Block 2

BEGG-172
Indira Gandhi National Open University Language and Linguistics

School of Humanities
Block
2
SOUNDS OF ENGLISH
Block Introduction 03
UNIT 1
The Consonants of English 05
UNIT 2
The Vowels of English 24
UNIT 3
Word Stress in English 39
UNIT 4
Stress and Rhythm in Connected Speech 49
1
Sounds of English
2
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
Block 2 “Sounds of English”
Human beings are different from other animals in that they have developed a very
complicated system to communicate with one another. The signