified conditions so that
the degree of comminution (i.e. the finer the flour enzymic action can take place to convert the starch into
produced) the larger the surface area available for fermentable sugar and in certain cases break down proteins
enzymatic attack – this means there will be a better extract into more soluble forms.
efficiency. As a comparison it takes longer for a sugar lump
to dissolve in your coffee than a spoonful of granulated Milling, Mashing and Conversion:-
sugar.
Beer production starts in the brewhouse where the malt is
processed to release fermentable sugars.
Friability
The action of comminution is influenced by malt friability.
MILLING MASHING CONVER-
What is friability? The friability (extent of modification) of
malt is a measure of the amount of energy required to SION
“crush” the grain. Crushed malt The starch is
The malt is is mixed with converted into
During malting of barley the endosperm is modified to crushed Water to start sugar by the
differing extents with particular areas prone to under- the conversion malt enzymes
process
modification (high nitrogen, steely areas) and over-
modification (the low nitrogen, mealy areas). The internal
structure of well-modified malts fully degraded by diastatic First the malt is milled to grind the starch into flour while
malt enzymes are said to be friable – they are easily protecting the malt husk because undamaged husk is
crushable and therefore require only a small input of required later.
mechanical energy (milling) to break them up. In the case Milling
of poorly modified malt, the internal structure of the grain
remains fairly intact (they are less friable) and requires a
high input of energy via milling to comminute the grain. Malt
Milling of well-modified malts yields grist with a large

proportion of fine flours and small grits, whilst under-
modified malts produce coarser grist. This is because the Mill Rolls
endosperm cell walls that survive in an under-modified
grain bind the particles together giving coarse grits.
Therefore, inhomogeneous batches of malt subject to the Grist consisting of
same milling operation (i.e. the same mill setting) will Flour
breakup into different sized particles – this is dependant Grits &
upon the extent of modification. Husk
If milling is excessive the grist produced will be too fine for

Lautering (but may be suitable for Mash Filters). Extremely Then the milled malt or grist is mashed in with water under
fine grist will theoretically yield maximal extract but hinder controlled conditions. This process brings the enzymes
the separation of wort to the extent that wort filtration can present in the malt into action and they convert the malt
be halted (a “set mash”). Wort filtration (lautering) is starch into sugar.

Condition Low Optimum High
Temperature. Low temperatures do not affect the 65C High temperatures inactivate enzymes
enzymes much, but the starch must be including a and ß amylases.
gelatinised first.
The action of amylases is stopped at
Gelatinisation temperature for malt temperatures over 70C.
starch is 65C.
pH. Acidic conditions kill the enzymes. 5.4 High pHs slow enzyme action, but it does
Enzyme action is stopped at pHs below continue at pHs of 7 or above.
5.0
Water. Enzymes are more sensitive to heat in a Between 2.5 Enzymes are less sensitive to heat in a
(Mash thickness) thin mash. and 3.5 litres of thick mash. There is a higher
water per concentration of enzyme and starch in a
There is a lower concentration of kilogram of dry thick mash.
enzyme and starch in a thin mash. grist.
Time. Enzymes take time to attack the starch. 30 minutes Conversion will be virtually complete
Conversion will be incomplete in less after 30 minutes. A longer time will not
than 30 minutes. increase the yield of sugar but may make
it more fermentable.
The production of fermentable sugars from starch is a When the malt has been
complex biochemical reaction starting with ‘gelatinisation’ mashed with water,
enzymes are released which
of the starch by heat. This is where the spiral configuration attack the links in the starch
of the starch molecule is unwound so the enzymes can chain at the points shown by
attack. the arrows.
Conversion follows and the diagrams below illustrate how  amylase attacks at random
the enzymes in the malt attack the long chains of sugar points in the chain. There is a high
level of activity during mashing.
units that make up the starch molecule and convert them
into fermentable wort:-
 amylase attacks at the end

Maltase. of the chain. There is a high
Very low level of level of activity.
activity
S ta rc h c o n s is ts o f a lo n g
c h a in o f s u g a r (g lu c o s e )
m o le c u le s lin k e d to g e th e r.
T h e re a re s o m e b ra n c h e s
in th e c h a in .
The result of the
enzyme attack is shown
here.
These units are sugars
and they dissolve in the
water used in the mash.
The liquid is called
'wort'.
Most of these sugars
are fermentable but
some are not.

This sugar is called  Mashes with undermodified malt, for example lager
malto-triose. It will ferment malt, will allow for this by having a low temperature
slowly. stand for the proteolytic enzymes to work, followed by a
‘saccharification’ stand for the starch enzymes to work.
This sugar is called maltose
and it ferments quickly.
 Mashes with well modified malt only need a
saccharification stand.
This sugar is a dextrin and it
will not ferment.
These principles are illustrated in the charts below:-
85 120
This sugar is called glucose and it Lager Ale
80 mash mash
ferments very quickly.
100
75
70
80
65
60
60
The range of sugars produced during conversion 55

40
determines the fermentability of the wort. If the enzyme 50
attack is complete, the wort will be very fermentable. If the 45 20

enzyme attack is incomplete, the wort will be only partially
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
fermentable.
Enzymes are sensitive to the conditions that they work in, The temperature rise to 80C in the lager mash is to
they are affected by how much water is present, improve filterability in the wort separation system.
temperature and pH or mash acidity. They take time to
work, so the length of time that is allowed for mash
conversion will affect the degree of conversion. Starch Test
The colour reaction between iodine and large-chain glucose
There are optimum conditions for mashing and these are (dextrins and starch) is used to detect their presence in
illustrated in the table below:- wort. Aside from producing a wort of desired fermentability
it is the goal of mashing to reduce the maximum length of
dextrins in the sweet wort to less than 9 glucose molecules
The most important enzymes are the amylases. They for unbranched and less than 60 for branches chains. At this
point they don't show a reaction with iodine anymore and
convert the remaining unmodified starch granules in the
the wort or mash is said to be iodine negative and mash
mash into fermentable sugars. Fundamentally, however, conversion is complete.
the two amylases have distinct temperature optima:
In an incomplete conversion dextrins are carried over, and
Optimal Temperature Inactivation Temperature the beer may develop a so called "starch haze". Despite its
Enzyme name in most cases this haze is not caused by starch but by
(°C) (°C)
long dextrins which become less soluble and precipitate in
-Amylase 70 – 75 75 – 80
the presence of alcohol. Those dextrins give a red to purple
-amylase 63 – 65 68 – 70 colour reaction with iodine
MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL OF EXTRACT RECOVERY

AND YIELD.
Proteolysis is the term used to describe enzymic action that
breaks down proteins into simpler soluble forms. The action Measurement and control of extract yield and efficiency
of proteolytic enzymes is very similar to that of the starch
breakdown enzymes except that their optimum
Malt is an expensive raw material and achieving good
temperature is slightly lower at 50C.
extract levels is therefore very important. Extract yield is a
 It becomes necessary for proteolysis to take place measure of the effectiveness of the brewhouse in its use of
during mashing when the malt is undermodified and the malt and adjuncts. That is how much of the available
proteins surrounding the starch granules have not been material in malt and adjunct has been converted into useful
completely broken down during malting. extract for the production of beer.

Extract is calculated as follows:- 300 litre degrees of extract was obtained from
every kilogram of malt used.
Total amount of dissolved material in the wort divided by
the total weight of raw materials used. Or in degrees Plato and EBC extract units-
IoB Method: Example - 10,000 kgs of wort at a S.G. of 15 Plato are
collected from 2000 kilograms of malt. The extract is:-
Volume collected X specific gravity = litre degrees / kg
Weight of malt + adjuncts 10,000 X 15 = 75%.
2,000
Example - 10,000 litres of wort at a S.G. of 60 are collected 75 % of the weight of the malt has been converted
from 2000 kilograms of malt. The extract is:- to extract.
Both of these calculations are based upon the total weight
10,000 X 60 = 300 litre degrees / kg. of raw material being used, and represent the brewhouse
2,000 yield. Malt is an expensive raw material and achieving good
extract levels is therefore very important.

Section 12 Distilled Spirits; raw materials and wort production.
INTRODUCTION - THE MAJOR CEREALS, SOURCES OF

ENZYMES AND YEAST USED IN DISTILLING The fermentation of the sugars obtained by mashing is
carried out by yeast, which represents the third major raw
It is not possible to cover, in these notes, all of the starch- material purchased by the distiller. Pure cultured yeast can
containing cereals or other sources of starch that are used be provided by specialist suppliers or surplus yeast can be
worldwide for the production of spirits. Instead, the basic purchased from brewers. Cultured yeast can either be used
principles of spirit manufactured by fermenting cereal on its own or admixed with brewers yeast. The latter is
extracts are described using the raw materials maize, wheat never used on its own since it cannot provide as high a
and rye, barley and malted barley, and microbial enzymes. spirit yield as the various forms of cultured yeast which are
The latter are used in distilling for the conversion of cereal now available.
starch to fermentable sugars when they are not converted
by the enzymes from malted barley. This list is not meant to
be exclusive; other cereals and other sources of starch are Grain based spirits
used, for instance rice, sorghum and potatoes.
Scotch whisky – By legal definition Scotch whisky must be
Cereals are used for three reasons: produced in Scotland from natural water in a mash of either
 as a source of carbohydrate for fermentation, exclusively malted barley (Malt Whisky) or a mash of un-
 for their contribution to the flavour of the distilled malted cereal and malted barley (Grain Whisky). The
spirits and enzymes of malted barley convert the cereal starch to
 in the case of barley only, as a source of enzymes for sugars (wort) which are then fermented by yeast, with no
the conversion of starch to fermentable sugars after temperature control.
the barley has been malted.
In Malt Whisky and some Grain Whisky distilleries the wort
All cereals selected for distilling must be: is first separated from spent grains or may be fermented in
 undamaged and disease free the presence of the cereal residues (most Grain Whisky).
 uncontaminated with other cereals, weed seeds or any
other detritus Any un-malted cereal may be used in Scotch Grain Whisky
 have the correct dry matter content (neither too much but the two cereals presently used are wheat or maize. The
nor too little water) and fermented wort (wash) is distilled in a batch process using
 contain an appropriate amount of starch pot stills (Malt Whisky) or continuously in column stills
(Grain Whisky) to an alcohol concentration of less than
The seeds of cereals convert sugar from the growing plant 94.8%. The new-make spirit (NMS) is then reduced to an
into starch, which is the carbohydrate stored in the seed as alcoholic strength of between 60% and 70% and matured in
a food reserve for the future regeneration of the plant. oak casks, not exceeding 700 litres in capacity, for a
Cereals are grown commercially for their seeds, which we minimum period of 3 years.
call the ‘grains’, since the starch and protein in the grains
are important sources of food for both human consumption However, malt whisky from a single distillery (Single Malt)
and animal feed. However, to make potable spirit this or blended malt whiskies from a range of distilleries (Vatted
starch must be converted back to fermentable sugar, since Malt Whisky) are usually matured for 8 to 15 years. Grain
starch itself is not fermentable by yeast. Much of this Whisky is nearly always blended with Malt Whisky (Blended
section deals with the manner in which distillers produce Scotch Whisky) of the same or older age (usually 5 to 8
fermentable sugars from the starch and extract them so years). Finally, Scotch Whisky must be bottled in Scotland at
that they can be fermented by yeast. a minimum strength of 40% alcohol by volume (%ABV).
Other whiskeys – Malt and grain whiskey is distilled in many

There are three principal means of obtaining fermentable
other countries, but not always with a strict legal definition.
extract from cereals:
American whiskey can have both a Federal legal definition
 Exclusively from malted barley using the
as well as a regional designation, e.g. Kentucky Bourbon
endogenous enzymes of the malt
must be a distillate of a fermented mash which contained
 From a mixture of unmalted cereal and malted
not less than 70% corn (maize) and must have been
barley again using the endogenous enzymes from the
matured in charred new oak containers for not less than 2
malt
years in the state of Kentucky.
 From unmalted cereal using exogenous bacterial or
fungal enzymes
Similarly Tennessee whiskey is distilled from a fermented
mash that contained about 80% corn, 10% rye and 10%
In the latter case the enzymes are bought in from specialist
malted barley.
suppliers and can therefore be regarded as a separate raw
Other North American whiskeys may have the designation
material.
of the principal un-malted cereal used, such as Corn

Whiskey (Bourbon), which usually has a grist composition of  all of the partly solubilised starch,
approximately 70% corn, 15% rye and 15% malted barley.  all of the sugars already formed, and
 all of the diastatic enzymes.
Rye Whiskey on the other hand must contain at least 51%
rye with the rest of the grist consisting of corn (ca. 39%) and This cannot be done efficiently unless the grain has been
malted barley (ca. 10%).
milled to make the starch, the sugars and the enzymes
accessible by water.
Key types of American whiskies listed in the US Code of
Federal Regulations:
Mashing requires the following equipment:
- Rye whiskey, mash contains at least 51% rye.
1. A grist hopper from which to feed the grist in a
- Rye malt whiskey, mash contains at least 51% malted controlled way to the mixer.
rye. 2. A supply of water that can be fed to the mixer
- Malt whiskey, mash contains at least 51% malted through a heat exchanger to achieve a precise
barley. temperature
- Wheat whiskey, mask contains at least 51% wheat. 3. A grist/water mixer, often a tube fitted with a
screw, for instance a ‘Steels masher’, that delivers
- Bourbon whiskey, mash contains at least 51% corn.
the mix over the side of and into the mashing
- Corn whiskey, mash contains at least 80% corn. vessel and
4. A mashing vessel.
The main processing difference for non-Scotch whiskey is
that bacterial or fungal enzymes (i.e. non endogenous Mashing vessels of different designs are used for malt
enzymes) may be used to convert the cereal starch to whisky production, but all of them have:
fermentable sugars. Fermentation of the cereal extract
 a set of blades or a rake to stir the mash in a
(beer) is similar to Scottish practice, except that
controlled way and
temperature control is commonly used.
 a slotted base that sits just above the outlet.
Both pot and column stills are used to distil the wash/beer
although column continuous distillation is the commoner
When the outlet valve is opened, the mash settles gently on
practice.
the slotted base through which the liquid extract is
In some countries there may also be no stipulation on
withdrawn. The grain extract is the unfermented mash; an
length of maturation; e.g. some Japanese whiskey has been
alternative and much shorter name used in Scotland is
made by the blending of matured Malt Whiskey with a grain
‘wort’. It may be clear or slightly cloudy, depending on the
new-make spirit. Irish whiskey is traditionally made from a
type of mashing vessel in use and the manner in which it is
mixed grist of malted and un-malted barley and is triple
operated.
distilled in large pot-stills.
Grain neutral spirit - Neutral spirit is essentially an

odourless and tasteless spirit distilled from a fermented
mash of 100% cereal grain. The minimum alcoholic strength
in the UK is 96% ABV but may vary in other countries. The
common factor is that neutral spirit must be free from
congeners which would impart a distinctive odour or taste.
Such spirits can then be used as the base for potable spirits
by the addition of flavourings, e.g. vodka, gin, and many S p e n t G r a in
liqueurs.
Mash Conversion
This recipe is used around the world for making malt C le a r W o r t
whiskies. Malt whiskies have a distinct flavour that is due in
part to the type of malt mashed . Mashing is carried out in the following way. The grist is
mixed with water that is called the first water because
The conversion of starch to sugars has already started more water will be used later in the process. This mixing of
during the malting process, following the breakdown of the the first water and the grist is called ‘mashing-in’. Mashing-
cell walls and protein matrix surrounding the granules. This in is a critical step because the water must be at a precisely
conversion was stopped by drying the grains. It is restarted controlled temperature.
by adding back the water but there is no point in doing this
with whole grains because the distiller must extract from
the mash

The temperature of the mash in the mashing vessel must At the end of the mashing process, the fermentation vessel
be: is full of wort that is already fermenting rapidly. The
 warm enough to gelatinise the remaining malt mashing vessel contains the grain debris (draff), mainly
starch, husk, material that contains very little sugar or starch. This
 cool enough to preserve the activity of the is used as feed for cattle or is disposed of in another
enzymes and environmentally friendly way.
 be near to the optimum temperature for the speed
of action of the malt amylases.
The specific gravity of the wort depends on the amount of
The temperature that is the best compromise between water added per tonne of malt, batches of which may be
º
these three requirements is in the range 62 to 65 C. Many around 10 tonnes. The specific gravity is usually within the
º
distilleries use 64.0 C. range of 1.050 and 1.070 and the pH value about 5.2.
Maltose and maltotriose are the main sugars in the wort,
The mash is stirred occasionally and after a given time that together with smaller amounts of glucose and
could be between 20 to 70 minutes after filling. During this maltotetraose. All of these sugars can be fermented by
time the malt enzymes, alpha-amylase and beta-amylase, suitable yeast strains but at the end of mashing only about
are converting (saccharifying) the starch to maltose and 72% of the extracted wort is fermentable .About 15% of the
maltotriose. After the allotted time has elapsed, the wort is remaining starch fragments called dextrins are converted in
withdrawn from the bottom of the vessel. the fermenting wash. This is called the ‘secondary
conversion’ without which the alcohol yield would be
This is called the strong wort because it contains a high reduced by about 60 litres of alcohol per tonne.
percentage of sugar. It is pumped through a heat exchanger
to cool it to the temperature that suits the yeast that is to The Process of Mashing
º
be added. This is usually in the range of 15 to 25 C.
The major objective of mashing and wort preparation is to
extract all of the available carbohydrate from the raw
Hot wort in materials and present it to the yeast in a fermentable form.
A subsidiary but important objective is to extract other
materials:
 that provide the yeast with nutrients leading
to a successful fermentation and
 other materials that will eventually contribute
Cold wort out to the flavour of the new make spirit.
As mentioned above the final portion of conversion that

takes place in the early stages of fermentation is known as
From the heat exchanger, the wort is transferred directly to
'secondary conversion'. The extent of secondary conversion
the fermentation vessel. As soon as there is about 50cm of
is also dependent on mashing conditions and can determine
depth of wort at the correct temperature in the vessel, the
the limit of alcohol yield.
yeast is added because it is essential for fermentation to
start very quickly. Un-yeasted fresh wort can become
The conditions chosen by each distillery are therefore vital
heavily infected with Lactobacilli in a matter of an hour or
in obtaining:
so.
 optimal extraction of potentially fermentable

Meanwhile, back in the mashing vessel the bed of grain still
carbohydrate, additional yeast nutrients and the
contains some materials that the distiller needs: a little full complement of diastatic enzymes from the
more sugar and more starch that can be converted to sugar malt, and
by the enzymes carried over into the fermentation vessel.  optimal conversion of the carbohydrate to
º
So warmer second water is added (about 70 C), drained off, fermentable sugars.
cooled and sent to the fermentation vessel. Then the hot
º
third water (about 80 C) is used to wash any remaining When present, protein-degrading enzymes (proteases) can
sugar out of the grain. The third water is normally recycled produce smaller molecules such as amino acids which have
to form at least part of the first water for the next mash. a beneficial effect on yeast growth early in fermentation.
Malt does contain some protease and some additional
amino acid is produced during mashing. However the bulk

of the necessary amino acid is already in the malt and is
produced during the malting process when the protein When conversion is complete, the mash will consist of a
matrix surrounding the starch is being broken down. sugar solution called wort and the husks of the malted
barley. The purpose of wort separation is to remove these
husks and any other particles that are not wanted in the
wort.
Calculation of mash tun extract in a malt distillery The objectives of effective wort separation are the removal
of unwanted material while at the same time extracting all
The ratio of water to malt grist (i.e. the concentration) used the available wort. Wort is separated from the spent malt
in a mash determines the volume and the subsequent grains in every malt distillery since unwanted “grainy”
alcoholic strength of an all-malt wash. Calculations are flavours would be extracted in the fermenting wash and the
therefore required to ascertain how much of each wash still.
component is needed to end up with the desired volume
and strength of wash. Effective wort separation means:
This equation involves using a Specific Gravity (SG) figure  Maximising extract recovery.
The SG of a solution, such as wort, is defined as ‘the weight  Absence of particles in the wort.
of a solution divided by the weight of an equal volume of  Absence of starch in the wort.
distilled water at the same temperature (both weights in
0
air)’ The temperature is usually 20 C. An example is 1.055, To achieve these objectives, wort separation systems use
where 1 ml of water weighs 1 gram and 1ml of the solution some common principles:
weighs 1.055 grams.  Filtration using the husk as a fine filter
supported by the slotted base in the case of a
The SG as defined above is often expressed as a multiple of mash or lauter tun.
1000 (i.e. on the basis that water’s SG=1.000, would now be
 Control of wort flow to ensure wort clarity and
1000). When expressed in this manner it is often referred to
maximise filtration efficiency.
as simply the ‘gravity’, e.g. 1055 (or ‘Ten fifty five’)
 Sparging with hot waters to extract the
maximum amount of soluble extract (wort).
 Spent grain (waste husk) removal and disposal
The SG can also be written in the form (1000 x SG) – 1000 on completion of filtration.
(in this case 55). The solution-in this case wort- is said to
have 55 degrees of excess gravity. In the equation that There are many systems in which wort can be separated
follows, the excess Original Gravity (OG) figure is 55. The from the mash, the most common in the Scotch Whisky
OG is the SG at the beginning of fermentation, before any industry being:
alcohol is produced. If the volume (litres) of wort and the  The traditional mash tun.
weight of malt mashed (kg) are known then the amount of  The lauter mash tun.
extract (%) in the wort can be calculated by measuring the
 the semi-lauter mash tun
OG:
 the mash filter
Soluble Extract (%) = litres wort x excess Original Gravity
3,87 x kg malt mashed In a traditional mash tun, filtration through the deep bed
gives bright wort, but it is relatively slow.
The example below now illustrates the necessary
calculation to estimate the quantity of malt required to Strong wort (called the first water) is run off slowly because
achieve 50,000 litres of wash with an O.G. of 1060 in a malt of its high concentration and because the mash bed must
distillery using a malt with an extract of 77.5% as is: not settle on to the plates too quickly. When the first water
is fully drained, a second water at a higher temperature is
Kg malt mashed = 50,000 x 60/77.5x 3.87 = 10,000 = added through the mashing machine at a temperature of 75
0
10tonnes -77 C and mixed into the drained mash. This second water
is again allowed to drain off, before a final, third water is
0
added at 77 – 87 C and again mixed with the rotating
The Principles and Purpose of Wort Separation paddles.
In some grain distilleries the entire mash, including residues This final water or “sparge” is not cooled and pumped to
from the wheat or maize and malt is carried forward to the the wash-back but is retained as mashing water for the next
fermenter (to achieve higher alcohol yields), but in some mash.
the wort is separated from the spent grains in a mash tun or
on filters of various types. When all the wort has been run off, spent grain is removed
through a port in the base either manually or by discharge
However, in every malt distillery, wort is always separated gear rotating arms.
from the spent malt grains.
N.B. All types of mash tun act both as a conversion vessel
and as a wort separation vessel.
Mash tun
Sparge water
supply to rotating Preparation of wort from unmalted source of starch (80-
sprinkler.
85%) and (15 - 20%) malted barley
In this type of mash bill, the saccharification enzymes come

from malted barley. Therefore the process is similar to that
described for the 100% malt mash, particularly as regards
Slotted the temperature at which the conversion takes place.
plates Deep bed of mash Spent
through which 'floats' above grain
which the the plates. out.
The main difference is that most of the starch to be
wort is saccharified comes from unmalted grain, often maize and
filtered. wheat. As described above, the starch granules in malted
barley are partly broken down in the malting process, they
º
gelatinise at a relatively low temperature of about 64 C.
Wort flow control. Starch granules in maize and wheat on the other hand
gelatinise at higher temperatures , can be heavily encased
Such deep bed mash-tuns with traditional paddle mixers in protein, and are enclosed in un-degraded cell walls so
are now very rare because the majority of Scotch whisky require cooking.
distilleries firstly converted their mash tuns to a “semi-
lautering” system by installing rotating rakes as shown Cereal cooking process
below
The purpose of cooking is to gelatinise the starch granules
Lauter tun in cereals that are not malted. Maize and wheat are the
Sparge water main unmalted cereals used by distillers.
supply to sprinkler.
Gelatinised starch is accessible for saccharification by
enzymes, but ungelatinised starch is not. The gelatinisation
is achieved by cooking the grains. Many different methods
of cooking are used.
Rakes to hasten filtration
Slotted
plates
The following is one example that illustrates the basic
through Spent principles of most cooking methods:
Shallow bed of
which the
mash.
grain  Grain, for instance maize, is mixed with warm
wort is out. water in a slurry vessel, using about two and a half
filtered.
tonnes of water per tonne of grain.
 When this is well mixed, it is transferred to a
Wort flow control.
pressure vessel fitted with a stirrer to gently mix
Raking gear drive
the grain as it is cooking.
 Steam is injected into the cooker to raise the
The traditional mash tun is a simple but effective system pressure above that of the atmosphere to achieve
º
involving only one vessel for both the mash conversion and a temperature of 130 C.
wort separation processes. It gives good quality wort but  This temperature is held for 5 minutes and the
has a slow turn round time and is less efficient for steam supply is cut off.
extracting and transferring the enzymes, which are required  Then the vessel is opened in a carefully regulated
to continue their activities in the washback. way to remove the contents; this is called
blowdown.
The underback is a vessel through which the wort flows and  Finally, the cooked cereal is cooled to below 70 C
º
it is used to control its run-off rate. It is important that the as quickly as possible.
malt bed is not pulled down on to the mash tun plates,
when it would impair drainage. Most malt distilleries are Variations to this process include:
equipped with a balanced underback, in which the wort  hammer milling the grain to a flour to
level in the mash tun and underback are equalised, allowing help mixing and gelatinisation and
close control of the run-off rate.  the addition of backset (stillage from the
beer column of the continuous still) to the
Unlike the brewing industry where mash filtration is now water, reducing the water usage rate.
quite a common practice, there is presently only one
distillery in Scotland which operates a mash filter.

Mashing and Mash Conversion (Saccharification) by Malt to specify malt modification and ease of
processing.
If malted barley is being used as a source of enzymes to
convert the gelatinised starch to sugars. it also provides its Malt is important to both mashing and fermentation,
share of the total starch needed. As in 100% malt whisky particularly as a source of yeast nutrients and yeast growth
production, the malt must be milled to expose the enzymes factors (such as vitamins and minerals) and as a source of
and allow them to disperse in the liquid of the mash. enzymes responsible for starch conversion to fermentable
sugars. The husk of malted barley is also important as a
In contrast to the use of malted barley in malt whisky filter medium during wort separation.
production, relatively intact husks are not necessary; either
the wort is filtered on a series of sieves or it is pumped to Use of Green Malt
the fermentation vessel without any filtration. Therefore, Some grain distillers choose to use green malt (freshly
the malt is ground to fine flour in a hammer mill for ease of produced malt that has not been stabilised by kilning), for
mixing into the rest of the mash. its high enzyme content. Some think that green malt makes
a significant contribution to grain nms (new make spirit)
The required quantity of malt is added to the cooled maize flavour.
º
mash at a temperature of about 64 C. This is often done in
the fermentation vessel itself. As soon as the vessel has Green malt must be used very soon after it is produced
received the correct amount of mash, the temperature is because it continues to metabolise, generating heat and
reduced to that required for the start of fermentation (15 stimulating undesirable microbial growth.
º
to 25 C) and the yeast is added immediately. Compared to dried malt, green malt has very limited
storage time and must be used as quickly as possible. This
The specific gravity of the wort usually lies within the range requires very precise logistics.
1.060 to 1.080 and the pH value in the region of 5.5 to 5.8.
Maltose and maltotriose are the main sugars in the wort, In distilleries using green malt, the milling is done in a wet
together with smaller amounts of glucose and hammer mill. The objective of the milling is to expose the
maltotetraose. All of these sugars can be fermented by enzymes needed to effect conversion. Milled green malt
suitable yeast strains. has the consistency of a thin porridge, no particles being
greater than a quarter of a corn in size. Obviously, all green
A significant amount of starch remains as oligosaccharides malt has to be kept cool and used as quickly as possible, for
to be converted to sugar in the early stages of it would deteriorate rapidly in storage.
fermentation. Without this secondary conversion, the
alcohol yield would be about 15% lower.
Key Malt Analytical Parameters
MALT AND MALT ENZYMES Key analytical parameters for malt distilling malt and
examples of typical values are:
Malt and its Uses
(a) Moisture < 5%
The distiller buying malt from a malting company must In the last 20 years, the moisture content has been raised
agree a specification because of the potentially variable from 4 to 5% or slightly higher for two main reasons. Firstly,
nature of malt. gentler kilning helps preserve the activities of the more
heat-sensitive enzymes, which can continue to work during
A basic specification for distilling malt is: the mashing and fermentation, releasing more fermentable
carbohydrate. Second, there is a saving in energy. Malt is
1. moisture of less than 5% (to preserve the enzyme hygroscopic (attracts water) and there may be a moisture
content) pickup of up to 0.5% between maltings and distillery. So, if
2. the predicted spirit yield that can be calculated the malt is required to be 5% moisture, the off-kiln
from how much material can be extracted from moisture should be 4.5%.
the grain (soluble extract) and how much of the
material extracted can be fermented by yeast Where there are adjacent maltings and distillery, it can be
(fermentabilty), both of which are laboratory dried to 5%. Malt with moisture content of 6% or more is
measurements, difficult to mill, and there is the possibility that ‘green-malt’
3. diastatic enzyme levels (i.e. the enzymes which sensory notes may enter the spirit from lightly kilned malt.
break down starch); alpha and beta-amylase are However, grain distilling malt moisture content can be up to
the two main diastatic enzymes involved in the 6%, the lighter kilning preserving enzymes.
breakdown of starch to fermentable sugars.
4. the malt should be easy to process through the
stages of milling and mashing and there are
various tests, such as friability, which can be used

(b) Friability: 85 - 95% of corns friable The method of determining wort’s Fermentability is by
conducting a laboratory fermentation, and calculating it
And using the laboratory Original Gravity (OG) and Final Gravity
(FG). Malt fermentabilities are normally up to in the range
(c ) Homogeneity: 98% of corns homogeneous 86-90%. It should be noted that this laboratory test, based
The Friabilimeter is a laboratory instrument in which a on IGB laboratory wort, is not suitable for malts that have
weighed amount of malt is subjected to pressure of a roller high sulphur content or those that are highly modified to
pressing it against a rotating perforated drum. The more achieve high TSN values.
friable the malt due to modification, the more passes
through the drum. (f) Fermentable Extract: >70%
The % fermentability value multiplied by the SE7 value gives
This analysis is commonly used in malting as a check on the a figure for fermentable extract obtainable from the malt.
endosperm’s modification of the malt, to determine the The fermentable extract value is used to calculate a
homogeneity of the modification and to measure the predicted spirit yield from the malt.
percentage of corns that have not grown. It is widely used
in the plant as well as in the laboratory. (g) Predicted Spirit Yield (PSY)
It is possible to predict the distillery spirit yield from the
The information obtained from the Friabilimeter, while a laboratory data described above.
useful early indicator of the quality of malting, must be In a malt distillery, this can be done using the obtained
taken as complementary to other laboratory results. In values of the malt soluble extract (SE7), the %
recent years, there have been problems with calibrating fermentability and a fixed factor:
these instruments, and results should be treated with PSY (lpa/t, dwb) = fermentability (%) x SE7 (dwb)
caution, as they are also variety and operator dependent. x 6.06
(d) Soluble Extract (SE): > 80% of malt materials made (Where lpa/t = litres of pure alcohol per tonne, and dwb =
soluble dry weight basis).
o
The units used to describe SE are ‘litre /kilogram’ or ‘%
extract’ (%). The two units are related by a factor. Both In a grain distillery, the calculation is a little more
units are in use, depending on distiller’s preference. complicated due to the use of both malt and wheat (or
maize). The first step is to calculate separately the PSY of
The SE2 figure is the maximum extract that is obtainable the malt and the PSY of the other cereal. Then it is an easy
from the malt, as milling at this 0.2mm setting (fine grind) matter to calculate the PSY of the particular mash recipe in
mechanically breaks up any residual cell wall material, use at the time.
releasing the starch granules. This figure varies little with
the degree of modification of the malt. Milling at the For instance, in a distillery using 10% malt with a PSY of 420
0.7mm setting (coarse grind) (SE7) releases only the starch lpa/t and 90% wheat with a PSY of 370 lpa/t, the calculation
granules that have been made available because of matrix and result is:
breakdown during malting, so it is a measure of the degree 420 x (10/100) + 370 x (90/100) =375 lpa/t
of modification of the malt. The fine/coarse difference is
normally about 1%. Some distillers prefer to use a coarse SE (h) Total Soluble Nitrogen (TSN) and Free amino-nitrogen
figure obtained by milling the malt sample with a mill gap (FAN)
setting of 1.0mm, but the vast majority use 0.2 and 0.7mm Free α-amino nitrogen in the wort is required for the yeast
SE’s. growth that occurs at the start of fermentation. If wort is
deficient in this respect, the performance of the yeast
The SE7 figure was chosen when the Miag laboratory mill fermentation will be affected. FAN measurement gives a
became standard because its values were closest to the direct analysis for this parameter. TSN measurement is a
distillery’s mash tun extract (mte), when the traditional measure of protein modification, and may be expressed as
mash tun was the norm. In the last about 30 years, there a ratio to the total nitrogen – soluble nitrogen ratio (SNR). It
has been a gradual change in Scottish malt distilleries to is unlikely that there will be a shortage of FAN in malt
lauter-type mash tuns, which have higher extraction whisky production. Some distillers specify high TSN values,
efficiency. These tuns can achieve SE2 levels of extract, but which tend to depress laboratory fermentability values.
the SE7 figure that is the most reliable figure for predicting Grain distillery wort can be FAN-deficient particularly if the
spirit yield. proportion of malt in the mash is lower than 9% (w/w).
(e) Fermentability: >88% of the extract obtained

is fermentable
This laboratory test is used to determine the percentage of
the SE7 that is fermentable, and allows calculation of the
Fermentable Extract (FE7).

(i) Malt enzyme levels
Sometimes it is necessary to measure the enzyme levels in Dextrinising Units (DU) >100 units
malt. Two measures are used: dextrinising units (DU) Diastatic Power (DP) >200 units
which give an indication of the content of alpha-amylase in
the malt. This enzyme is the first enzyme to act on starch The secondary enzymes, limit dextrinase and alpha
granules, breaking the starch down into fragments called glucosidase (sometimes called maltase) play a part in
dextrins. Secondly, diastatic power (DP) power which gives secondary conversion in the wash back and are not
an indication of the content of routinely measured in malt.
beta-amylase in the malt. This second enzyme produces the
major fermentable sugar, maltose, from the solubilised
starch and large dextrins. Typical values for dried malt are:

Section 13 Safety in the Malt Plant
Health and Safety (H&S), also known as Occupational Safety confined space before entry, for tracing leaks or to give an
and Health (OSH) is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with early warning of the presence of gas, flammable gas or
protecting the safety, health and welfare of people engaged vapour when work is being carried out in a hazardous area.
in work or employment. The goals of occupational safety
and health programs include fostering a safe and healthy Whichever type of detection is in use, people must be
work environment. OSH may also protect co-workers, trained in the use of the detector and how to respond to
family members, employers, customers, and many others any alarm situation.
who might be affected by the workplace environment.
Regular maintenance and calibration of the carbon dioxide
This section will illustrate typical H&S legislation by monitors and alarm system are essential, as well as the
referring to UK legislation. maintenance of mechanical ventilation systems
IT IS IMPORTANT THAT CANDIDATES ARE FAMILIAR WITH Exposure Limits - CO2

UP TO DATE H&S LEGISLATION IN THEIR OWN COUNTRY.
UK Exposure limits:
Workplace Exposure Limits (WEL) are found in the HSE
MALTING PLANT SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS publication Occupational Exposure Limits EH40.
Short Term Exposure (15mins) 1.5% (15000ppm)
The Evolution of Carbon Dioxide from Steeping & Long Term Exposure based on 8 Hour Time Weighed
Germination Average (TWA) 0.5% (5000ppm)
Malting barley respires at a very low level even when in
storage. During the steeping process which initiates Note: Detectors are generally set to alarm well below
germination, the respiration rate is accelerated and (often at one-tenth) of the Workplace Exposure Limit
significant amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) are generated. (WEL).
During the dry phases of steeping, carbon dioxide will be
removed from the steeping vessels by extraction fans. Note: These UK exposure limits are given as an example,
please check with your relevant responsible organisation.
Once steeping is completed and the process moves to the
germination phase the green malt gives off even greater
amounts of CO2, requiring higher levels of ventilation of the
grain.
Safe Working Practices for Malting Plant Operations
The Hazards Associated with Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a toxic gas which is odourless and In general terms and under normal operating conditions, if
colourless. It is significantly heavier than air and many plant, equipment and Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV)
fatalities from asphyxiation have resulted from entry into systems are well maintained, fixed/portable detection
pits, tanks, sumps or cellars where CO2 has accumulated systems calibrated and maintained, staff trained and aware
and displaced the oxygen. of the potential for CO2 generation then the risk to the
Note: When the carbon dioxide concentration increases individual will be managed to an acceptably low level.
above 10%, unconsciousness will occur in under one minute
and unless prompt action is taken, further exposure will However hazards may arise due to abnormal conditions, i.e.
eventually result in death. breakdowns, spillages, failure of extraction systems or
alarm situations. This is when people are most at risk as
often they focus on resolving the abnormal condition rather
The Monitoring & Checking of Atmospheres, including than considering the effect the abnormal condition may
Exposure Limits. have had on the work environment.
Monitoring Equipment When dealing with these conditions consideration must be

given to the following;
Many different types of monitoring equipment are available a) What product am I dealing with, (barley, green malt
from various suppliers, detectors can be fixed or portable. etc.)
b) Will CO2 be generated or be present in the area
Fixed detectors; are permanently installed in a chosen c) Do I need to, or how can I ventilate and move fresh
location to provide continuous monitoring of plant and air through the area
equipment. d) If I ventilate the area using mobile equipment, where
will it go
Portable detectors; usually refers to a small, handheld e) Does the area need evacuation
device that can be used for testing an atmosphere in a
Once these questions have been answered then a safe
system of work can be established to deal with the Ill Health
abnormal incident. Exposure to high levels of grain dust can lead to serious and
irreversible respiratory damage, it can also result in short
Note: There are other considerations outside of CO 2 issues, term conditions such as ‘Grain Fever’ where the individual
such as isolations, permits to work etc. that would need to can suffer from fever, chills, dry cough, malaise, dyspnea
be addressed when dealing with the abnormal condition. (shortness of
Some situations are well known to be potentially

hazardous, for example Confined Spaces such as elevator breath) and headaches, these develop between 4 -12hrs
pits. Not only can these be difficult to access and restrict after exposure with the symptoms lasting for about a day.
movement when inside them, but they can have Grain dust is classed by the UK HSE Occupational Exposure
accumulation of CO2 due to potential respiration of barley Limits EH40 as a sensitiser.
or green malt deposits spilt in them, and as already stated
CO2 being heavier than air will deposit itself in the bottom Nuisance levels of dust can cause irritation of the mucus
of the pit displacing oxygen and could cause asphyxiation of membranes and eyes, as well as skin irritation and rashes.
anyone entering the space without adequate protection.
Likewise inhalation of dust from poorly stored grains, eg
Confined Spaces require special precautions before entry damp mouldy conditions, can also lead to ill health with
can be made; conditions such as ‘Farmers Lung’ (Aspergillus Fumigatus) or
a) Entry into a Confined Space should be controlled by ‘Maltsters Lung’ (Aspergillus Clavatus), although with
a Permit to Work improved storage conditions and handling of grain, cases of
b) Atmosphere testing using a portable detector should these conditions are rare.
take place and the results recorded, this will
determine if there is an issue with CO2 or any other The UK maximum exposure limit (MEL) for grain dust.
gas. The HSE guidance on the new maximum exposure limit
c) Depending upon the results of the atmosphere (MEL) for grain dust came into effect on the 1 January 1992
testing the confined space may need ventilation (HSE Agricultural Information Sheet no. 3). It applies to all
before entry can be attempted. dust, including contaminants, arising from harvesting,
d) Once ventilation has been carried out the drying, handling, and storage or processing of barley,
atmosphere should be retested to ensure it is safe to wheat, oats, maize or rye. The MEL is an average of 10
enter, (if still unsafe to enter further ventilation mg/m3 of total respirable dust in the air over an 8 hour
should take place, if this is not possible then period. This is a maximum and not a target. Dust levels
appropriate breathing apparatus should be used for must be reduced as far below the MEL as reasonably
entry for which individuals must be trained). practicable. Higher concentrations can be permitted if
e) Assuming the atmosphere test is acceptable entry exposure times are shorter, but the maximum dust level
into the confined space can be made, once all the should never exceed 30 mg/m3 measured over a 10 minute
requirements of the permit are met. period.
f) Continuous atmospheric monitoring of the confined
space should be carried out using a portable Note: These UK regulations are given as an example, please
detector carried by the entry person. check with your relevant responsible organisation.
g) Entry requirements and rescue procedures should be
in place and documented, these should either be Organisations should carry out individual and background
included or referred to on the permit to work. monitoring of dust as part of a Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health (COSHH) assessments, to ensure
Note: Confined Space entry is only to be undertaken by individuals are not exposed to high levels of dust and to
persons who are trained, physically & mentally fit and satisfy themselves that the LEV systems control effectively
under a Confined Space Permit or similar written authority. the dust in the working environment.
Likewise CO2 is not the only issue to consider when
planning safe entry into a confined space.
2. Explosive Atmospheres in the Workplace.
Note: These UK regulations are given as an example, please
check with your relevant responsible organisation. An explosive atmosphere can be created where sufficient
density of dusts are suspended in the air in a contained
MALT AND BARLEY STORAGE PLANT SAFETY area e.g. a plant building or elevator and exceed the Lower
CONSIDERATIONS Explosive Limit (LEL), (for barley dust 40-50 g/m3 and malt
dust 60 g/m3) and an ignition source is introduced, eg a
1. The Hazards Associated with Dust. spark, naked flame. After the initial explosion a secondary
explosion will generally take place propagating through
Dust creates a number of potential hazards from ill health unprotected equipment or through the building via dust
to the possibility of a major explosion. clouds raised by the initial explosion. The potential results

of this kind of event are major plant damage and potentially example belt alignment, rotation/under-speed sensors,
serious injury or the death of employees. bearing temperature monitors, plastic buckets etc. In
situations where an explosive atmosphere has a high
To protect workers from the risked posed by potentially likelihood of occurring, reliance is placed on using
explosive atmospheres the EU Explosive Atmospheres equipment with a low probability of creating a source of
Directive (ATEX 137 Workplace Directive 99/92/EC) has ignition. Equipment is categorised (1, 2 or 3) depending on
been adopted in the UK as the Dangerous Substances and the level of zone where it is intended to be used.
Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002 (DSEAR 2002).
Therefore equipment selection depends upon the
This requires organisations to carry out risk assessment to following;
identify hazardous areas and to classify them into zones
based on the frequency and persistence of the potentially The Zone Rating
explosive atmosphere. Zone 20 – not less than category 1
Zone 21 – not less than category 1 or 2
Hazardous Area Zones and Equipment Categories. Zone 22 – category 1, 2 or 3
Zones Equipment must be suitable for use in dust so therefore;

As described above hazardous places are classified in terms
of zones on the basis of the frequency and duration of the Equipment is typically marked as follows: – CE-EX- II- 1- D
occurrence of an explosive atmosphere.
CE = conformity mark
Zone 20 (highest risk) EX = specific marking of explosion rating
A place in which an explosive atmosphere in the form of a II = Equipment group for surface industries (I =
cloud of combustible dust in the air is present continuously, mines)
or for frequent long periods, i.e. reverse jet filters, cyclones 1 = category marking appropriate for zone (1,2 or
3)
Zone 21 D = suitable for use in dust (G = gas)
A place in which an explosive atmosphere is likely to occur
in normal operation occasionally, i.e. dust hoppers. Other Sources of Ignition include;
Zone 22 Hot Work:- Welding, Disk Cutting, Grinding, Oxyacetylene

A place in which an explosive atmosphere is not likely to Cutting etc.
occur in normal operation but if it does, will persist for a Friction Sparks, Misaligned Elevators, Overheated Bearings,
short period only, i.e. elevators handling whole grain Static Electricity, Fire and Tramp Metals etc.
Notes: Note: These EU regulations are given as an example, please

1. "Normal operation" means the situation when check with your relevant responsible organisation.
installations are used within their design
parameters.
2. Also layers, deposits and heaps of combustible dust 3. Safe Working Practices for Malt Storage Plant
must be considered as another source which can Operations
form an explosive atmosphere.
The increased friability of malt gives the potential to
ATEX SIGNS generate dust during each movement cycle, therefore
minimising the frequency and distance of travel should be
considered. Additionally conveyors, elevators etc. should
normally be kept under negative pressure by LEV systems,
to prevent dust being released into the atmosphere.
Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV) Systems (Dust Extraction,

Aspiration Systems)
LEV systems are engineering controls that help to prevent
Installation Signage Equipment Marking people being exposed to contaminants in the work-place;
they can be used to remove dust particles or vapours. A
Note: These EU regulations are given as an example, please simple LEV system works by having a suction fan pulling air
check with your relevant responsible organisation. down a single or series of pre-sized ducts that originate at
the point the dust is being created, this then carries the
Equipment dust to a capture unit leaving the workplace atmosphere
clear.
Special precautions need to be taken in hazardous areas to
prevent equipment from being a source of ignition, for

LEV systems should be regularly serviced and maintained.
The documents relating to its performance capabilities, Generally organisations have in place annual employee
from either commissioning information or supplier’s health surveillance which is carried out by occupational
specification should be held for the lifespan of the health specialists and these checks would include lung-
equipment, so that subsequent monitoring and testing can function tests and examinations for skin conditions.
confirm the system is working to its design capability.
Periodic examination and test by a competent person House Keeping& Hygiene
should take place at least every 14 months and the records Robust housekeeping programs are essential in maintaining
should be held for 5 years. a clean and safe plant. The systematic removal of dust
deposits will eliminate the potential source of fuel and in
Respiratory Protection Equipment (RPE) the event of an explosion help to prevent the propagation
Respiratory Protective Equipment falls into two main of a secondary explosion.
categories, either air purifying or air supplying.
Likewise the regular removal of dust from the workplace
Air purifying respirators use disposable filters to capture the will provide clean and healthy environment for employees
dust allowing the wearer to breathe in clean air; these can to work in.
be full face masks or half masks. It is essential that the
correct type of cartridge filter is used for the environment
the individual is working in and that the filters are changed SAFETY - POTENTIAL HAZARDS WHEN WORKING WITH
at the recommended periods. CHEMICALS.
Additionally Disposable Masks can be used, they are easy to Chemicals, such as detergents (designed to dissolve organic
use and offer protection for short term applications. Both matter) and sterilants (designed to kill organisms) may be
types require the filter or mask to be offering at least P3 hazardous materials for people to handle.
protection.
In the most countries, under Control of Substances
Full face masks can also be supplied as battery powered Hazardous to Health (C.O.S.H.H.) legislation, manufacturers
masks that filter the contaminants out via disposable filters are required to issue technical information on any cleaning
and force clean air into the mask (or hood). These are materials they supply. This information covers
particularly useful in very dusty atmospheres. recommended usage concentrations and actions to be
taken in case of accidents.
Air supplying respirators are generally used in more
hazardous environments like chemicals, smoke etc. and An analysis of the risks indicates the following methods of
they would include airline systems and self-contained reducing the hazards:-
breathing apparatus (SCBA). Anybody using this type of
equipment must be fully trained and competent.  If a detergent or sterilant is considered too hazardous
then choose an alternative which is safer.
All RPE should be comfortable, fit the wearer and meet the
requirements for protection from the contaminant. Face-Fit
testing should be carried out to ensure this criteria is met,
in fact is it a legal requirement if the RPE is used as a control  Isolate people from the hazard, for example in CIP
measure. (Cleaning in Place) systems, detergents and sterilants
are kept in automatically topped up tanks and away
The UK COSHH Approved Code of Practice says that from the staff. They are also stored in suitably sized
“Employers should ensure that the selected face piece is of bunds and kept away from other materials that would
the right size and can correctly fit each wearer. For a tight- react together.
fitting face piece, the initial selection should include fit
testing to ensure the wearer has the correct device. Also,  Implement control measures like ‘safe systems of work’
employers must ensure that whoever carries out the fit that when followed, eliminate risks to the staff. An
testing is competent to do so.” example would be a ‘permit to work’ procedure for the
maintenance of CIP equipment.
Health Surveillance
The UK Control of Substances Hazardous to Health  Ensure that people in the proximity of detergents and
Regulations 2002 (COSHH) require health surveillance to be sterilants use protective equipment especially eye
mandatory where risk assessment has shown individuals protection (goggles), gloves, boots and overalls.
are likely to be exposed to harmful substances.
 Install safety showers in areas where risks are highest
The purpose of health surveillance is to, protect the health like detergent and sterilant delivery points.
of employees by early detection of adverse changes or
disease, collect data for detecting or evaluating health  Inform people who work with detergents and sterilants
hazards and evaluate control measures. of the potential hazards.

Safety Requirements of Cleaning Chemicals and Materials
Cleaning of tanks and vessels sometimes require the use of

chemicals which are strong acids and strong bases.
Sometimes, oxidising compounds are used. Safety

precautions, as required by local Occupational Health and
Safety legislations, have to be considered when using these
chemicals.
Components of these chemicals may have short or long-

term effect on the health of the employees. Some
components can affect the health of the consumer at parts
per million levels.
The safety of the environment has to be considered as well,

which means that the products used have to comply with
environmental legislation with respect to handling of
spillage.
Every material used must be accompanied by Material

Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
An MSDS should disclose the following:

 manufacturer’s details
 product identification
 composition information on ingredient
 hazards identification
 safety first measures
 fire fighting measures
 accidental release measures
 handling and storage
 exposure control and personal protection
 physical and chemical properties
 stability and reactivity
 toxicological information
 ecological information.
The MSDS is meant to give enough data about the product

that assist the user to make an informed technical decision.
A user will only know about this safety information if the
information provided is read and the supplier is questioned
to get clarity.
There is still a culture of not going through the MSDS
document before the product is used.
Hazards Identification - European hazard symbols
These hazard symbols for chemicals are defined in Annex II

of Directive 67/548/EEC.

Human Services, is focused on research, information,
National Legislation and Public Organizations education, and training in occupational safety and health.
www.osha.gov www.cdc.gov/NIOSH/
Occupational safety and health practice vary among nations
with different approaches to legislation, regulation, Canada
enforcement, and incentives for compliance. In Canada, workers are covered by provincial or federal
labour codes depending on the sector in which they work.
IS IMPORTANT THAT CANDIDATES ARE FAMILIAR WITH UP Workers covered by federal legislation (including those in
TO DATE H&S LEGISLATION IN THEIR OWN COUNTRY mining, transportation, and federal employment) are
covered by the Canada Labour Code; all other workers are
European Union covered by the health and safety legislation of the province
In the European Union, member states have enforcing they work in. The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health
authorities to ensure that the basic legal requirements and Safety (CCOHS), an agency of the Government of
relating to occupational health and safety are met. Canada, was created in 1978 by an Act of Parliament. The
act was based on the belief that all Canadians had "...a
United Kingdom fundamental right to a healthy and safe working
In the UK, health and safety legislation is drawn up and environment." CCOHS is mandated to promote safe and
enforced by the Health and Safety Executive and local healthy workplaces to help prevent work-related injuries
authorities (the local council) under the Health and Safety and illnesses.
at Work Act 1974. Increasingly in the UK the regulatory www.ccohs.ca
trend is away from prescriptive rules, and towards risk
assessment. Recent major changes to the laws governing South Africa
asbestos and fire safety management embrace the concept In South Africa the Department of Labour is responsible for
of risk assessment. www.hse.gov.uk occupational health and safety inspection and enforcement
in commerce and industry apart from mining and energy
United States production, where the Department of Minerals and Energy
In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health is responsible.
Act of 1970 created both the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the The main statutory legislation on Health and Safety in the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).[40] jurisdiction of the Department of Labour is Act No. 85 of
OSHA, in the U.S. Department of Labor, is responsible for 1993: Occupational Health and Safety Act as amended by
developing and enforcing workplace safety and health Occupational Health and Safety Amendment Act, No. 181 of
regulations. NIOSH, in the U.S. Department of Health and 1993.

Section 14 Quality Management.
QUALITY MANAGEMENT (d) Monitoring.

Quality performance is monitored on a regular basis and
Candidates should have an understanding of the the results can be presented in a way that highlights
fundamental principles of Quality Management and be problems.
familiar with the methodology of at least one quality
system appropriate to their region/country of operation. (e) Auditing.
The purpose of auditing is to check that the quality system
The Key Features of a Quality Management System are:- is being followed.
Audits are concluded with a report back which usually
 To understand precisely what is to be achieved. identifies areas for improvement.
This means having specifications to meet Auditing procedures have the advantage that they can be
and it means having procedures to follow. conducted internally.
This also means that the procedures and Audits do not necessarily have to cover the whole quality
specifications will have to be system, often following a trail of evidence will reveal how
documented. rigorously procedures are being followed.
 To monitor actual performance against what is (f) Corrective Action.

to be achieved. Action must be taken to put things right and how this is
This means keeping records of done is usually covered by a procedure.
performance and it means auditing.
The procedure will ensure that the following areas are
 To correct things when they go wrong. covered:-
This means having a system of initiating  Detail of the problem.
corrective action.  Nominating the person responsible for taking the
action.
 To review the overall quality management  When the corrective action will be completed.
system and to plan for improvement.  A review of the result of the corrective action taken.
(a) Specifications. (g) Review.

Process and product specifications must detail all those An overview is required so that it can be confirmed that, for
parameters that are required to be measured, including example:-
flavour, and they must identify an ideal value together with  Corrective actions are being followed (implemented)
an acceptable range for each parameter. in time.
 Audits are taking place as specified.
(b) Procedures.  The maltings’ quality is meeting requirements.
Documented procedures are there to explain what has to
be done and when and how it should be done. Procedures The procedure for a review is specified and documented in
can cover a wide range of topics:- the same way as all other procedures.
 An explanation of the organisation and
responsibilities. (h) Improvement.
 Procedures to be followed in the case of non- It may be that an overall improvement in quality is
conformances. required, many world class manufacturers have a ‘zero
 Procedures on how the processes are managed. defect’ policy.
 Instructions on how to operate the plant. In this case a plan to achieve the required improvements is
 Procedures to be followed when auditing. necessary. The quality management system will contain all
the specification and monitoring procedures to enable an
(c) Documentation. improvement plan to be implemented.
Quality management systems rely on documents to ensure
that procedures are followed. The theory is that ‘if it isn’t
written down, it isn’t done’. Control of Quality
It is important that documents are ‘controlled’ so that The control of quality through a ‘Quality System’ gives the
people are confident that the document they are working following advantages over a ‘Final Inspection’ approach:-
to is current and valid.  The use of documented procedures and specifications
ensures that everybody knows what they are supposed
to be doing.

 The responsibility for quality sits with the people who management and flow downward throughout the
are operating the plant and making the malt. organisation. A good quality control system involves co-
 Quality problems will be identified as soon as they occur operation between all the major departments and
rather than much later when the process is over. embraces a variety of quality assurance techniques.
 Maintenance of accurate records makes it easier to
track back and investigate raw materials or processes so Notes.
that ‘due diligence’ in manufacturing can be proved. Give details of a quality management system that you are
aware of.
A good quality system includes:
 Motivated and well trained workforce
 Well maintained plant ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES AND BENEFITS
 Adequate capacity for peak demand
 Good plant cleanliness and house keeping Individual Actions on Product and Service Quality
 Sufficient time for operations, cleaning and Quality is the responsibility of everyone working within an
maintenance organisation. However, the following actions are required
 Good relationships between suppliers and customers. of a quality system:
 It is the responsibility of top management to formulate

Typical Quality Management Systems include:
the Company’s quality policy and to ensure
 ISO 9000 - Quality Management commitment at all levels to comply with the Quality
 ISO 14000 - Environmental Management System and to improve its effectiveness.
 GMP - Good Manufacturing Practice
 GLP - Good Laboratory Practice  Communication to all members of staff so that all
 NAMAS - National Accreditation of understand it and are involved with its
Measurement and Sampling implementation.
 HACCP - Hazard Analysis Critical Control
Points.  All staff members responsibilities and level of authority
should be defined and understood.
Total Quality Management (TQM)  A management representative should be appointed as

Quality Systems Manager, responsible for:
TQM is a system of continuous improvement that is centred - managing the requirements of the quality
on the needs of the customer. Pioneered by Dr Edwards standard,
Deming, TQM is a long-term approach to ensuring quality. - issuing amendments to manuals,
Key components are employee investment, problem solving - arranging audits,
teams and statistical methods. The principles of TQM are - checking suppliers,
as follows: - taking minutes of quality meetings,
- investigating problems and initiating corrective
1. Quality can and must be managed. actions,
2. Everyone has a customer and is a supplier. - following up corrective actions,
3. Processes, not people, are the problem. - handling complaints.
4. Every employee is responsible for quality.
5. Problems must be prevented, not just fixed. The Control of Documents
6. Quality must be measured. All Quality Systems require control of documentation. It is
7. Quality improvements must be continuous. necessary to identify Controlled documents (i.e. updated)
8. The quality standard is defect free. and Uncontrolled documents.
9. Goals are based on requirements, not negotiated.
10. Life cycle costs, not front end costs.  Examples of Controlled documents include:
11. Management must be involved and lead. - Quality Policy
12. Plan and organise for quality improvement. - Quality Manual
- Procedures
- Work Instructions
- Specifications
Making TQM work requires not only the commitment of the - HACCP systems
entire organisation, but also an understanding of quality - Codes of Practice
management, and the willingness toward change. The
central focus of TQM is identifying the customer, the  Controlled documents must be:
customer needs and requirements, and then setting out a - approved before issue
plan toward meeting those requirements. In order to do - reviewed and updated
this effectively, the organisation must have a good quality - changes identified
management system, statistical process control, and - up-to-date
teamwork. Implementing TQM must start with top - legible
- external documents also controlled Benefits
- obsolete documents removed.
The control of quality through a ‘Quality System’ gives the
 Document control is usually achieved by: following advantages over a ‘Final Inspection’ approach:-
- issuing on coloured paper or including colour  The use of documented procedures and specifications
logo ensures that everybody knows what they are supposed
- no photocopying to be doing.
- uniquely identified  The responsibility for quality sits with the people who
- pages numbered (e.g. Page 1 of 10) are operating the plant and making the malt.
 Quality problems will be identified as soon as they occur
- maintaining distribution list of holders rather than much later when the process is over.
- ensuring documents are not issued without
authorisation Maintenance of accurate records makes it easier to track
- only being available to staff who need to use back and investigate raw materials or processes so that
them ‘due diligence’ in manufacturing can be proved.
- limiting number of copies issued.
 Document change is controlled by: HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINTS
- approval of changes before issue (HACCP)
- issue of an amendment sheet so that changes are
identified When applied to the food and beverage industries, a HACCP
- keeping a master list of document numbers to procedure involves the systematic analysis of production
ensure all staff use up-to-date copies and handling processes from the purchasing of the raw
- retrieval of obsolete copies as replacements materials through to the end use of the product by the
issued consumer. A HACCP audit seeks to identify the source and
- archiving one copy. severity of potential hazards that may threaten the safety
or integrity of the product. It involves the identification of
The Maintenance of Conformity critical control points (CCPs), i.e. locations, stages,
Adherence to a well-established quality system will ensure operations or raw materials that if not properly controlled,
that conformity of product quality and company operation provide a threat to product acceptability and consumer
is maintained. safety.
However, all quality standards strive for improvement and (A) Role in Food and Beverage Production
this is often best achieved by regular management reviews One of the main difficulties faced by the food and beverage
of the quality system and appropriate communication to all industry in controlling the hygiene status of products is the
staff, especially for changes to systems and Regulations. time taken for conventional laboratory methods to produce
useful results.
Regular Quality Review meetings should:
 review the Quality Policy and Quality System at defined Understanding the source of contamination and the way in
intervals (at least annually) which different microorganisms respond to processing and
 be additional to departmental or section quality storage conditions enables prediction of their behaviour
meetings and the design of the processes and products to eliminate
 be chaired by senior management them or prevent them from growing. This concept forms
 include QA staff, production managers, auditors, the basis of HACCP approach to the control of
purchasing staff microbiological hazards.
 review the operation of the quality system
 ensure the policy and system are suitable and effective A properly designed and operated HACCP system is
 recommend changes essential to food handlers or processors intent on ensuring
 record actions and responsibilities the safety of their operation in the food supply chain.
 meeting agenda should include:
- audits (internal and external) (B) Hazard Analysis
- process performance Consideration of HACCPs is essential for maintenance of
- complaints high quality standards. Hazard analysis is equally applicable
- preventative and corrective actions to non-microbiological problems, e.g. the prevention of
- changes glass fragments in malt is an engineering problem.
- training needs Therefore, the panel assessing hazards must be composed
- supplier performance of all relevant specialists. A multidisciplinary team that
- future developments. covers all aspects of the production should carry out the
HACCP programme.

Briefly, hazard analysis comprises the following steps: (C) Practical Application
In practical terms, this involves the following procedures:
1. Prepare a flow diagram of the process, identifying
the hazards associated with each stage. 1. Define the process. The process must be accurately
and sequentially defined from start to finish, and this
2. Specify the control or preventative measures at is often done in the form of a flow diagram.
each stage.
3. Identify the CCPs for these hazards. 2. Identify all hazards and list the control measures.
Obvious sources of hazards are as follows:
4. Establish critical limits for each CCP.  Processing stages: time, temperature,
recontamination.
5. Establish corrective action to be taken when  Product shelf life: packaging, storage, and
monitoring indicates a fault at a CCP. temperature.
 Raw materials: micro-organisms, trace
6. Establish record keeping for HACCP; for contaminants such as pesticides and heavy
documentation, and verification that HACCP metals.
analysis is effective.
3. Assess the risk of hazard occurring. Once the
potential hazards have been identified the
KEYPOINT: Different food processes are vulnerable to associated risk of each should be quantified, usually
different hazards. There is no single hazard analysis that into high, medium and low categories.
covers all cases, but the general principles of HACCP will still
apply. 4. Identify CCPs and prepare a ‘decision tree’ for
action. Control of hazards is exercised at CCPs.
If a safety hazard is identified that results from inadequate These can be locations, procedures, practices or
or, in some cases, no control measures in place at a CCP, processes, such as maintaining staff hygiene
then as far as the legislation is concerned food safety is standards, correct operation of thermal processes,
lacking and the situation must be rectified. control of product storage temperatures etc.
When considering quality hazards, however, a more- 5. Establish critical limits for each CCP. Once CCPs have
defined risk assessment can prove very useful indeed. A been identified, the means of testing to ensure that
popular method of assessment is a dual risk assessment the control is adequate must be established for
based on the risk of the hazard occurring with control each. This assessment may include microbiological,
measures in place at a specified process step compared chemical, physical, sensory or administrative
with the probability of that hazard getting through to the procedures.
final product with subsequent control measures in place.
6. Establish monitoring procedures for each CCP.
A score is given in each case based on a scale of 1 to 5: Once established, all controls must be implemented
and the CCPs monitored to ensure that adequate
1. Minimal or no risk control is being maintained. Monitoring should be
2. Possible risk on a continuous basis.
3. Likely risk
4. Very likely risk 7. Establish corrective action for each CCP.
5. Definite risk Procedures must be written detailing the course of
action to be taken when the CCP is found to be ‘out
For example, it could be considered a ‘likely (3)’ risk of of control’. These procedures detail the steps to be
weevils gaining access to the barley in the silo block. taken to bring the CCP back into control.
However, the risk of the insects being carried through to
the final pack is ‘possible (2)’. The final risk assessment is 8. Establish record keeping and documentation.
given as 3/2.
9. Establish and audit procedure for verification.
The scores help to prioritise action. This is especially useful More detailed tests should be used periodically to
when action requires capital expenditure, or significant ensure the effectiveness of the HACCP system in
changes in procedures or process. Priority issues can be relation to the stated protocols and any hazards not
addressed first and should be addressed in the current included in the initial hazard analysis.
financial year. Other issues can take a back seat, although a
clear action plan must be documented and held with the 10. Review the HACCP system each time there is any
HACCP plan. change to the process. Any changes in the
production or handling processes that may affect
the HACCP system must be identified and

appropriate modifications to the HACCP system itself, but as it co-occurs with the more toxic DON it is
implemented. regulated by implication. T-2 and HT-2 co-occur with each
other, and are usually discussed with regard to the total
concentration of both mycotoxins. There is no ML set in
law, but a guideline from the European Commission has
requested food processors to monitor levels in grain and to
Is there a hazard at this process step? investigate the agronomic and storage history of any
(Consider carefully everything that could possibly go
samples which exceed 200µg/kg (different figures are set
wrong) for wheat and oats). Once sufficient data have been
Modify step, process or
collected by this surveillance, a review will be undertaken
YES product to develop controls if necessary.
Do preventative measures exist for this hazard?
YES
Fusarium infection is subject to various risk factors, but
NO Is control necessary at this there is no statistical model to predict particularly high risk
YES step for safety? practices for barley whereas there is such a model for
wheat. The factors are believed to be similar, so the advice
Is the step specifically designed to eliminate or reduce NO
the likely occurrence of the hazard to an acceptable
to growers is the same and includes
level? - Choose fusarium resistant varieties
- Do not follow a previous crop of maize
NO
YES NO
- Deep ploughing is better than low or no tillage
- Apply full fungicide programme
CCP
Could contamination occur at, or increase to, an
acceptable level?
- Monitor rainfall during flowering
NO
- Analyse before delivery if concerned
Not a CCP
NO YES It is the grower’s responsibility to ensure that the grain is
legal before delivery to a malting plant.
Will a subsequent step or action eliminate or reduce YES
the hazard to an acceptable level?
That said, the requirements of due diligence impose on the
maltster the need to operate a regime for sampling and
analysis as an assurance that grain is not taken into a
An example of a critical control point decision tree. maltings that has a mycotoxin level above ML. Accordingly,
a programme of random sampling is undertaken, with
An example of the implementation of HACCP for malt is greater frequency immediately after harvest until a picture
described on the Maltsters Association of Great Britain can be seen of a generally safe crop. Test kits are available
(MAGB) website. to allow analysis during the normal intake analysis time
period. These are not as accurate as full laboratory analysis
– which takes some hours to conduct. A back-up survey is
MALT RELATED FOOD SAFETY therefore undertaken to confirm the findings of the rapid
tests.
Potential contaminants from outside the malting plant –
field mycotoxins, agrochemicals, heavy metals If a sample is found to have a mycotoxin above the ML, a
repeat test will be carried out. If confirmed, then (in the UK)
Field Mycotoxins the Food Standards Agency must be informed, and steps
taken to try to remove the grain from the food chain. If the
Field mycotoxins originate from moulds which infect the result is from a rapid test at intake, this is straightforward
growing barley. The most important of these moulds are by rejecting the load which will likely then become animal
Fusarium species, especially graminearum and culmorum, feed. If the result is from grain which is in store, then
plus Microdochium species. The compounds are toxic and isolation can be difficult.
can cause a range of diseases and can even be fatal in high
doses. The most prevalent and toxic compounds are subject Over the next few years, the European Food Safety
to legal maximum limits (ML) in the European Union, and Authority (EFSA) wishes to collect information on the
information is being collected on more compounds to prevalence and levels of several other mycotoxins, including
inform potential future regulation and limits. Alternaria toxins, sterigmatocystin, diacetoxyscirpenol
(DAS), plus ergot and masked mycotoxins.
The field mycotoxins of most relevance to barley are
deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), nivalenol (NIV), Masked mycotoxins are those held in a form that does not
T-2 and HT-2. DON has a maximum limit of 1250µg/kg in show on conventional analysis – often a glycosylated form
barley intended for human consumption (ie entering the of the original chemical compound such as DON. Analysing
malting supply chain). There is a higher figure given as a these forms is a longer, more costly process, but it will be
guideline for barley intended for animal feed. ZEA, being necessary to ensure that their level entering the food chain
more toxic, has a ML of 100µg/kg. NIV is not regulated is safe and does not require specific legislation to control it.

In the UK, further approval is needed for agrochemicals to
Ergot is a contaminant of grain that has been recognised for be used on malting barley or hops. Obvious needs for such
hundreds of years. It is generally considered a physical additional approval are that a herbicide does not persist
contaminant that has chemical toxicity. It is a fungus that into the malting process and prevent germination of the
produces a fruiting body that occupies the space of a grain barley, or that a fungicide persists into the brewery and
on than ear of barley (or other cereal) – see picture 1. stops fermentation by yeast. Taste taints are also important
to avoid. The British Beer and Pub Association (BBPA, the
trade association for brewers) organises assessments and
publishes a list of acceptable agrochemicals.
Approval of chemicals is the first stage in control of

contamination – the next is their use on farm. A high degree
of trust is vested in growers in the expectation that they
follow Good Agricultural Practice (GAP). There are farm
assurance schemes (in the UK, for example, Red Tractor or
Scottish Quality Cereals) which arrange audits of registered
farmers to ensure that their practices meet agreed and
published standards. Sourcing barley from accredited
growers is an assurance that GAP has been operated. Due
diligence still requires that malt producers check by survey
Picture 1 Picture 2 the absence – or acceptable presence – of agrochemicals.
The fruiting bodies, or sclerotia, are a similar size or slightly

larger than the replaced corn – see Picture 2. The strain of Individual companies carry out surveys, and a co-ordinated
ergot that contaminates barley is Claviceps purpurea. survey is carried out by MAGB members to provide a
comprehensive picture of any one crop year.
Ergot contains hallucinogenic amines, which are the toxins
of interest and concern to the food industry. Control of In general, certain chemical residues may be found in barley
contamination is currently by rejection of any load of grain samples, but at levels consistent with GAP, and which are
that contains just one sclerotium. It is possible, at some safe for processing further into foodstuffs.
cost, to clean sclerotia from grain by passing the grain over
a photocell which activates rejection of black material.. Heavy Metals
Heavy metals, also sometimes referred to as potentially
There is little information available of the level of the toxic Toxic Elements (PTEs) in particular lead and to a lesser
amines that are transferred to the grain by the presence extent cadmium, can be taken up by the growing plant from
and physical degradation of the ergot bodies. This is a the soil, or can be deposited on to the grain from traffic
further area of work that EFSA are pursuing, again through fumes and other pollution in the air. Lead in food can
malt producers and other cereal processors. accumulate in the body and cause harmful effects.
Governments across the world have therefore tried to
Agrochemicals reduce the amounts of these metals in foodstuffs. The
increasing use of lead-free petrol has resulted in a decline in
Cultivation of commercial crops requires the application of contamination of foodstuffs, which allowed the legal limit
agrochemicals for various reasons – even if the crop is to be lowered from 2 mg/kg to the current limit of 0.2
grown to organic standards, although this specialised mg/kg from April 2002.
market is not covered in this section.
Limits are set by assessment of toxicity and the dietary
These chemicals include agents to control diseases such as intake of consumers, either by the CONTAM panel of the
fungal infection, to control insect infestation, fertilisers, European Commission or the Joint FAO/WHO Expert
growth regulators, desiccants and herbicides. Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The dietary limits are
expressed as ‘tolerable daily intake (TDI) or an equivalent
Any chemical used in agriculture within the European Union monthly or weekly figure. Recent consideration of the
has to be licensed for use, and this will only happen after physiological effects of lead has moved EFSA to removing
extensive trials and submission of an evidence pack to the any recommended tolerable intake.
European Commission for approval. Once approved,
chemical usage must be in accordance with label conditions In the UK, the Malting Industry has monitored its raw
for concentration, application rates, time of application materials for lead and cadmium over several years. The
(especially if there needs to be a period between results confirm that levels of these heavy metals in UK
application and harvest). The accepted safe maximum of an malting barleys are well below the current legal limit and
agrochemical is called the Maximum Residue Level or MRL. have been declining over the past five years, due largely to
the reduction of lead emissions from vehicles. Levels are
now often below the detection limit for lead.

Cadmium is present in soils to a greater or lesser extent,
and it is possible that levels occurring naturally may be
higher than desirable for food quality cereals. Monitoring
work must be undertaken to assess such a possibility.
Cadmium is present in phosphate fertilisers as a natural
contaminant, and there is discussion about removal of
cadmium (an expensive process) to reduce the levels
introduced from this source. Different sources of phosphate
fertilisers contain varying amounts of cadmium, so this
represents a potential means of control as well.
Other heavy metals which are monitored include arsenic,

copper, mercury, and zinc. Not all of these metals will have
a maximum level (ML) set in regulation, but there is a
presumption under food safety law that safe levels must be
adhered to.
Protection against insect infestation can also be achieved by
Again, a due diligence survey is the best means of dosing an approved storage insecticide onto the grain on its
monitoring heavy metal concentrations in barley and in way into store.
malt. Some result area available on the MAGB website.
Should raised temperatures be observed in the bulk grain
during storage, there are few options for remedial action.
Potential contaminants from within the malting plant – Moving the grain to steep or to an empty silo are
storage mycotoxins, NDMA/ATNC, ethyl carbamate possibilities – but at the risk in the latter case of spreading
the infestation. Fumigation with an insecticide – typically
Storage Mycotoxins phosphine – may be carried out on the static bulk, at some
cost but with no problems of chemical residue.
These mycotoxins originate during storage of the grain from
fungal growth, and include ochratoxin A (OTA) and a range NDMA/ATNC
of aflatoxins. In temperate climates, aflatoxins may not be a
problem in cereals storage and may therefore not need This potential contaminate was identified around 1980
monitoring. when analytical techniques improved to be able to identify
OTA is produced by Penicillium verrucosum and Aspergillus lower levels of the compound nitrosodimethylamine –
species, aflatoxins by Aspergillus species. NDMA.
The growth of these species during grain storage is A survey of beers showed that malt from certain maltings
dependent on the moisture content and temperature of the was responsible for higher levels of NDMA in the finished
grain, and it is practical to control this growth by ensuring product, and a rapid conclusion as to the common factor
that grain enters storage at appropriate moisture and that between these maltings was that they operated direct-fired
it is cooled promptly to a suitable temperature. gas kilns. Then the task of understanding the chemistry
started.
Once grain is safely in store, monitoring of temperature
must continue by a matrix of thermometers throughout the We are now able to benefit from those studies to
bulk. This will show whether heating is occurring through, understand that the nitrosylation of amines in the malt,
for example, insect infestation or water contamination particularly in the rootlets of the growing grain, was caused
leading to germination. Once an area of the bulk starts to by oxides of nitrogen in the gases which passed over the
heat, moisture rises from this area and can condense on grain in the kiln – styled NOx, as the important two gases
other grain, leading to further mould growth, insect or mite are NO and NO2.
proliferation and possible grain germination – a bulk can
quickly be spoilt from a quality viewpoint because of The maltings that did not produce high NDMA malt were
reduced Germinative Energy (GE) and from a food safety fired indirectly, or fired by oil or even coal. The difference
angle because of contamination with mycotoxin. A from the change of fuel was the pH on the surface of the
composite chart showing the safe zones of moisture and grain – more acid when the fuel contained sulphur which
temperature for insects, mould, mites and germination is burned to produce SO2 and created sulphurous acid in the
shown below. flue gases. The change for indirect-fired kilns was that the
flue gases did not pass through the grain, but instead the
drying air passed through a heat exchanger and was heated
Temperatures should be checked in store at least every by (typically) a thermal fluid – steam, hot water or thermal
week until they reach the safe zone, at which time the oil which itself had been heated in a boiler by the flue gases
frequency may be reduced to fortnightly. from the flame.

performance is bred into varieties, it can be expected that
The initial reaction for maltings with gas-fired kilns was to all barley malted for distilling will be GN free.
inject SO2 into the flue gas stream, or to burn sticks of A typical specification for GN in malt is <0.5g/tonne.
sulphur to achieve the same effect, mostly followed as
capital investment plans allowed by a change to indirect
firing.
References:
Ethyl Carbamate
MAGB Implementation of HACCP for barley and malt.
Some barley varieties produce high levels of cyanogenic http://www.assuredukmalt.com/The%20MAGB%20HACCP
glucosides, commonly known as glycosidic nitriles and %20Protocol%20%20Version%203.0.pdf
abbreviated to GN, when malted. The use of these varieties
in the distilling industry, under certain conditions, can BBPA list of approved pesticides for barley.
produce significant levels of a potentially carcinogenic http://www.ukmalt.com/sites/default/files/files/TECH-
compound – ethyl carbamate, often abbreviated to EC. 456%20BARLEY%20Feb%202012.pdf
Red Tractor http://assurance.redtractor.org.uk

The propensity for barley to produce GN is genetically
determined, and for many years plant breeders have been Scottish Quality Cereals http://www.sqcrops.co.uk
developing barley verities which produce only low levels of
GN. More recently, in response to the continuous MAGB survey of agrochemicals
improvement demanded by distillers, only nil-GN producers http://www.ukmalt.com/node/78
will be considered by the MAGB/IBD Malting Barley
Committee for approval for malting and distilling. MAGB survey of Heavy Metals
http://www.ukmalt.com/heavy-metals
In the future, as the essential combination of nil-GN, good
agronomic yields and high quality of malting/distilling

Section 15 Plant Cleaning; cleaning in place (CIP), pest control and
general cleaning.
TYPES OF SYSTEMS AND CLEANING CYCLES. might as well as areas not suitable for automated cleaning.
Typical areas not suited to automated cleaning include:-
There are essentially two types of plant cleaning available,  Kilns.
Manual Cleaning and Automatic Cleaning. For the purpose  Storage facilities
of this learning material assume all automatic cleaning  Dry product handling machinery
systems are of CIP type even if they have to be manually  General cleaning (eg: vacuuming floors, cleaning
activated. Automatic cleaning / CIP has been adopted into walls, cleaning railings etc)
the malting industry from the brewing and distilling
industries and is suitable for a number of specific types of Manual cleaning has the following benefits:-
cleaning duties. As you might expect the brewing and  No significant capital outlay.
distilling sector use a large number of enclosed systems  Adaptable to changing cleaning requirements.
such as pipes, tanks, vats etc. As these elements are usually  Can clean dry areas.
subject to filling with fluid it makes them particularly suited  Plant is observed more closely and issues can be
to automatic / CIP cleaning. Likewise, the malting industry brought to light early.
has some similar areas suitable for the automated cleaning.
Such areas include:- Disadvantages include:-
 Steep tanks  Standard of cleaning is determined by the
 Germination vessels individual and subject to variation.
 Conveying equipment/pipework associated with  Running costs are higher than automatic cleaning
both the above. due to the salary overheads in addition to the
cleaning materials.
Automatic / CIP cleaning in such systems has the following  Workers may be subject to any dangerous effects
benefits:- from cleaning materials during the cleaning
 Reduced downtime for cleaning procedures. process.
 No requirement to dismantle for cleaning.  Workers may be entering confined spaces.
 Cleaning can be programmed to begin at set stages  Cleaning can take longer to complete.
rather than wait for manual intervention.
 Workers are not subject to any dangerous effects Cleaning in place has replaced older methods where plant
from cleaning materials during the cleaning was dismantled for manual cleaning. Modern plants do not
process. have the manpower or time for manual cleaning operations
 Workers are not entering confined spaces. and they need the higher standards that an effective CIP
 If the CIP system is suitable for task then the task system can deliver.
will be repeated to a very similar standard during
each use. CIP is the circulation of detergents, water rinses and
 Chemical use can be optimised and evenly applied. sterilants through fixed plant without dismantling. In order
 Running costs are lower due to negligible to achieve this, plant has to be fitted with spray balls/heads
manpower required. and pipework has to be linked into a ‘ring’ main.
Disadvantages include:-
 High capital outlay.
 If not correctly set up, may fail to clean evenly or
to a high enough standard.
 Has a degree of burden for the plants engineering
department to maintain the extra equipment.
Manual cleaning on the other hand can be used to clean all

areas of a malting plant. A plant cleaning operative may be
tasked with cleaning any of the areas an automatic system

Delivery CIP Cleaning and Sterilising Programmes.
The standard programme is:-

Plant
 A rinse to remove as much soil as possible and to flush
this to drain. The time taken for these rinses will depend
C.I.P. on the plant and how easy it is to clean.
system Return
 A detergent recirculation to clean the plant. The time of
recirculation will depend on the level of soil in the plant,
but times of 30 to 60 minutes are common. As the plant
Pipework may contain rinse water, the first delivery may be run to
drain so as not to dilute the tank.
Delivery
 A rinse to remove traces of detergent. As the plant may
The detailed features of a CIP system to be considered are:- contain detergent, the first delivery may be returned to
the tank to save detergent.
 The CIP could be a ‘recovery’ or a ‘total loss’ system.
 A sterilization to destroy any remaining micro-
organisms. The time of sterilization will depend on the
 The CIP programme or sequence of cleaning elements.
level of microbiological contamination in the plant, but
 Plant CIP choice of spray head. times of 10 to 20 minutes are common. Micro-
organisms are destroyed by contact so that actual
 Flow rates, delivery and return. circulation of the sterilant is not necessary.
 Choice of cleaning/sterilising materials (se Section 16).  A final rinse if it is decided that no sterilant should
remain in the plant. This is similar to the initial rinse
 Automation and monitoring. although the water that is used must be
uncontaminated. If it is considered, however, that
 Running costs. residual traces of the sterilant will not harm the
product, the final rinse may be omitted. Water from the
final rinse can be collected and used as an initial rinse
Choice of System - Recovery or Total Loss.
when the next vessel is cleaned. The benefits of a final
rinse recovery being a reduction in water use, a
A recovery CIP system consists of tanks where supplies of
reduction in effluent and a more effective pre-rinse.
detergent and sterilant are held at the required
concentration for use. Cleaning fluids are delivered from
the tanks and returned to them. Detergent and sterilant Comparison of Recovery versus Total Loss Systems
strength is maintained in the tank.
The benefits and problems associated with ‘Recovery’ and
A total loss system doses concentrated detergent or ‘Total Loss’ systems are detained in the table below:-
sterilant into the delivery line and although they are re-
circulated, at the end of the clean the cleaning fluids are Recovery System Total Loss System
run to waste. Capital costs are higher Lower capital cost
because of the need for
large tanks
Running costs are Higher running costs

lower because all
chemicals are
recovered
Simple to operate. Complex control system

relying on detergent/sterilant
strength sensors.

Rotating spray heads are relatively expensive and are made
up of moving parts, therefore there is wear and tear during
Plant Cleaning
use.
Spray heads for plant CIP.
Rotating spray heads are often fitted with rotation
There are two main types of spray head, the fixed spray ball detectors because a stationary head will only clean a small
and the rotating spray head. section of the plant.
Fixed spray ball. Automation and monitoring.

This uses large volumes of cleaning liquid at low pressure.
Complex CIP systems are ideally controlled automatically,
It relies on the cleaning liquid flowing over the surface of the advantages being:-
the plant, therefore the whole surface must be covered.
Positioning of the head must ensure full coverage.  A programme can be designed and set when the plant is
commissioned to maximise cleaning and this will be
consistently adhered to.
Tank fitted with low Tank fitted with high
pressure fixed spray pressure rotating spray
head head  Detergent and sterilant strengths can be optimised.
(spray ball)
 A cleaning cycle can run unsupervised.
 Automated recording of cycle times, detergent

strengths and temperatures by the monitoring
equipment is available.
 Cleaning can be held up if a problem is detected.
 Sensors can detect detergent/sterilant strength on the

return line and direct the return to tank or drain saving
Burst rinsing is effective because the liquid finds new routes chemical costs.
to flow down with each burst.
The large volume of cleaning liquid used means that

attention needs to be paid to plant drainage/scavenge. The In the CIP system illustrated below, the following items are
base of a poorly drained plant is not cleaned because the automatically controlled:-
cleaning liquid does not flow over the surface at sufficient
speed.  Inlet and outlet valves of detergent/sterilant tanks.
Spray balls are relatively cheap and they are easy to  Delivery pump.
maintain although they can block up especially if the
cleaning liquid is unfiltered.  Rinse water and drain valves.
Rotating spray head.  Detergent/sterilant strength detection and tank top up

This is a mechanically driven head that rotates to direct a from bulk supplies.
high-pressure jet to the plant surface, usually in a pattern to
ensure that the entire surface is jetted. This principle means  Detergent/sterilant strength detection on the return
that it takes a specific time to complete the pattern and line.
cover all surfaces.
The mechanical force is a powerful aid to the cleaning

process and the system can use colder and or less
aggressive detergent than the fixed head.

 Rats
Auto
 Mice
Drain
sensing  Birds especially pigeons
 Weevils, beetles, mites
Auto Dilute Dilute Auto
sensing
Detergent Sterilant
sensing
Plant In the United Kingdom, malt plants are registered as food
and and
top up tank tank top up producers with their local authority and come under the EU
Food Hygiene Regulations in which are laid down general
hygiene requirements for all food business operators
stating that;
Rinse
water - The layout, design and construction of food premises are
to permit good food hygiene practices including protection
against contamination and in particular, pest control.
Plant Design - Hygiene Considerations. - There should be adequate procedures in place to control
pests.
Effective cleaning is the result of a combination of four A site pest control system should be a pre-requisite of the
factors:- company HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control
Points) system and is a requirement to comply with Good
 Time. How long is the cleaning agent/detergent in Manufacturing Practice and a number of standards
contact with the plant? including the Feed Material Assurance Scheme FEMAS.
 Temperature. How hot is the cleaning agent/detergent? Good practice for pest control:
The company shall develop and implement a pest control
 Chemical activity. How strong/effective is the cleaning program using a trained specialist that has been approved
in accordance with national legislation. The programme
agent/detergent?
shall ensure that all products, processes and other sensitive
areas are suitably protected from pest activity. The
 Physical activity. How vigorously is the cleaning
company shall ensure that all storage, processing,
agent/detergent applied to the plant? packaging and dispatch areas are protected against the
ingress of pests. Waste materials shall be regularly cleared
If one of these factors is reduced, for example if the plant away so as to avoid attracting pests. Records of all
has to be cleaned quickly, then another factor must be treatments and inspections shall be kept. The program can
increased to compensate, for example hot instead of cold be developed and operated in-house or sub-contracted. If
detergent could be used. an employee carries out the pest control it must be in
accordance with legislation and DEFRA guidance.
It follows that pest management should be carried out with

GENERAL SITE PEST CONTROL PRINCIPLES due diligence and be properly documented. Pest control
companies should be a member of a recognised trade
Overview association or body. In the UK these would be the British
Pest Control Association or National Pest Technicians
The objective of Site Pest Control should be to prevent, as Association.
far as practicable, the introduction of pests onto the site
and to reduce the conditions that may encourage their Effective site pest control requires an integrated approach
presence. involving appropriate site controls and support from a
suitable pest contractor.
The presence of pests should be regarded as unacceptable.
The risks posed by pests include: The objective is the maintenance of pest free conditions in
- Physical damage to product leading to possible quality all areas of the site. A systematic approach should be taken
loss and financial loss. to pest control and pest prevention involving exclusion,
- Increased food safety risk due to mycotoxin build up in restriction and destruction.
infested grain.
- Damage to property. Exclusion
- The spread of disease. Refers to the methods used to prevent pests entry onto site
- Adverse customer opinion and loss of reputation. or into a building. This will include vigilance at intake
The types of pests that are related to the malting industry

are as below:

Restriction 4) The contractor will provide proof of a Trade Body
Refers to the methods used in creating unfavourable Membership Certificate and Contractor Qualification.
conditions for pests to harbour and breed. Proof of contractor operator training must be regularly
checked.
Destruction
Refers to the physical and chemical methods used to 5) Details of out of hour contacts are to be available with
control pests. contractor and malt producer.
Most buildings provide 3 main attractions for pests: 6) Adequate measures must be taken to prevent pests
from entering buildings.
- Food and water – Most pests require very small
amounts of food, an adult mouse for example can 7) Appropriate measures of insect control, such as fly
survive on as little as 3 grams a day. It follows that screens, electronic fly killers, rodent baits etc. must be
cleaning is a key requirement of pest control as is provided, properly placed and maintained.
removal of water sources.
- Warmth – A few degrees increase in temperature 8) A reputable pest control contractor must be employed
may be sufficient to encourage infestation unless the company has equivalent expertise and
particularly in winter months. With most species of resources. In the case of a company-based pest
pests an increase in temperature corresponds to control service, the operation must be managed by an
an increase in breeding frequency and numbers. appropriately experienced supervisor.
- Shelter – All buildings provide a degree of shelter
or harbourage whether old or new, if they include 9) The contractor must be provided with a contract
areas allowing internal movement of pests such as specification which requires the contractor to report
wall cavities, service ducts, panelling and to the responsible manager before and following visits
suspended ceilings for example. to the premises. An exit meeting should take place
within an agreed time schedule to review findings of
the visit.
A Typical Pest Control Service Contract:
10) The contractor must provide the company with a
This will contain the following.
written report of any pest control activities
undertaken on the premises and must provide, where
needed, written recommendations of action required
Premises Risk Assessment.
to solve pest related problems.
The number and type of routine visits will be based on risk
assessment. This will consider the past history of the site. Is
11) All instances, as seen by any employee, of pests within
there documented evidence that rodents have been active
buildings or, in the case of rodents, within the site
in the last two years?
perimeter must be immediately reported to the
responsible manager.
The site’s potential for infestation. Does the layout,
construction, manufacturing process, hygiene practices or 12) Hygiene auditing must encompass routine surveillance
product lend the site liable to infestation? Are there water of buildings and perimeter for pests.
courses, railways, amenity sites nearby? Is the site situated
within or adjacent to a high risk area? 13) A manual must be available which will contain all the
relevant information of the pest control programme,
What is the status of neighbouring properties? Are the including a site plan with the location of all pests traps
activities of adjacent properties or businesses liable to where necessary.
attract pests into the vicinity?
14) Pesticides and chemicals when used must be industry
The key points of a Pest Control Contract are as below: approved and have the relevant documentation
including COSHH data sheets. Usages of pesticides are
1) Responsibility must be allocated to a senior manager. to be kept.
2) Suppliers Health, Safety and Environmental Policy and
Risk Assessments in relation to the tasks to be Pest Diseases:
undertaken. The Insurance documents of the Supplier
should also be available at all times. The supplier must a) Weil’s Disease
also provide a Waste Carriers Licence for approved
disposal of pests and pesticides. Weil's disease is an infection that humans can catch from
animals, including domestic animals like dogs. Perhaps most
3) The contract will identify terms and conditions
commonly however, the disease is spread by rats. Rats
including costs, frequency of visits, key contact details,
carry and excrete an organism called Leptospira ictero-
reporting mechanism and contract length.
haemorrhagiae in their urine. Between 50 and 60% of all

rats carry this organism. If humans are infected with this
organism, it can make them very ill and even result in
death. As many as 10% of all cases of human infection have
resulted in death.
Previously, Weil's disease only infected people such as

sewage or abattoir workers, although there have also been
incidents of farm workers and miners contracting the
disease. New research shows that people who perform
water activities, such as cavers and potholers, are also at
risk. Rats commonly live near water and other areas where
they can find food, such as farms, stables and riverbanks.
The organism that causes the disease in humans cannot live
for very long in dry conditions, but it can survive for some a) Fresh pigeon droppings, whilst unpleasant, pose
length in wet or damp areas. Salt water will kill off the no risk to health. It is dried droppings that can
organism. potentially spread infection
b) Spores from the dried droppings can be inhaled as
The organism that causes Weil's disease enters the body dust and carried on the wind. It can cause a flu like
through cuts, blisters or abrasions in the skin. It can also illness in healthy people, but poses more serious
enter via the lining of the nose or through the throat or problems to those with low immunity
alimentary tract. The disease begins with a fever, followed
by muscular aches and pains. Loss of appetite and vomiting Pest Proofing:
follow. The incubation period is 7 to 13 days.
Mice and Rats
b) Rat-bite Fever  Close all doors
 Block all spaces between doors and floor
Fatal in 10 percent of untreated cases. Usually contracted  Ensure all electrical conduit are fixed and enclosed.
from rats, but infection can also occur from mice. The  All grain spillages must be cleaned and removed
bacterium causing this disease enters the body through  Check brickwork and buildings for any gaps and
bites, as its name suggests, or from urine contaminating holes.
either food or pre-existing skin wounds.  All drains and water discharge areas are covered.
c) Salmonella:
Pigeons/Birds
Mice and rats are both frequent carriers. Spreads to  All doors and entrances must be kept shut
humans by contact with mouse droppings, especially  All grain spillages must be cleaned and removed.
through consumption of contaminated food. Causes  All windows are to be kept shut.
serious, sometimes fatal gastroenteritis. Household pets  Cover openings of grain with netting.
are also frequently infected with Salmonella by this means  Use imitation birds of prey to scare other birds
and often die as a result. away from the premises.
d) Pigeon Droppings:
Often referred to as ‘rats with wings’, feral pigeons have Insects/Mites

become just as much of a problem in towns and cities as  Clean all spillages.
their furry, four-legged counterparts.  Remove any dead pests.
 Ensure maltings is free from laying dust
Descendants of rock doves, originally cliff dwelling birds,
the feral pigeon has adapted well to living alongside
humans and is an integral feature of town centres. It is still Insect Detection and Control (material adapted from
unknown how big a health risk pigeons pose to humans, Purdue University Extension)
with many experts believing the chance of infection to be
slight.
An undisputed and particularly visual pigeon problem

however is mess. Combined pigeon deposits can weigh up
to several tons and can cost businesses a significant sum 1. GRANARY or GRAIN WEEVIL, Sitophilus granarius. This
per year to clear up. Droppings not only cause buildings to weevil, along with the closely related rice weevil, is among
look unsightly, but can cause long term damage to the most destructive of all stored grain insects. The larvae
buildings. develop inside kernels of whole grain in storage, thus
making an infestation difficult to remove in the milling

process. The granary weevil is largely a pest of stored 3. RED FLOUR BEETLE, Tribolium castaneum. This beetle is
wheat, corn, and barley, especially in elevators, mills, and similar to the saw-toothed grain beetle in habits and types
bulk storages. The adult cannot fly, and field infestations do of products infested. It is a serious pest in flour mills and
not occur. wherever cereal products and other dried foods are
processed or stored. Like the confused flour beetle (not
2. SAW-TOOTHED GRAIN BEETLE, Oryzaephilus pictured), the red flour beetle may impart a bad odor that
surinamensis. Along with flour beetles, the saw-toothed affects the taste of infested products.
grain beetle is one of the most common insects in stored
grain and cereal products. The larvae develop in flour, 4. LARGER CABINET BEETLE, Trogoderma inclusum.
cereal products, and many other dried foods. For this Representing a group also referred to as Trogoderma, the
reason, it is a common pest not only in grain bins, but also larger cabinet beetle is a scavenger that feeds on cereal
in elevators, mills, processing plants, warehouses, and products and dried animal matter. The fuzzy, slow-moving
kitchens. In grain bins, it feeds on broken kernels and grain larvae — similar to the larvae of carpet, hide, and larder
residues. beetles — often are found crawling about on or near the
products they infest.

5. LESSER GRAIN BORER, Rhyzopertha dominica. This pest grain borer, and larvae of the Angoumois grain moth are in-
is most common and destructive in warm climates but can ternal feeders.
spread to any area in transported grain. It is a problem of
grain only and not cereal products. The larvae develop External feeders (or “bran bugs”) that feed on grain dusts,
inside the kernels of whole grain. The adults also damage cracked kernels, and grain debris without entering the
grain by boring into the kernels and leaving them covered kernel, include Indianmeal moth, sawtoothed grain beetle,
with powder from the chewed material. red and confused flour beetles, flat grain beetle, and
cadelle. Other species, such as the foreign grain beetle and
6. RICE WEEVIL, Sitophilus oryzae . The rice weevil is hairy fungus beetle, feed on moulds or fungi growing on
similar to the granary weevil in both appearance and habits. grain stored at excessive moisture levels.
The name is misleading, however, because it infests other
grains besides rice. Adults can fly and, in warm climates, can
cause widespread damage to corn, wheat, and other grains Preventative Measures Before Binning
before harvest.
Grain Bin Clean-up: Newly harvested grain may become
7. INDIANMEAL MOTH, Plodia interpunctella. Common to infested when it comes in contact with previously infested
both stored grain and cereal products, Indianmeal moth grain in combines, truck beds, wagons, other grain-handling
larvae cause damage in corn meal, packaged foods, bagged equipment, augers, bucket lifts, grain dumps, or grain
grain, and grain in storage. Attack is confined to surface already in the bin. Insects may also crawl or fly into grain
layers of stored shelled corn and small grains. In the case of bins from nearby accumulations of old contaminated grain,
stored ear corn, however, feeding occurs anywhere livestock feeds, bags, litter, or any other cereal products.
because the moths crawl among the ears to lay their eggs. Insect infestations can be prevented with good
Larval feeding is characterized by a webbing of the material management practices. Where appropriate, the following
infested. The mature larvae then often leave the material guidelines should be used two or more weeks before grain
and crawl about in search of a place to pupate. is placed in bins:
8. CADELLE, Tenebroides mauritanicus. Both the adult and 1) Brush, sweep out and/or vacuum the combine, truck
larvae are large and easy to see. Both stages feed mainly on beds, transport wagons, grain dumps, augers, and elevator
the germ of stored grains, but may also attack milled cereal buckets to remove insect-infested grain and debris.
products. The larvae leave stored grain in the fall and
burrow into woodwork, such as wooden bins or boxcars, to 2) In empty bins, thoroughly sweep or brush down walls,
hibernate. They may also burrow into packaged cereal ceilings, ledges, rafters, braces, and handling equipment,
products, thus providing an entrance for other cereal pests. and remove debris from bins.
9. FLAT GRAIN BEETLE, Cryptolestes pusillus. This is a tiny 3) Remove all debris from fans, exhausts, and aeration
beetle that feeds primarily on the germ of stored grains, ducts (also from beneath slotted floors, when possible).
especially wheat. It is readily attracted to high-moisture
grain. In fact, under high-moisture conditions, the flat grain 4) Remove all debris from the storage site and dispose of it
beetle may also develop in many cereal products, but is not properly according to local / national guidelines (this debris
a common pest in kitchens. usually contains insect eggs, larvae, pupae, and/or adults,
all ready to infest the new grain).
Direct-feeding damage by insects reduces grain weight,
nutritional value, and germination of stored grain. 5) Remove all debris and vegetation growing within ten feet
Infestations also cause contamination, odour, mould, and of the bins (preferably the whole storage area).
heat-damage problems that reduce the quality of the grain
and may make it unfit for processing into food for humans 6) Examine area to determine if rodent bait stations are
or animals. Commercial grain buyers may refuse to accept required, and use if needed. Be sure to follow all label
delivery of insect contaminated grain, or may pay a reduced directions.
price.
7) Spray cleaned area around bins with a residual herbicide
Kinds of Stored Grain Insects to remove all undesirable weedy plants.
Several species of insects may infest grain in storage. The
principal pests that cause damage are the adult and larval 8) Inside bins, spray wall surfaces, ledges, braces, rafters,
stages of beetles, and the larval stage of moths. All may be and floors with an approved insecticides to the point of
a problem by their presence, either alive or dead, in grain runoff. Outside, spray the bases and walls up to 15 feet
that is to be processed for food. above the bases, plus the soil around the bins.
Stored-grain insects are known as “internal feeders” if they Preventative Measures During Binning
feed within the kernels, otherwise they are referred to as
“external feeders.” The granary weevil, rice weevil, lesser A grain protectant may be applied to grain that will be in
storage for one or more years. Grain protectants are

insecticides registered for application to whole grain to depends on the concentration of the fumigant, grain
protect against insect infestations while the grain is in temperature, and length of time the fumigant is in the bin.
storage. Grain protectants kill insects as they crawl about or The minimum exposure period is generally 72 hours. After
feed on treated grain and/or grain fragments. These fumigation, the grain must be aerated for at least 48 hours,
formulations are generally applied to grain as it is being or until the gas concentration level is below that listed for
augured, loaded, or turned into storage facilities. Do not that fumigant. All labelling information regarding safety in
apply grain protectants before high temperature drying handling and proper application techniques must be
because extreme heat will result in rapid volatilization and followed when making application. Specific safety
reduced residual qualities of the pesticide. Grain equipment such as the use or availability of self-contained
protectants applied to 13% moisture grain will have a breathing apparatus and specialized instruments to
greater residual life than grain at 15% or greater moisture. measure gas concentrations are now required.
Grain protectants, when applied according to approved use,
can be sold or fed immediately after application. Remember that although a successful fumigation does
drastically reduce the insect pest population, it offers no re-
Preventative Measures After Binning sidual effect. The grain becomes immediately susceptible to
Top-Dress: Some grain protectants may be applied as a reinfestation once the gas is evacuated (approx. 72 hrs).
surface treatment (“top-dress” or “cap off”) to the grain
mass already in storage to control “surface feeders” such as External Feeders
the Indianmeal moth larva. Remove any webbing that may There are several management options available for control
already exist (produced by the larvae) before applying the of “bran bugs” other than fumigating. Management
top-dress treatment. Raking the product into the top few decisions will vary depending on the insect species and
inches of levelled off grain will increase the likelihood that numbers present, the storage facilities, and how quickly you
the larvae will be controlled. want to move the grain.
No-Pest Strips: Approved insecticide impregnated strips Indianmeal Moth

may be hung in the open space of the grain bin during the The caterpillar (larva) is a surface feeder and stays in the
spring, summer, and fall months to control flying insects top 3-6 inches of the grain mass feeding on fines while
such as the adult Indianmeal moth creating a webbing. For control refer to PREVENTIVE
MEASURES AFTER BINNING.
Control Measures After Binning
Any time the grain is at or above 12°c, it should be in- Foreign Grain Beetle and Hairy Fungus Beetle
spected every two weeks for insect activity. Stored grain These beetles are fungus feeders and are present in the
pests are generally inactive at temperatures below 12°c. grain mass because of mouldy grain. Correcting aeration
Even if insects appear active only on the surface of the and/or moisture problems on the surface or within the
grain, use a grain probe or other sampling device and grain mass and removing the out-of-condition grain will
determine the extent of infestation within the grain mass. control this problem. Pulling grain out the centre of the bin
Insects collected should be identified before chemical (collection of fines), cleaning the remainder of the grain
treatment is considered. Knowing what insect species is mass as it is being moved, and conditioning (drying and
infesting stored grain can provide important information on cooling) the grain will provide a bin unsuitable for these
the grain condition and what should be done about it. mould feeders.
The most common stored grain insect pests may be Sawtoothed Grain Beetle, Red and Confused Flour Beetles,
grouped by their feeding habits. Listed below are Flat Grain Beetle, and Cadelle
appropriate management strategies for these groups. These secondary feeders infest bins because of the
availability of grain dusts, cracked kernels, and grain debris.
Internal Feeders These pests can be distributed and feeding throughout the
grain mass or localized because of a collection of fines, such
Weevils and Lesser Grain Borer as in the core of the bin where fines collect at binning. They
The only options with infested grain is to sell for animal will also feed on the dusts and damaged kernels created by
feed at a discounted rate, or fumigate it. All fumigants are internal feeders; if this is the case then the only control
classified as restricted use products. Fumigants are option is fumigation.
extremely hazardous for the user and must be applied by a
certified and licensed commercial fumigator. Fumigants for A grain bin of whole undamaged kernels is the key to
use in farm storage bins are registered as either “liquid preventing the secondary feeders. This may require running
under pressure” or “solid formulations.” Regardless of the the grain through a cleaner or aspirator while moving the
formulation, fumigants become effective when they change grain from one bin to another. This will not only remove the
to a gas form, and settle down through the grain mass. fines, but dead and live insects as well. Applying a grain
protectant) while moving this grain would be a sound
The grain bin should be air-tight and all openings sealed management practice. Refer to PREVENTIVE MEASURES
before fumigation. Best conditions for treatment are a calm BEFORE BINNING for proper preparation of the grain bin.
day with grain temperatures at or above 18°c. Success

Continued Stored Grain Pest Management GENERAL PLANT CLEANING
All grain producers having grain in on-farm storage need to
maintain a good management program that includes proper Plant cleaning can be split into either wet or dry cleaning.
grain-handling, regular grain inspections, and pest control.
Correct management `actions' taken as grain first goes into In wet areas cleaning is usually undertaken by the
on-farm storage and then throughout the storage period following means:
will minimize the chance of problems that necessitate
expensive `reactions'. Abrasion cleaning
In manual cleaning, the normal steps of cleaning are
Grain has a limited storage life. If most of this life is used up followed i.e. pre-rinsing by removing as much loose dirt as
during the autumn (fall) and winter, the grain may not possible followed by use of detergent at the correct
make it through the following summer. There are basic concentration and scrubbers. The scrubbing material
management practices, however, that can prolong this should not scratch the surface being cleaned. Therefore
storage life. Attention to these practices should help insure scrubbers or steel wools should be avoided. The surface
successful grain storage the year around. that has been cleaned should be rinsed thoroughly with
potable water.
Proper condition and moisture of grain for storage
Grain stores best if it is dry, cool and clean. Grain must be High Pressure Cleaning
dry to hold it through the summer months. Cooling can High pressure cleaning combines high pressure, high
sometimes replace drying, as when moist grain is held temperature and detergent. This cleaning technique allows
through the winter. And grain that is clean will better resist effective cleaning of surfaces that are difficult to access,
mold growth and insect infestation even if stored at 1-2 e.g. top of pipes and ceilings. Cleaning at high pressure
percent higher moisture content than will grain that is (high hydraulics) and high temperature will minimise the
`dirty' (i.e., containing a lot of broken kernels, chaff and detergent usage. The use of a high pressure gun at
foreign material). appropriate pressure will ensure that even stubborn soil is
removed.
Aeration to maintain grain in storage Foam Cleaning

To maximize storage life and prevent moisture migration In foam cleaning, the working solution is diluted with air.
and buildup, grain should be held at near-average outdoor Strong detergent solutions can be used. Because of dilution
temperatures. The technique now used almost exclusively with air, small quantities of water are used. The generated
to control and maintain these desired grain temperatures is foam adheres to dirt, emulsifying and loosening it. The
aeration, which merely mechanical ventilation of grain in foam is removed by rinsing with water. An advantage of
storage. using foam as opposed to just a cleaning agent is that it
improves the surface contact time of the cleaning agent
Why Aeration Is Necessary In On-Farm Bulk Grain Storage with the surface being cleaned.
In large storage bins the grain bulk or mass is so large that it
fails to cool uniformly enough to avoid storage problems as In dry areas cleaning is usually undertaken by the
outdoor temperatures change with the seasons. The
following means:
unequal temperature in the grain mass then causes air
current to circulate from warm to cold grain.
Brush
Since warm air holds more moisture than cold, the air Brushes may be used in many areas of the malting plant to
moving up through the warm grain centre picks up a full sweep up debris, spilled grains or even dust. It should be
load of moisture, depositing some as it moves through the noted that using brushes to sweep dust can result in the
cold grain in the top layer. This causes moisture build up, dust being redistributed to atmosphere. This contributes to
molding and crusting. These minute `convection currents' in
the health and safety of personnel from both the possible
the grain cause moisture migration and accumulation that
can only be prevented by reducing temperature difference inhalation of the dust to the increased explosion risk form
in the grain bulk. having airborne dust. Not to mention that airborne dust
will eventually resettle.
Uniform temperatures can be maintained in aerated grain
storage if the aeration system has been well designed and is Vacuum
properly operated.
Particularly suited to dusty areas, the vacuum removes the
dust safely to a dust vessel or such. A malting plant will
(material adapted from Purdue University Extension)
typically have a fixed vacuum system installed whereby
there is a centralised vacuum cyclone unit providing the
suction and a network of fixed pipes to each floor. Portable
vacuums may also be employed but are limited to their
capacity and portability. Vacuum systems can use a

number of different attachments for cleaning areas of the pools, and hot water systems used in all sorts of premises
plant in the same way a modern household vacuum does. (work and domestic).
All vacuum components should be anti-static and where
possible earthed to avoid electrical discharge during How do people get it? People can catch legionnaires’
cleaning. disease by inhaling small droplets of water, suspended in
the air, containing the bacteria. Certain conditions increase
Legionella the risk from legionella, including:
Legionellosis is the collective name given to the pneumonia-  water temperature between 20–45⁰C,
like illness caused by legionella bacteria. This includes the which is suitable for growth
most serious legionnaires’ disease, as well as the similar but  creating and spreading breathable
less serious conditions of Pontiac fever and Lochgoilhead droplets of water, e.g. aerosol created by
fever. Legionnaires’ disease is a potentially fatal form of a cooling tower, or water outlets
pneumonia and everyone is susceptible to infection.  stored and/or re-circulated water
However, some people are at higher risk, including:  a source of nutrients for the organism e.g.
 people over 45 years of age presence of sludge, scale or fouling
 smokers and heavy drinkers Ref:- http://www.hse.gov.uk/legionnaires/what-is.htm
 people suffering from chronic respiratory or kidney
disease Within a malting plant there a number of places that could
 anyone with an impaired immune system be susceptible to legionnaires disease developing.
Examples are:-
The bacterium Legionella pneumophila and related bacteria  Any hot or cold water storage vessel
are common in natural water sources such as rivers, lakes  Shower systems
and reservoirs, but usually in low numbers. They may also  Humidification systems
be found in purpose-built water systems such as cooling  Cooling towers
towers, evaporative condensers and whirlpool spas.
Where does it come from? Prevention
Perform a risk assessment of any areas that could be
Legionella bacteria are widespread in natural water subject to contamination and act upon it. Prevent water
systems, e.g. rivers and ponds. However, the conditions are temperatures for stored water dwelling within the range
rarely right for people to catch the disease from these 20-45⁰C Ensure all water storage is clean and devoid of
sources. Outbreaks of the illness occur from exposure to contaminants. Above 60⁰C the bacteria are killed.
legionella growing in purpose-built systems where water is Therefore use temperature as a means of killing the
maintained at a temperature high enough to encourage bacteria. Treat water where temperature treatment is
growth, e.g. cooling towers, evaporative condensers, spa impractical to kill the bacteria or limit its growth.

Section 16 Engineering Maintenance.
MALTING PLANT MAINTENANCE – APPROACHES AND 4. Predictive maintenance.

TASKS. This is where plant condition is monitored and a prediction
is made about when it is likely to break down. A
Maintenance is the management of activities that maintenance programme is developed based on the
contribute to optimum levels of availability and information gathered.
performance of plant.
This is called ‘Condition Monitoring’ and specifically it is a
The AIMS of maintenance are: maintenance process where the condition of equipment is
 To sustain the functionality of plant monitored for early signs of impending failure. Equipment
 To minimise downtime can be monitored using sophisticated instrumentation such
 To provide a safe environment for personnel as vibration analysis, oil analysis, laser alignment of shafts in
operating/cleaning/maintaining the plant rotating equipment and thermal imaging. More
 To protect product quality traditionally, temperature, over voltage or current and
 To prove due diligence, for example for consumer liquid level has been monitored to warn of problems.
safety Equally monitoring can be manual often using the human
 To ensure legal requirements are met, for example senses. Where instrumentation is used (automatic
environmental compliance monitoring) actual limits can be imposed to trigger
 To protect the value of plant maintenance activity, generally through a computerised
maintenance management system.
There are four approaches to maintenance.
Predictive maintenance can also be known as Condition
1. No maintenance. Based maintenance. A further variation can be Risk Based
This is when no checking and no maintenance take place at maintenance where maintenance tasks are arranged to
all. reflect the risk of failure based on predicted plant life and
plant history.
This applies to certain items like electrical components that
as and when they fail are discarded and replaced. This Comments
approach will only be appropriate in some circumstances.
a) Whatever maintenance system is employed all activities
2. Breakdown maintenance. must be carried out safely and meet all legal requirements.
This is when equipment is only attended to if it breaks To meet these requirements a system of ‘safe working
down. practices’ should be employed to ensure that Health and
Safety is treated as a priority at all times. A system of safe
With this system, there is a big risk of lost production working practices would include items such as:
because breakdowns often occur at the worst time.
 Some form of permit to work.
It may be applicable if duplicate plant is installed; otherwise  Use of the correct personal protective equipment.
a big stock holding of spares is needed. Breakdown  Interlocked guarding systems.
maintenance can also be known as Corrective maintenance.  Training
 System reviews
3. Preventative maintenance.
This is where plant is maintained to a plan whether or not it b) Most maintenance systems now employ computers for
shows signs of wear. recording information, issuing work and storing plant
history. This also enables automatic electronic spares
Usually several similar components are replaced at the ordering and easily obtainable financial information about
same time, for example pump glands or wear strips on maintenance.
conveyors.
c) The cost of engineering maintenance needs to be
Planned maintenance can vary from a weekly inspection controlled so annual budgets and regular reviews (normally
and oil top, through two or three day mini-overhauls, up to monthly) of expenditure are a pre-requisite for control
a complete line or major item annual overhaul. purposes. The normal costs for day-to-day maintenance
activities are usually referred to as revenue items whereas
The concept is that unforeseen breakdowns are much less the purchases of new plant like a barley screen or boiler are
likely to occur. capital items.
Preventative maintenance can also be known as Planned
maintenance or Planned Preventative maintenance.

The advantages and disadvantages of the various Three process improvement initiatives are:-
maintenance systems are detailed in the table below:
 Reliability Centred Maintenance (RCM) where teams of
System Advantages. Disadvantages. key personnel for example maintenance engineers and
No Easy to set up. Risk of plant unavailability at plant operators decide on how the plant can fail, the
maintenance. Appropriate in some key times.
circumstances High cost of replacement parts. consequences of failure and finally the most appropriate
maintenance procedures that will reduce the incidence
Breakdown No unnecessary work Risk of plant unavailability at of failure.
maintenance. on the plant. key times.
High cost of spares.
Preventative Work done on the Expensive.
 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) where the plant
Maintenance. plant at a convenient Plant may be worked on technicians/operators are trained to pay strict attention
time. unnecessarily. to detail, to take great pride in their equipment and to
Less likelihood of tolerate zero plant defects.
breakdowns.
Predictive Most effective use of Complex information system
maintenance. engineering resources. needs to be maintained.  Workplace Organisation (5S) where
Work done on the technicians/operators focus on achieving and
plant at a convenient maintaining visual order and cleanliness. 5S aims to
time.
remove unneeded items and organise the workplace so
Less likelihood of
breakdowns. that it is easy for the operatives to carry out their tasks
and maintain a clean and orderly environment.
TYPES OF TASKS ASSOCIATED WITH ENGINEERING In more detail:

MAINTENANCE.
Reliability Centred Maintenance (RCM)
Whether the conditions are breakdown, planned,
preventative or associated with an overhaul the majority of The principles which define and characterise RCM are:
engineering maintenance tasks can be linked to the  a focus on the preservation of system function;
following headings:  the identification of specific failure modes to define
Mechanical loss of function or functional failure;
Lubrication  the prioritisation of the importance of the failure
Electrical modes, because not all functions or functional failures
Software/hardware are equal;
Calibration  the identification of effective and applicable
Inspection maintenance tasks for the appropriate failure modes.
Condition monitoring (Applicable means that the task will prevent, mitigate,
Cleaning of plant detect the onset of, or discover, the failure mode.
Health and Safety Effective means that among competing candidates the
Recording and updating information selected maintenance task is the most cost effective
option).
Notes.
Specify important pieces of mechanical and electrical plant These principles, in turn, are implemented in a seven-step
that you are familiar with. What method of maintenance is process:
employed to ensure that these pieces of plant or equipment
perform as required? 1. The objectives of maintenance with respect to any
Describe in detail a variety of maintenance tasks that are particular item/asset are defined by the functions
performed under the headings shown above. of the asset and its associated desired
How much does engineering maintenance cost on an annual performance standards.
basis. How is the budget controlled? 2. Functional failure (the inability of an item/asset to
Find out the costs of major capital plant items. meet a desired standard of performance) is
Describe how health and safety and other legal identified. This can only be identified after the
requirements are met under the engineering maintenance functions and performance standards of the asset
banner have been defined.
3. Failure modes (which are reasonably likely to
cause loss of each function) are identified.
PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENTS. 4. Failure effects (describing what will happen if any
of the failure modes occur) are documented.
Poor plant performance and plant failure in one form or 5. Failure consequences are quantified to identify the
another has a major impact on business performance; criticality of failure. (RCM not only recognizes the
consequently systems that improve plant reliability are importance of the failure consequences but also
becoming widely implemented. classifies these into four groups: Hidden failure;

Safety and environmental; Operational and Non- developing preventive actions and general breakdown
operational.) services, whereas operating staff take on the "ownership"
6. Functions, functional failures, failure modes and of the facilities and their general care. Maintenance staff
criticality analysed to identify opportunities for typically move to a more facilitating and supporting role
improving performance and/or safety. where they are responsible for the training of operators,
7. Preventive tasks are established. These may be problem diagnosis, and devising and assessing maintenance
one of three main types: scheduled on-condition practice.
tasks (which employ condition-based or predictive
maintenance); scheduled restoration; and (4) Train all staff in relevant maintenance skills: the defined
scheduled discard tasks. responsibilities of operating and maintenance staff require
8. that each has all the necessary skills to carry out these
Although one of the prime objectives of RCM is to reduce roles. TPM places a heavy emphasis on appropriate and
the total costs associated with system failure and continuous training.
downtime, evaluating the returns from an RCM program
solely by measuring its impact on costs hides many other (5) Achieve early equipment management: the aim is to
less tangible benefits. move towards zero maintenance through "maintenance
prevention" (MP). MP involves considering failure causes
Typically these additional benefits fall into the following and the maintainability of equipment during its design
areas: stage, its manufacture, its installation, and its
(1) improving system availability; commissioning. As part of the overall process, TPM
(2) optimising spare parts inventory; attempts to track all potential maintenance problems back
(3) identifying component failure significance; to their root cause so that they can be eliminated at the
(4) identifying hidden failure modes; earliest point in the overall design, manufacture and
(5) discovering significant, and previously unknown, failure deployment process.
scenarios;
(6) providing training opportunities for system engineers TPM works to eliminate losses:
and operations personnel;  Downtime from breakdown and changeover
(7) identifying areas for potential design enhancement; times
(8) providing a detailed review, and improvement where  Speed losses (when equipment fails to operate
necessary, of plant documentation. at its optimum speed)
 Idling and minor stoppages due to the
abnormal operation of sensors, blockage of
work on chutes, etc.
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)  Process defects due to scrap and quality
TPM aims to establish good maintenance practice through defects to be repaired
the pursuit of "the five goals of TPM":  Reduced yield in the period from machine
start-up to stable production.
(1) Improve equipment effectiveness: examine the
effectiveness of facilities by identifying and examining all Workplace Organistion (5S)
losses which occur - downtime losses, speed losses and
defect losses. 5S can be broken down into 4 activities and one
conviction to continue with the 4 activities. 5S
(2) Achieve autonomous maintenance: allow the people originated in Japan and there are many translations of
who operate equipment to take responsibility for, at least the Japanese words for 5S – a common set is listed
some, of the maintenance tasks. This can be at: below:
 The repair level (where staff carry out instructions
as a response to a problem);  “Sein” - Sort
 The prevention level (where staff take pro-active  “Seiton” - Set in order
action to prevent foreseen problems); and the  “Seiso” - Shine
 Improvement level (where staff not only take  “Seiketsu” - Standardise
corrective action but also propose improvements  “Shitsuke” - Sustain
to prevent recurrence).
Sort
(3) Plan maintenance: have a systematic approach to all The aim of Sort is to remove from the workplace items
maintenance activities. This involves the identification of that are not needed, such as tools, materials and parts,
the nature and level of preventive maintenance required and to identify what items are needed to perform the
for each piece of equipment, the creation of standards for operations at each of the workstations.
condition-based maintenance, and the setting of respective
responsibilities for operating and maintenance staff. The Set in order
respective roles of "operating" and "maintenance" staff are Set in order is the part of the 5S technique that
seen as being distinct. Maintenance staff is seen as arranges materials, components and tools in such a

way that the operatives can easily access them. An
example of this is a shadow board, where each tool has All three methods rely on detailed records and analysis and
its own place and can be easily located. Additionally, if ‘problem solving’ in a teamworking environment. These
an empty place exists on the board the missing tool can methods also depend on the teams being supported by
easily be identified. senior management.
Shine High initial set-up costs ultimately enable the achievement

For Shine, the workplace needs to be kept clean so that significantly improved and sustainable plant reliability.
it is safe for the operators to carry out their tasks and
move around their workstation. This also benefits Comments:
productivity as the easier it is for the operatives to There are a number of performance improvement
move around the quicker it is for them to carry out initiatives that are similar to RCM, TPM and 5S. The
their tasks. majority of them focus on improving plant performances by
combining a number of simultaneous initiatives and
Standardise typically include the following:
Formalise the Sort, Set in order and Shine activities to
standardise their practice so that all involved can  ‘Organisational Changes’.
achieve the same results. Application of this will ensure  Computerised systems for maintenance,
that the workplace is clean and organised. measuring plant breakdowns and performance.
 Predictive maintenance techniques.
Sustain  Cleaning-inspection-lubricate.
The sustain activity will ensure that 5S is ingrained in  Teamworking.
the organisation culture. Sustain aims to keep the  Improvement analysis (various techniques).
workforce focussed on carrying out 5S activities on a  Defining roles, responsibilities and accountabilities.
regular basis, usually daily. Performance is measured to  Training and education.
maintain consistency and ensure that all involved are
informed of their progress.
Notes.
The direct changes resulting from carrying out 5S are Describe the typical features of a performance improvement
workplace tidiness and orderliness; these have a initiative you are familiar with.
beneficial effect on a large number of other factors Describe your role and responsibilities, who you consult and
which improve efficiency. These range from reduced who you inform.
time searching for tools, reduced changeover time,
reduced inventory to reduced cycle time.

Section 17 Utilities; energy, water and effluent in malting.
unit is higher than gas as oil is viscous and

TYPES OF FUEL IN THE MALTING INDUSTRY more difficult to handle. Importantly the
maltings would need a storage vessel to hold
Overview: the oil before use and this area would need to
be bunded to contain the product in case of
This topic will provide information of alternatives for the spillage. An advantage of utilising this product
provision of fuels utilised in the malting industry. Fuel is a is that it already contains a low percentage of
major contribution to the cost of the malting process and is Sulphur and this would provide controls for
linked to efficiencies, but also food safety of the final NDMA formation. Heavy fuel oil is also used,
product. The process areas requiring a high load of fuel again requiring good burner maintenance and
consumption are kilning of malt and barley drying. on-site storage for the fuel.
1. Choice of fuels available: f. Indirect Heating:
a. Tradition - Kilns were traditionally heated by • Indirect heating provides a physical barrier
direct burning of fuels such as wood, between flame and drying air.
anthracite, peat, oil or gas. • Heat can be transferred from a boiler by
pressurised water, thermal fluid or steam. This
b. Gas - Natural gas is the cleanest burning fossil has the advantage of a remote heating plant.
fuel. Coal and oil, the other fossil fuels, are • Specially designed heaters, e.g. Air Frohlich
more chemically complicated than natural gas, ‘Anox’ or Flucorrex ‘Varinox’ contain
and when combusted, they release a variety of combustion in tubes with kilning air flowing
potentially harmful chemicals into the air. over the tubes.
Burning methane releases only carbon dioxide • Water of combustion does not affect the
and water. Since natural gas is mostly drying.
methane, the combustion of natural gas • No additional NOx is formed in the kilning air.
releases fewer by products than other fossil • Conducive to high degree of heat recovery
fuels. Water of combustion formed during the with flue gas cooled to <50°C and efficiencies
process of burning gas will reduce the drying >100% of Net Calorific Value.
effect slightly.
2. Fuel cost control:
c. Direct heating methods via a burner unit:
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) formed in the flames There are a number of factors to take into consideration
(esp. Natural Gas) will produce NDMA (n- when trying to control the fuel costs in a maltings.
nitrosodimethylamine) with certain proteins in Importantly the business must have resource to provide a
the malt. To counteract the formation of purchasing strategy for fuel purchasing. There a number of
NDMA, sulphur would be burnt during the ways to purchase fuel including spot, forward buying and
early stages of the kilning process, reducing hedging. There are no perfect methods for purchasing fuel,
the pH level on the grain surface. Oil and coal but expertise is key to ensure it is undertaken correctly.
have sufficient sulphur content to prevent
NDMA formation. Below are a number of considerations to be undertaken to
control the cost of fuel use.
d. To minimise the formation of NDMA, low NOx
burners provide controlled combustion
o
temperatures at temperatures below 1250 C 1. Housekeeping
and therefore will reduce the formation of – Ensure no leaks in the drying units where
NOx products. hot air can escape.
– Kiln bed is evenly compacted & flat, this
Direct combustion is probably the cheapest in will enable the warm air to pass through
capital cost terms. the bed of malt with even distribution.
It should be remembered that there is a major – Kiln is stripped & loaded as quickly as
fire risk since cereal matter may be in direct possible. If the kilns cool down due to a
contact with flames from the fuel. slow process, it will require more fuel to
re heat the drying unit.
e. Low sulphur gas oil, fuel oil. – This fuel
medium would be used in conjunction with a 2. Insulation: the kilns must be insulated, so that the
direct fired burner, but due to the nature of heat will be contained within the building. also the
the product, the maintenance of the burner
kilns must contain no leaks, so all holes in the 3. Combined heat and power systems, CHP Technology
fabric should be filled and doors correctly sealed. A CHP plant consists essentially of an electrical generator
combined with equipment for recovering and using the
3. Process control: The system will ensure the correct heat produced by that generator. The generator may be a
sequence of kilning is followed and fuel costs are prime mover such as a gas turbine or a reciprocating
finely managed by correct use of heat, engine. Alternatively, it may consist of a steam turbine
recirculation and reuse of warm air. generating power from high-pressure steam produced in a
boiler. In some cases, a CHP scheme may be a combination
4. Moisture of final malt: It is essential that the of prime mover(s), boiler(s) and steam turbine(s) as shown
correct moisture is attained, but no lower, as in the image below.
energy may be wasted by lowering the moisture
beyond the necessary requirements. CHP plant can be broadly placed into three categories:
5. Air recirculation (post-break): warm air with low Packaged CHP :

moisture content can be used to lower the amount Packaged CHP are designed and supplied as complete units
of fuel required. that can easily be connect to a building’s electrical and
heating systems. Typically these units range in size from
generating 50 kW to over 1 MW generating capacity. They
6. Glass tube heat exchanger: The exhaust air from
are usually provided with an integrated remote monitoring
the kiln passes on one side of a set of glass tubes,
and control system.
with ambient air flow on the other side being pre-
heated. The process is particularly efficient as it
What are the advantages?
gains the latent heat of condensation from the
exhaust air in the period before the break point  Simple to integrate into site utilities
and for some time after it.  Fit and forget system
 Lower training requirements
What technologies are used?
7. Run around coils: A fuel medium in a contained
Packaged CHP typically use well known technologies,
unit is warmed up by air leaving the exhaust of the
current development favours reciprocating internal
kilns. The heated fuel medium is then pumped into
combustion engines.
a heat exchange unit where the ambient air passes
Other technologies with development potential are fuel
over prior to being forced through the kiln bed.
cells, and micro gas turbines.
The cooled fuel medium is then warmed up again
by the exhaust air from the kilning process.
Custom built CHP :
Custom CHP systems are designed and built to meet the
8. Multiple kilns linked: Kilns are linked together and specific requirements of the site. These systems are usually
fuel use is reduced due to the exhausted heat from integrated into the site's utilities and services. Typically
the kilns is recirced between the units. The these schemes range in size from generating 1 MW to 100s
temperature exchanged between the kilns is of MW generating capacity.
controlled by the air off temperature and the
moisture content in the exhaust air. What are the advantages?
Double deck kilns: An example of linked kilns is a
 Custom designed for customers’ requirements
double deck kiln. The diagram below (figure 1)
 More flexible than packaged systems
illustrates the movement of dry air from the lower
 Typically more efficient than packaged systems
kiln bed into early stages of the batch in the top
 Typically longer service intervals than packaged
layer.
systems
Fig.1
What technologies are used?
Custom CHP systems typically use well known technologies,
current development favours open and combined cycle
turbine systems due to their high reliability and lower costs
at high generating capacities.
Renewables CHP, designed to utilise can renewable fuels or

feedstocks.
The key benefit of CHP generation is that much of the heat
which would otherwise be wasted from power only
generation is recovered for additional uses, thereby
reducing overall fuel consumption and atmospheric
emissions of greenhouse and polluting gases. Renewable
CHP generation reduces further still the carbon intensity of

power generation through the use of carbon neutral, WATER SOURCES, TREATMENT AND USES IN MALTING
renewable fuels.
The aims of steeping are to get barley to take up water to
Many of the technical aspects of Renewables CHP are the initiate germination and to increase the moisture content
same as conventional fossil fuel fired CHP. substantially to achieve an appropriate level of endosperm
hydration for adequate modification.
A modern maltings with batch sizes up to 400 tonnes can

use a very large amount of water (circa 3.5 – 4.5 m3/T). A
maltings needs a reliable supply of large volumes of
uncontaminated water, steeping liquor, free of pathogenic
organisms, chemical contaminants or substances able to
taint the malt, and iron salts, which give the malt a dull,
grey appearance caused by the colour given by the
interaction of the ferric ions and the polyphenols in the
husk.
The nature of the steep water can influence malt quality.

Highly saline waters are unsuitable, but generally the small
amounts of salts dissolved in potable waters have minimal
or no detectable effects on steeping. Chalky, alkaline waters
are said to limit microbial growth in steep, and washing
with short exposure to half- or completely saturated
limewater (water saturated with calcium hydroxide, slaked
lime) was once common.
The two type GC 357 N5 CHP plants equipped with MTU Malt producers may draw their water from boreholes or
Series 400 engines deliver around one megawatt of thermal from domestic supplies. The latter is almost always the
and approx. 700 kilowatts of electrical energy more expensive choice.
Water from boreholes also has inherent risks that need to

be managed. Contamination either chemically or
Further potential Energy plants for the malting industry biologically is a real concern and equipment to deal with
these risks needs to be adopted. Chemical contamination
Anaerobic Digestion by ferric, magnesium ions, nitrates and nitrates can be
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is the accelerated decomposition removed by passing the water through a catalytic media for
of biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen by the ions and a reverse osmosis plant for the nitrates and
anaerobic bacteria known as anaerobes. This process can nitrites if the levels are unacceptably high.
be carried out in purpose built vessels known as anaerobic
digesters for the purpose of producing a medium calorific UV light is commonly used to sterilise the water. Pathogens
value gaseous fuel known as biogas. AD also produces a such as clostridium, E Coli and various coliforms may be
stabilised nutrient rich solid by-product known as digestate found in borehole water.
which, depending on the digester feedstock, can be used as
a soil improver and fertiliser. Addition of chemicals (chlorine in particular) is to be
avoided if possible as it may lead to taints in the malt as
Anerobic Digestion is suitable for the conversion of wet well as additional costs.
biomass material into biogas. Typical digester feedstocks
include sewage sludge, industrial effluent and malt waste Usually the appropriate government body must license a
eg pellets and screenings. Solid biomass which is high in borehole for extraction rights, (Environment Agency or
lignin, such as wood and straw, is resistant to anaerobes SEPA in the UK). Flow rates and total volumes extracted
and is therefore not suitable as feedstock for digesters. may be regulated.
Biogas is suitable for use in boilers, gas engines and gas It has long been recognized that by warming water and
turbines and it is common practise to utilise biogas in CHP steeping at slightly higher temperatures the duration of
units for simultaneous generation of heat and power. The steeping can be shortened.
heat generated by the CHP units is primarily utilised for
digester heating with surplus heat available for secondary However, there are physiological limits on how warm steep
uses such as greenhouse heating or for distribution to other liquor can be before germination is reduced and, at even
users via a district heating network. higher temperatures, grain is killed. Steep temperatures of
up to 18 °C are not unknown, and the temperatures are
closely controlled. To achieve this, the water is normally

stored in large, insulated holding tanks warmed by heat molecular-weight substances: dissolved salts, hexose and
exchangers. Sometimes, final temperatures are achieved by pentose sugars, amino acids, organic acids (including
blending water from hot and cold sources. Another phenolic acids) and phosphates dissolved from the surface
advantage of having a water-storage tank is that it can be layers of the grains and from the interiors of broken grains.
filled at a moderate rate using small mains and pumps, but The liquid is prone to froth. Initially it may contain floating
using gravity feed and large mains it can be used to fill grains and awns.
steeping vessels very rapidly indeed, saving 'turn round'
time and ensuring that all the grains in a batch are wetted Steeping losses vary in the range 0.5-1.5% (dry basis) so a
at nearly the same time. 200 t batch of barley may add 1-3 t solids to the effluent
stream. The longer the grain is in contact with steep liquor
Violent aeration, or other agitation of the grain in water, is the more material is extracted and the higher the 'strength'
an excellent way of cleaning the surface of grain, dislodging of the effluent.
dirt and microbes.
Most maltsters that deal with their own effluent use
In addition, water may be used to transfer the grain and will aerobic primary treatments and, in a few cases, may treat
certainly be used to wash down and clean the steeping the sludge that is produced anaerobically. However,
vessels. anaerobic systems are frequently proposed, and are said to
be cheaper.
Various suggestions have been made to permit the re-use
of steep water. The ideal would be to process effluent to Treatments begin by screening the effluent to remove
achieve such a degree of purity that it could be reused in floating grains, husk, rootlets and other debris. The sieves
steeping. Many maltings already process their effluent to may be flat or cylindrical, or bands or discs. The solids are
reach a standard that permits it to be discharged to water continually moved from the screens by wipers or brushes.
courses and therefore the additional investment in reverse Often the liquid is received in a holding or mixing buffer
osmosis plants to reach a potable standard may not be tank, from which it can be withdrawn steadily, so evening
unjustified. out the flow, and in which mixing occurs leading to a 'feed'
of more uniform composition for the biological treatment
A project undertaken by French and British maltsters system. Some primary settling may occur in this tank and so
defined a process of ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis tht it must be de-sludged from time to time.
produced potable water that may be used as steepwater.
(see The common oxidative treatments used in maltings are
http://www.ukmalt.com/sites/default/files/files/SWAN%20 either based on trickling filter beds (bacterial beds,
FINAL%20REPORT.pdf) percolating filters, fixed film reactors) or 'activated sludge'
(suspended growth) systems.
Ref: Malts and Malting - Dennis E. Briggs
Trickling beds have the effluent sprayed over a porous bed,
often 2-3 m deep, of granular material circa 3.8 cm
diameter such as gravel, broken rock, coke or blast-furnace
SOURCES OF EFFLUENT AND ITS MEASUREMENT slag. The beds are usually circular but may be rectangular in
cross-section.
Typical used steep water analysis The liquid percolates downward over the solid surfaces and
is in contact with an upward stream of air. The biology of
such beds is extremely complicated but, in principle, a
Sample BOD COD Organic pH Suspende 'zoogleal' bacterial slime forms on the solid support and it is
mg/l mg/l Nitroge d Solids here that oxidation occurs; suspended material is retained
n mg/l mg/l and the bacteria accumulate.
Steep 1 280 310 132 6.3 218
0 0 5
Steep 2 225 248 75 5.9 145 Sometimes it is necessary to add ammonium salts and
0 0 phosphates to the effluent to maintain the population of
Steep 3 190 214 64 5.6 112 microbes.
0 0 5
Steep 4 490 650 12 6.4 27.5
Composit 186 212 71 Dislodged solids are carried away in the liquid stream and
e 0 0 are collected in a separating tank. The bed must not be
allowed to dry and the effluent must not be too
concentrated, so some recirculation of treated effluent may
Waste steep water is yellow-brown, readily putrescible, be used.
contains microbes (but few or no pathogens), suspended
organic matter, colloidal materials and a range of low-

The daily BOD load probably should not exceed 0.178 principle, anaerobic 'digestive' processes might be used
kg/m3 per day. Sometimes it is preferable to use at least instead.)
two beds working in sequence, with facilities to alter the
order of use. Under the aerobic conditions provided, microbes convert
the dissolved susceptible organic materials into carbon
Such beds may be more than 98% efficient in reducing the dioxide, water and extra microbial mass, which accumulates
BOD; for example, in one case a filter with recirculation and is recovered as sludge. The microbes tend to clump
reduced the BOD value of an effluent from 1500 to 20 mg/l. together and colloidal and particulate materials adhere to
Such trickling beds are low filtration-rate devices and are them so that they too are removed. The flow of liquid
large. Overloading must be avoided since this can lead to through settling tanks must be slow and steady so that
'ponding'. solids can separate efficiently.
There can also be difficulties with offending odours and flies The disposal of sludge is potentially difficult and expensive.
breeding in the filter beds. Sometimes it is accumulated in holding tanks and may be
thickened to 4-5% solids by settling, and then is transported
More compact, high-filtration rate devices have been used, to be dumped or spread on fields as a soil conditioner and
for example as a preliminary treatment preceding activated fertilizer. In contrast to some others, sludges from maltings
sludge treatment. In these devices, a plastic material with a do not contain significant residues of toxic heavy metals.
high surface area, used to support a film of microbes, is
packed in a tower covering a relatively small ground area, In large treatment plants, the sludge may be 'dewatered',
and the effluent is sprayed in at the top. Such towers are often with the addition of lime, under vacuum, by pressure
able to tolerate higher BOD loads than trickling filters. filtration or by heat to reduce the volume.
In other devices, rotating biological contactors, supporting a Perhaps the most satisfactory arrangement is to biologically
mass of biological slime, are partly submerged in the digest the sludge anaerobically at 30-35 °C: the volume is
effluent to be treated. substantially reduced (e.g. by 50%), the sludge is stabilized
and swells less and carbon dioxide and methane is
The next objectives are to remove biologically oxidizable generated. This can be burned as a source of heat and may
materials and the suspended solids remaining after be used to keep the digester warm or to provide an energy
screening. This is achieved by a combination of biological source if the plant is large enough.
oxidative treatments and settling or precipitation. (In
Ref: Malts and Malting - Dennis E. Briggs

Section 18 Malting and the Environment
SUSTAINABILITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE. leading roles in their economies adhere to certain guiding
principles typified by the following:
The malting, brewing and distilling industry, in common
with other industries, impacts on the environment in many  To comply with all relevant national and local
different ways. For example: legislation and regulations. To design, operate and
 As a user of energy. maintain processes and plants to:
 As a ‘consumer’ of water and other natural - optimise the use of all resources (materials,
resources. water, energy etc) whilst ensuring that
 As a source, both directly and indirectly, of unavoidable wastes are recovered, reused or
atmospheric emissions, trade effluent and disposed of in an economically sustainable and
packaging waste. environmentally responsible manner.
- minimise the potential impact on the
Sustainable development environment from site emissions to air, water
and land.
The challenge of sustainable development is to achieve
economic, social and environmental objectives at the same  To regularly assess the environmental impacts of
time. processes and plants and, based on the
assessments, set annual objectives and targets for
In the past economic activity and growth have often the continual improvement of environmental
resulted in pollution and wasted resources. A damaged performance.
environment impairs quality of life and at worst may
threaten long term economic growth, for example as a
 To use and develop packaging and distribution
result of global climate change.
systems for which packaging/product
Climate change combinations will make fewer demands on non-
renewable and renewable natural resources.
Climate change is being caused by an increase in
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These gases come  To minimise the use of substances which may
from both natural and man-made sources, but the increase cause potential harm to the environment and
is the result of human activity, mainly the release of carbon ensure they are used and disposed of safely.
dioxide from the use of fossil fuels such as coal, gas, oil,
petrol and diesel.  To encourage a culture of awareness on
sustainability issues amongst employees through
All businesses and societies, to a greater or lesser extent, management commitment, appropriate
will feel the impact of climate change and the policies of communications, training and other initiatives.
governments around the world to address it. These may
include:  To establish and maintain appropriate procedures
and management systems to implement these
 restrictions on emission levels principles through policy commitment.
 restrictions on water use
 To work with suppliers and other business partners
 changes in agricultural growth patterns in the supply chain to maintain high environmental
 increases in energy prices standards.
 changes in consumer habits
The role of carbon dioxide – the carbon cycle
Sustainability guiding principles
Carbon dioxide emission is seen as a key measure of
Companies committing to minimising the total impact of environmental damage. During germination the barley
their activities on the environment, to using natural respires, taking in oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide. The
resources wisely, to pursuing social progress and to playing impression may erroneously be given that this malting
process is a net generator of carbon dioxide as a result. In

reality, carbon dioxide evolution through that route is Overview
simply part of the natural carbon cycle:
The cost of energy is the second largest cost of malt
 The amount of carbon dioxide released during production. (Barley is the highest.)
germination is only a small fraction of that
Up to 90% of the fuel bill goes towards heating the air
absorbed by the growing barley crop through
passing through the kiln.
photosynthesis.
Typical fuel consumption of a kiln is between 700 and 1000
 Photosynthesis by the growing grain releases kWh/T
oxygen back into the atmosphere.
Electricity takes a further 10% or so of the kiln
 Carbon dioxide is also released back into the consumption; the rest of the energy is used to heat up the
atmosphere through human metabolism. air (natural gas or another energy source)
1. Principle energy consuming activities in a malthouse
The key items within a maltings that consume energy are

listed below:
Barley driers – These will consume high levels of fuel in

relation to drying barley from moistures of >15.0% to
12.0%. Also electricity consumption is high due to fan use to
pull air through the drier units.
Steeping – All steep tanks will have a fan linked to the unit
to enable air to be either pulled/pushed through the grain
to remove CO2 build up. A number of steeps will also have
an aeration system which will require a high volume of
compressed air to move the grain whilst under water.
Germination – All germination units require air to pass

Principal sources of carbon dioxide emissions through the bed and this is done via a large fan unit. These
will be driven by a large motor/gearbox and consume high
The real source of carbon dioxide emissions in the malting levels of electricity as they will normally operate for 24
industry is the combustion of fossil fuels – either at the hours/day. Other items of plant will be germination turner
malting plant itself or in the generation of the electricity units and water spray units which will consume high levels
supplied. of electricity, with some spray designs also using
compressed air.
Kilning – This part of the process will consume high levels of
There is therefore a need for continuing improvement in fuel and electricity.
the efficiency with which fossil fuels are used, whether Examples of energy consumption of different types of kilns
through the use of electricity or through the combustion of with various energy systems are listed below:
fuel at the malt plant:
Fuel
Electricity
 Electricity, as compared with natural gas, gives
kWh/tonne
rise to three times the quantity of carbon dioxide kWh/tonne
for the same amount of delivered energy. Natural draught 1450
 Whereas electricity provides only perhaps 25% of Nil
the energy requirements of the malting industry, Pneumatic kiln 1015
the generation of electricity creates almost 50% 80
Plus loader leveling 900
of carbon dioxide emissions.
75
 Where available, natural gas generally provides Plus recycle/reuse 800
perhaps 75% of the total energy requirement but 75
creates only 50% of carbon dioxide emissions. Plus heat recovery 700
75
ENERGY CONSERVATION IN THE MALTING INDUSTRY Plus fan speed control 650
65

c) Double Deck Kilns
Whilst the list of malting activities consumes the majority of
energy within the process, there are a number of activities A number of new/upgraded maltings have double deck
that need to be managed in line with Energy Conservation. kilning technology bringing the benefits of maximum
These are listed below: efficiency. By offset phasing of kiln batches, maximum
reuse of heated air can be achieved, optimising energy use.
 Barley conveying and elevators.
 Barley cleaning plant. From a kilning perspective it is essential that no time is lost
 Barley/malt Dust extraction systems between unloading and loading the kilns. This will ensure
 Green malt conveyors throughout the process that any residual heat in the kiln is utilised for the next
 Lights batch to be kilned.
 Compressed air
 Secure buildings Key points of the Kilning cycle:
 Malt cleaning plant
 Motors to drive all moving equipment Recycling/ re-use of air
- the air-off after the break can be used to dry malt
 Refrigeration plants
(it is not completely saturated)
 Air conditioning units
- It can be recycled within the drying system
- It can be re-used in another kiln.
2. Typical energy reduction strategies
Heat exchangers
Process Control:
- When saturated air is passed over a cool surface,
the water vapour leaves its heat on that surface
The operation of the maltings is controlled by plc
- heat can then be recovered through heat
(programmable logic controller) from barley intake to malt
exchangers.
outloading. The basic units have a CPU (a computer
processor) that is dedicated to run one program that
Variable fan speed control:
monitors a series of different inputs and logically
manipulates the outputs for the desired control. They are
Variable Speed Drive (VSD), also known as Inverters or
meant to be very flexible in how they can be programmed
Variable Speed Drives, is the term that describes the
while also providing the advantages of high reliability (no
equipment used to regulate the rotational speed and hence
program crashes or mechanical failures), compact and
torque of an electric motor. In reality VSDs are electronic
economical over traditional control systems.
devices that can be attached to a motor to fluctuate its
speed through a control mechanism, such temperature or
Flat and evenly compacted kiln bed:
pressure.
Utilisation of automated mechanical loading units enables
A VSD can reduce energy consumption of a motor by as
the kiln to be loaded evenly, which will ensure that air
much as 60%.Even a small reduction in the rotational speed
passes through the bed of malt in an even manner. This will
can give significant savings in the energy consumed by a
also provide energy savings, as kilns will operate effectively
motor.
with a quick turn round time frame.
Utilisation of a VSD normally provides a very good payback
Kilning:
in relation to capital employed.
a) Rectangular Kilns:
This traditional design of vessel has been successfully

employed for many years. These units have been
Location of VSD in the maltings:
successfully upgraded with automating existing vessels
 CO2 extraction fans during steeping
including stripper/loaders, modifying floors & heating
systems.  Germination fan motors
 Kiln fan motors
b) Circular Kilns
The circular kiln has a number of advantages in terms of Efficiency motors:
even air distribution & the ability to obtain a flat bed. These
kilns achieve maximum efficiency by the use of modern Energy-efficient motors, also called premium or high-
technology. Heat recovery & recirculation, high efficiency motors, are 2 to 8% more efficient than standard
performance insulation, variable speed fans and motors.
microprocessor control and monitoring ensure efficient
reliable performance. Energy-efficient motors owe their higher performance to
key design improvements and more accurate
manufacturing tolerances. Lengthening the core and using

lower-electrical-loss steel, thinner stator laminations, and Combined Heat and Power:
more copper in the windings reduce electrical losses.
Improved bearings and a smaller, more aerodynamic Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the
cooling fan further increase efficiency. use of a heat engine to simultaneously generate both
electricity and useful heat.
Benefits of purchasing are that energy-efficient motors
generally have longer insulation and bearing lives, lower See Section 17.1 Types of fuel in the malting industry
heat output, and less vibration. In addition, these motors
are often more tolerant of overload conditions and phase
imbalance. This results in low failure rates, which has
prompted most manufacturers to offer longer warranties 3. Principle water consuming activities:
for their energy-efficient lines.
The keys area for water consumption within the malting
Purchasing an energy-efficient motor can dramatically cut industry is in the steeping process.
energy costs. For example, purchasing the energy-efficient
version of a 25 horsepower, 1800-rpm, totally enclosed,
fan-cooled 460-volt motor that runs 16 hours per day at Steeping:
75% load will save £500 per year over a standard motor at
an electrical rate of £0.07 per kilowatt hour. With a cost The table below highlights the types of steep systems that
premium of £325, the simple payback is less than eight may be used and typical water use of each type of vessel.
months.
Systems: Simple Ventilated Flat

Conical Conical Bottomed
Malting businesses are now considering the standard below
Steep Steep Steep
for managing Energy within the business.
ISO 50001 (full name: ISO 50001:2011, Energy management 4.5

systems – Requirements with guidance for use) is a 4.5 m3/mt 6.0 m3/mt
m3/mt
specification created by the International Organization for Max. Water usage/ => =>
=>
Standardization (ISO) for an energy management system. Effluent production Low High
Low
The standard specifies the requirements for establishing, effluent effluent
effluent
implementing, maintaining and improving an energy
management system, whose purpose is to enable an
organization to follow a systematic approach in achieving
continual improvement of energy performance, including Up to 30 Up to 60 200-600
energy efficiency, energy security, energy use and Vessel size
mt mt mt
consumption. The standard aims to help organizations
continually reduce their energy use, and therefore their
energy costs and their greenhouse gas emissions.
Very
Hygiene Good Difficult
difficult
Management:
A malting business may appoint a full time manager to

oversee use of energy. The individual would be responsible Construction costs High Very high Lower
for implementing an Energy Management Strategy that
would include monitoring and targets. For a business to
reduce energy consumption it needs to understand the Much
Installation costs Lower Higher
mains areas of use and this can be done by higher
comprehensively metering the whole process and then
measure before and after any improvements that may be
made. The Energy Manager would also ensure that periodic Traditional Steep cycles tend to be 3 waters.
audits are undertaken, so that areas of improvement may
be proposed. In some steep systems, there is a ‘pumpover ’; the grain is
transferred from one tank to another and mixed at the
Moisture of malt: same time.
Energy can be lost by drying malt to levels below the The grain can also be mixed if steep tanks are arranged one
specification moisture level. Training and awareness is above the other; the grain can be dropped from one to
essential, so that the moisture required is understood and another during an air break.
that it is evaluated in line with air off temperatures within
the kiln.

Germination: Barley Washer:
Green malt that is transferred into the Germination process A barley washer can be used as a pre steep vessel and can
will normally have a moisture content between 43 – 46% be utilised to clean the barley and significantly raise the
moisture. During normal malting conditions, grain may dry moisture content of the steeped barley. It consists of two
out by > 0.5% each day it is germination. The germination pairs of washing screws each with a high throughput
unit will be humidified during this stage by passing moisture capacity per hour. The machine separates any floating
through the bed of malt which is introduced into the air barley as well as cleaning and pre-moistening the barley as
stream below the bed of malt. it transfers to the steeping vessel.
Types of units in the Germination are This process step gives optimal hygiene levels which
improve the effectiveness of the steeping process.
 Sprays
 Compressed air and water Ecosteep
 Spinning Discs
• Developed by Buhler and various Dutch
Hygiene: universities.
• The system reduces water consumption
High levels of water are used during wash down of malting of the plant compared to other FBSTs by
plants with High Pressure Hoses. over 30%.
• The system has eliminated the clearance
area below the floor, which requires the
4. Typical water conservation strategies. use of lots of water and is very difficult to
clean.
Metering: • It also produces a more uniform malt
quality by using only a low depth of
Measure and monitor use of water and implement a plan to malted grain material during the
reduce consumption. Set targets, then measure and review production cycle.
on frequent basis. • Air and water for the process are
controlled carefully by being fed through
uniformly configured nozzles
Steep Programmes:
Selection of barleys for processing is key. Use of 2 water

steeping cycles to reduce normal water consumption by
25% is maximised.
Reuse of water:
Technology to clean up the discharged effluent and bring

the product up to potable water standard is under
consideration; the product could then be blended with
water and then be utilized in both the steeping process and
used for cleaning the plant with high pressure water
systems.
Photograph of an Ecosteep unit.
Bore hole:
Rainwater:
Review the malting plant and utilise professional assistance
It has been considered to collect rainwater and utilise the
to identify potential locations to extract bore hole water for
product for wash down water and flush down water for
the process, whilst this may not reduce consumption, it will
sanitary units.
assist in providing a resource at little cost.
Steeping plant:
Lowering of the steep tank overflows to allow full and WASTE STORAGE AND SEGREGATION
robust steeping and overflows while reducing the amount
of water required. The malting industry gives rise to various waste streams
and co products; these are in general generated during
normal malting activities,(barley intake drying and storage,

malt production, storage, blending and dispatch), but can When considering temporary waste storage areas, factors
also arise during maintenance and project activities. Barley considered when assessing a storage risk assessment would
screenings, barley dust/husks, malt culms, malt dressings normally include:
and dust (co-products) are normally sold either individually  compatible containers are used for the substances
or combined and pelleted for ease of storage and transport. being stored and that these containers are of
When combining barley screenings, or large substance robust construction to ensure that spills and leaks
(straw, un-thrashed ears, peas & beans etc.) produced by do not occur
barley dressers with culm and dust for pelleting, it is  adequate warning notices, barrier tape and
sometimes necessary to mill prior to pelleting. However signage are in place forbidding access to the
sometimes due to location or circumstances some of these storage area
products are disposed of as waste. Malting also produces  storage areas are not located adjacent to surface
waste water from process and cleaning activities. General water drains and, where possible, these areas are
cleaning, leaking equipment and breakdowns can produce located within bunded or kerbed areas
wet and dry barley and malt waste. Along with the normal  individual containers are labelled to identify their
malting process; projects, maintenance, laboratory, office contents and volume
and canteen activity can give rise to both hazardous and  the period of storage is minimised so that all waste
controlled waste of various descriptions. It is essential to containers are removed from the area as soon as
have good waste management processes in place for the possible
sake of the environment, and both cost management and  no other wastes are stored in the temporary area
legal compliance. other than those that have been agreed.
Best practice dictates that, where possible:
 wastes are stored as close as possible to the point

of generation Waste disposal and duty of care
 waste storage areas are clearly marked
 skips are specified appropriate for the duty Where waste disposal is controlled by taxation, levy or
 skips are stored on hardstanding areas simply cost, systems to monitor waste are required.
 wastes are segregated wherever possible to Information recorded would normally include:
maximise the opportunity to reuse or recycle.
 quantity
From time to time “special” wastes may arise which have  nature
particular storage requirements. Typical examples may  origin (where relevant)
include:  destination
 mode of transport
 Surplus cleaning chemicals (typically strong  treatment method
alkaline or acid products).
 Residual chemicals left in portable storage Increasingly malting plants have service agreements with
containers (thus prohibiting return of the specialist, licensed waste disposal contractors for the
containers to the supplier). provision of comprehensive waste disposal and
 Chemicals that have been identified as waste due management services, covering but not limited to:
to quality aspects (e.g. contaminated, out of
specification or simply substances no longer used)  reducing the amount of waste produced
 Flammable wastes  making the most efficient use of waste
 Wastes sensitive to heat or light.  selecting waste disposal options which minimise
the risk of environmental pollution and harm to
In such cases, some or all of the techniques listed below human health
may be applied to minimise potential environmental  employing the hierarchy of waste reduction, reuse,
impacts: recycle, recover and dispose.
 the storage area is covered The duty of care responsibility ensures that waste
 the storage area is fully enclosed (to contain management is audited throughout the process including
spillage) confirmation of the final location of the waste disposal or
 there is protection against flood or fire-water recycling.
ingress
 there is an air extraction system The pressure on landfill
 drainage liquids are contained, treated and tested
prior to release Landfilling is increasingly discouraged for a number of key
 there is fire protection reasons:

 Climate change caused by landfill gas from o Waste chemicals from laboratory analysis
biodegradable waste. and activities
 Loss of resources  Maintenance Activities
- Constraints on areas suitable for landfill o Waste Oil & Grease
sites o Oily rags
- Loss of recyclable components of waste o Empty Aerosol cans
landfilled. o Scrap Metal
o Fluorescent tubes
Many countries have introduced a landfill tax which is a o Asbestos waste
form of tax that is applied to increase the cost of landfill.
The tax is typically levied in units of currency per unit of
weight or volume. 2. ADOPT THE WASTE MANAGEMENT CONCEPT -
REDUCE, REUSE, RECYCLE
The reasons for landfill taxes can vary from country to
country. They may include: In terms of environmental impact there is increasing
pressure to improve the utilisation of materials, water,
 a means of raising general revenues energy and minimise waste. The hierarchy of waste
 to generate funds for solid waste planning and reduction applies:
inspection programmes  reuse
 for long-term mitigation of environmental impacts  recycle
related to disposal  recover
 a means of inhibiting disposal by raising the cost in  dispose
comparison to preferable alternatives (in the same
manner as an excise or “sin tax”). REDUCE
 Prevent spillages, repair, renew, replace
equipment
Steps to implement waste management  Reduce water usage, optimise effluent treatment
Page 2 of 3  Examine current practices and methods is there a
Most companies will already be managing waste to some nil or low waste option
extent and have a level of awareness and competence on  Specify/select minimal packaging
site. For effective waste management it is important that  Only print if necessary, then double sided, black
awareness and competence is generated at all levels and white
appropriate to the degree of involvement with the waste
management system. (i.e. putting the correct waste in the REUSE
appropriate receptacle, or ensuring the correct duty of care
 Spillages immediately returned to process where
paperwork is in place.)
possible, alternatively combined with co-products
for sale as feed, or sent for composting.
1. IDENTIFY AND MEASURE ALL WASTE STREAMS – this
could include  Maximise screener/dresser outputs as co products
o Check calibration and efficiency of
 Barley and malt dust and spillages from intake, out equipment
loading and the malting process o Screenings sold as feed barley
o This could be further classified as wet or o Dust, rootlets, husks as bulk or pelleted
dry. to animal feed
 Out puts from effluent pre or full treatment
o Waste water  Explore biofuel, bio energy options available
o Thin corns, swimming’s and rootlets from
effluent screening RECYCLE
o Sludge, thickened and un thickened
 Segregate waste streams (as identified above) and
recycle where possible.
o Provide clearly marked suitable
 Office/Kitchen Waste/Laboratory receptacles, to keep waste secure, clean
o Paper (dry), prevent contamination and bunded
o Card where appropriate.
o Plastic o Ensure hazardous wastes are kept
o Glass separate from controlled wastes.
o Food waste o Ensure waste collection areas are secured
o Batteries to prevent unauthorised use, and
o Printer cartridges provided with spill kits and clean up tools
o Waste electrical equipment as appropriate.

 Where general waste (land fill) is removed from  all avenues for recycling back into the process or
site, ensure utilisation of a waste management reworked for another process
company that employs secondary sorting and  composting
segregation via a waste management centre  animal feed
 landspreading where the malt plant:
Increasingly governments and other regulating authorities - can demonstrate that it represents a
are “encouraging” the recovery of waste unless it is genuine agricultural benefit or ecological
technically or economically impossible to do so. improvement
- has identified the pollutants likely to
present from a knowledge of the process,
In considering options for waste management, many materials of construction, corrosive /
countries now encourage a process known as “Best erosion mechanisms, materials related to
Practical Environmental Option (BPEO) Assessment”. As the maintenance, for both normal and
term suggests the assessment is designed to demonstrate abnormal operation, validated as
that the chosen routes for recovery or disposal represent necessary by appropriate analytical
the best environmental option considering, but not limited techniques
to, the following: - has identified the ultimate fate of the
substances in the soil

Qualifications
Examination Syllabus
This syllabus details the course of study necessary to prepare

for examination in the General Certificate in Malting.
The specifications to which the respective examination

papers are prepared are also shown.

Introduction.
The General Certificate in Malting gives international recognition of a basic, under-pinning knowledge and
understanding in the principles of malting operations. The qualification is offered by both the Institute of Brewing
and Distilling (IBD), as a stand-alone qualification, and the Maltsters’ Association of Great Britain (MAGB) as part of
their Certificate in Malting Competence (CMC) qualification.
The General Certificate in Malting has been designed for candidates who may have little or no formal academic or
technical qualification and will often be employed as a senior operator or technician in a malthouse, or will be
graduates or managers new to the malting business. The scope of these examinations will also enable those from
smaller malting operations to obtain this recognised qualification, and are open to anybody with interest in malt
production. They are a measure of basic knowledge (theoretical and practical) underpinning cereal growing, malt
production and associated operations.
- The General Certificate in Malting can be an end in itself, or the start of professional development leading
to further qualifications in malting.
- The General Certificate in Malting is accredited at Level 3 of the National Qualifications Framework in the
UK (or equivalent internationally recognised standards).
- The General Certificate in Malting takes the form of one multiple choice paper of two hours.
- The General Certificate in Malting is a module forming part of the MAGB’s Certificate of Malting
Competence.
Candidates can register to sit the exam on-line instead of using the traditional paper format. Candidates sitting
within malthouse or university centres will be encouraged to take the on-line version. The exam itself appears on
the screen very much like the paper version and with the same number of questions, but there are various different
ways of asking the questions which make the exam a more interesting experience. The marking is done
electronically and candidates will received a detailed feedback on how each section of the syllabus has been
answered.
The pass mark is set at 66% (40 correct answers from 60 questions) for all IBD General Certificate exams.
Candidates attaining 90% or more achieve a Distinction pass and between 80% and 89% achieve a Credit pass.

Syllabus Section 1: Cereals; their uses for malting and beer/spirit production.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple
terms, or demonstrate familiarity with:
(No. of questions to be
answered = 2)
1.1 Cereals and Food 1. Cultivation of cereals for food.
2. Competition for land – food vs. energy.
1.2 Types of Cereals 1. Types of cereals.
2. Common cereals and growing regions.
3. Alternative cereals.
1.3 Malted cereals 1. Uses of malted cereals (including non-brewing/distilling uses) and malt
co-products.
2. Malted cereals in Brewing.
3. Malted cereals and Distilled Spirits.

Syllabus section 2: Malting; overview and requirements.
answered =3)
2.1 Malting process 1. The role of barley as a principal source of starch.

overview
2. The special attributes of barley for malting.
3. The significant changes that occur when the barley grain is malted.
4. The principal constituents of malt.
2.2 Types of malt plant 1. Traditional methods of malting.
2. Different types of automated malting plant.
2.3 Requirements for 1. Costing – an awareness of the essential cost elements in the
malting manufacture of malt.
2. Malting yield – control and measurement of ‘malting loss’.

Syllabus section 3: Barley growing and harvesting.
answered = 4)
3.1 Barley growing 1. UK Barley growing regions.
2. Barley growth cycle.
3. Harvesting barley.
3.2 Barley varieties 1. Barley varieties and their uses.
2. Development and establishment of new barley varieties
3.3 Barley breeding 1. Plant breeding.
2. UK new variety development and approval process.
3.4 Barley Purchasing 1. Contracting and purchasing of barley.

Syllabus section 4: Malting – Barley intake and storage.
answered = 5)
4.1 Barley evaluation at 1. Sampling techniques.

intake
2. Evaluation of barley at malthouse intake.
3. Laboratory and rapid methods of determining barley quality.
4.2 Identification of 1. Hand evaluation and inspection.

common malting
varieties 2. Morphological characteristics of barley
4.3 Barley intake plant 1. Different elements of barley intake plant.

and processes.
2. Barley screening.
3. Operating principles of dust extraction plant.
4. Co-products.
4.4 Barley storage. 1. Storage requirements for barley
2. Drying of barley
3. Barley store housekeeping and pest control.
4. Use and control of pesticides.
5. Storage related food safety issues associated with un-malted cereals.

Syllabus section 5: Malting – Steeping.
(No. of questions to
be answered = 4)
5.1 Pre-germination 1. Predictive tests for germination and their interpretation.

tests for barley
2. Selection of barley for specific malts
5.2 Steeping plant and 1. Different types of barley steeping plant.

process design
2. Barley washing.
3. Operating principles of steeping plant.
4. Steep programme design.
5.3 Control of steeping 1. Steep temperature control.
2. Importance of aeration and CO2 extraction.
3. Process control parameters.
4. Factors affecting moisture uptake

Syllabus section 6: Malting – Germination.
answered = 4)
6.1 Modification – its 1. Biochemical changes during germination.

meaning and
control. 2. Control of the degree of modification.
6.2 Germination plant 1. Different types of germination plant.

and process design
2. Operating principles of germination plant.
3. Germination programme design.
4. Germination plant hygiene considerations.
6.3 Control of 1. Germination temperature control

germination
2. Importance of air flow and air conditioning.
4. Use of additives in germination
5. Hand evaluation

Syllabus section 7: Malting – Kilning.
answered = 4)
7.1 Kilning plant and 1. Different types of kilning plant.

process design
2. Operating principles of kilning, including the phases of the cycle.
3. Kilning programme design.
7.2 Control of Kilning 1. Planning kilning cycles for specific malts.
2. Importance of air flow, humidity and temperature control.
3. Understanding of the ‘break point’
7.3 Effects of kilning on 1. Development of malt colour and flavour.

finished malt
2. Control of finished malt specification – enzyme activity, NDMA, DMSP
3. Control of moisture levels, and effect on finished malt quality.
7.4 Cooling off-kiln 1. Control of cooling off-kiln.

Syllabus section 8: Malt - Storage and Dispatch.
be answered = 2)
8.1 Preparation and 1. Operating principles of deculming and screening plant.

storage of finished
malt
8.2 Malt storage plant 1. Storage requirements for malt

and
processes 2. Different types of malt stores
3. Mechanical handling – conveyor and elevator types.
4. Malt silo housekeeping and pest control
5. Food safety issues associated with malted cereals
8.3 Malt evaluation at 1. Different types of outloading systems.

dispatch
2. Dispatch quality checks.

Syllabus section 9: Speciality Malt Production.
be answered = 3)
9.1 Types of speciality 1. Different types of speciality malts, their characteristics and their
malts production.
2. Raw materials for roasted malt production
3. Raw materials for ‘other’ speciality malts
9.2 Plant and processes 1. Principles and operation of malt roasting equipment.
2. Process Control parameters
9.3 Uses of speciality 1. Typical uses of roasted and ‘other’ speciality malts.
malts

Syllabus section 10: Malt Quality and Process Control.
be answered = 5)
Key parameters examined in this section are:

Extract (fine and coarse), total and soluble nitrogen or protein, Free
Amino Nitrogen (FAN), Diastatic Power (DP), α-Amylase (AA), β-Glucan
(BG), screenings, colour, moisture, homogeneity and friability,
steeliness, fermentability,
Predicted Spirit Yield (PSY), Dimethyl Sulphide Precursors (DMSP).
10.1 Process 1. Process adjustments to address the variable nature of the natural
Specifications ingredients of malt.
2. The purpose of process specifications.
3. Effects of the malting process on the final product value of these key
parameters.
10.2 Process Control 1. The principles of monitoring and adjustment to achieve product
consistency.
2. Simple quality control procedures.
3. The concepts of tolerance and range for specification parameter values.
4. Typical specifications which differentiate malt types.
5. Typical process specification ranges, especially those requiring periodic

adjustment to achieve product consistency [see Ref 10.1.above].
10.3 Laboratory Analysis 1. Principles of the analytical methods for the key parameters.
10.4 Malt specifications 1. Sampling of finished malt.
2. Finished malt specifications
3. Implications of blending of malt to achieve specification.

Syllabus section 11: Beer Types; raw materials and sweet wort production.
answered = 3)
11.1 Definition of beer 1. A generic, non-legalistic definition of beer in terms of its typical
and types of beer ingredients and methods of production.
2. Characteristics which differentiate lagers, ales and stouts.
11.2 Barley and malt 1. The brewer’s key malt parameters of degree of modification, extract
content, moisture content, extract, and colour.
2. The selection of malt for beer type and mash conversion method.
3. Pre-acceptance checks at malt intake.
11.3 Adjuncts 1. Reasons for the use of adjuncts.
2. Types of adjunct and their method of use.
3. Typical usage rate as proportion of the grist.
11.4 Mash conversion 1. The respective roles of the amylases and protease, the effect of
temperature, pH and time on their activity.
2. Temperature and wort viscosity.
3. The influence of the ionic composition (hardness salts) of mashing

water in the mash and on beer flavour.
4. The starch test.
11.5 Grist composition 1. The extract yield of raw materials.

and extract
performance

Syllabus section 12: Distilled Spirits; raw materials and wort production
be answered = 2)
12.1 Definition of potable 1. Definitions of the main spirits derived from cereals.
spirits
12.2 Characteristics of 1. The range of spirit types and their respective styles and characters.
potable spirits
12.3 Malt and its uses, 1. The selection of malt for spirit type and mash conversion method.
including green malt
and peated malt. 2. Pre-acceptance checks at malt intake.
2. The importance of malt to mashing and fermentation, particularly for

yeast nutrients, a source of enzymes and as a filter medium for wash.
3. The advantages and disadvantages of the use of green malt in grain

whisky distilleries.

Syllabus section 13: Safety in the Malt Plant.
be answered = 3)
13.1 Malting Plant 1. The evolution of carbon dioxide from steeping and germination
Safety
Considerations 2. The hazards associated with carbon dioxide.
3. The monitoring / checking of atmospheres for safe working including a

quantitative knowledge of exposure limits.
4. Safe working practices for malting plant operations.
13.2 Malt and barley 1. The hazards associated with dust.

storage plant safety
considerations 2. Explosive atmospheres in the workplace.
3. Safe working practices for malt storage plant operations.
13.3 Chemical Safety 1. The hazards associated with chemical cleaning and sterilizing agents.
2. Good practices for the storage of chemicals.
3. Use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
4. Procedures in case of accidental spillage or discharge of chemicals.

Syllabus section 14: Quality Management.
be answered = 4)
14.1 Features of a 1. The key features of a quality system:

quality system - written specifications
- written procedures
- monitoring of performance
- corrective actions
- auditing
- regular reviews for improvement
14.2 Roles 1. The impact of individual actions on product and service quality.
responsibilities and
benefits 2. The control of documentation.
3. The maintenance of conformity.
4. The business benefits of an effective quality management system.
14.3 Product safety 1. The control of product safety:

- Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP).
2. The importance of traceability for product recall.
14.4 Malt Related Food 1. Potential contaminants from outside the malting plant – field
Safety mycotoxins, agrochemicals, heavy metals
2. Potential contaminants from within the malting plant – storage

mycotoxins, NDMA/ATNC, ethyl carbamate.

Syllabus section 15: Plant Cleaning; cleaning in-place (CIP), pest control and general
cleaning.
be answered = 3)
15.1 Types of Cleaning 1. Automatic vs Manual cleaning.

Systems
2. The general differences between single use and recovery systems –
advantages and disadvantages.
3. The types of cleaning head used and reasons for their choice.
4. The operating principles and diagrammatic representation of CIP

systems.
15.2 Pest control 1. General site pest control principles.
2. Insect detection and control.
15.3 General plant 1. Cleaning plant surfaces, walls and floors.

cleaning
2. The constituents of foam cleaning agents.
3. The use of foaming systems, steam cleaning, chlorinated and high

pressure water cleaning.
3. Legionella in cooling water and service water and the health risks
associated with the micro-organism.

Syllabus section 16: Engineering Maintenance.
be answered = 3)
16.1 Objectives and 1. The key business reasons for an effective maintenance system.
approaches
2. The features, advantages, disadvantages and applications of:
- no maintenance
- breakdown maintenance
- preventive maintenance
- predictive maintenance
3. The contribution of maintenance tasks to plant safety, reliability,

quality, economics and environmental impact.
16.2 Maintenance tasks 1. Familiarity with key maintenance tasks:

- mechanical
- electrical
- calibration
- inspection
- condition monitoring
- cleaning of plant
- health and safety
2. Maintenance planning and record keeping.
3. Autonomous maintenance.
16.3 Systems for 1. The key features of the following performance improvement systems
continuous
improvement - Reliability Centred Maintenance (RCM)
- Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)
- Workplace Organisation (5S)

Syllabus section 17: Utilities; energy, water and effluent in malting.
be answered = 3)
17.1 Types of fuels 1. Choice of fuels available.
2. Fuel cost control.
3. Combined Heating and Power (CHP) systems.
17.2 Water sources, 1. Characteristics and quality of an ideal malt house water supply
treatment and uses
in malting 2. Sources of water for a malt house.
3. Differentiation and typical uses of water in malt production.
17.3 Sources of effluent 1. The nature and characteristics of effluent from principal malt house
and its operations.
measurement
2. The components of effluent quality:
- volume
- suspended solids (SS)
- chemical oxygen demand (COD)
- biological oxygen demand (BOD)
- pH
- temperature

Syllabus section 18: Malting and the Environment.
answered = 3)
18.1 Sustainability and 1. The concept of a sustainable industry.

climate change
2. The role of carbon dioxide – the carbon cycle
3. Sources of carbon dioxide emissions.
18.2 Conservation 1. Principal energy consuming activities in a malthouse.
2. Typical energy reduction strategies.
3. Principal water consuming activities.
4. Typical water conservation strategies.
18.3 Waste 1. Principal waste generating activities in a malthouse.
2. Issues for waste disposal.
3. Strategies to minimize waste and encourage recycling.

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Qualifications

The General Certificate in Malting (GCM)

Learning Material © Institute of Brewing and Distilling

The General Certificate in Malting (GCM)

1. Cereals; their uses for malting and beer/spirit production. Page 3

Examination Syllabus page 128

2 General Certificate in Malting

Learning Material 2015 5

Malted wheat, when mixed with malted barley, can

Malted oats can introduce a toasted, biscuit aroma and

Barley malts can also be kilned at a higher temperature to

6 General Certificate in Malting

 Hordeum vulgare – 6 rowed barley

Malting is the controlled rehydration and germination of

A simple way to consider a cereal grain is that it is Protein

Learning Material 2015 7

THE MALTING PROCESS

Malting 'Box' Turner

The barley grows

8 General Certificate in Malting

An increase in colour occurs depending

Learning Material 2015 9

Saladin boxes are thought of as rectangular compartments

Two Belgian malting engineers: Galland and his assistant

Galland introduced the first aerated rectangular boxes in

10 General Certificate in Malting

Figure 4 Wanderhaufen System

The Wanderhaufen system has the following disadvantages:

Because of the poor batch integrity, only one type of malt

Tower malting uses the same malting process as

All vessels are round. Round vessels provide an ease of

The Germination compartments are stacked on top of each

The main disadvantage of Flexi Malt systems is high energy

12 General Certificate in Malting

 High germination temperatures will accelerate

Figure 8 Flexi Malt Unit

Table 1. Typical malting loss expressed as percentage dry

Malting Loss % Reduction in grain total dry

What Affects Malting Loss?

In general, the longer the grain is allowed to germinate and

Reducing malting loss, however, works in opposition to

 For example, low germination temperatures restrict

Learning Material 2015 13

World Barley Production ‘000 Mt 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13

Barley is a tough cereal, grown in a number of

The main barley growing countries in the world are Russia,

Barley and other cereals such as wheat, maize, rice, oats,

Brewers commonly malt two species of barley:

 Hordeum vulgare – 6 rowed barleytetrazolium

 Hordeum distichon – 2 rowed barley

Figure 2 Internal structure of an unfertilised barley grain.

Each individual spikelet (a floret) belongs to a triad of

Two Rowed Barley Six Rowed Barley

Figure 3. A diagram showing the structure of two and six

 Winter barley is typically sown in September and

16 General Certificate in Malting

Today, harvesting and threshing are combined with the use

SPRATT ARCHER X SPRATT PLUMAGE  Uniformity - that a variety is not a mixture.

 Stability – that the variety will remain the same

Below is an overview of the evaluation process for new UK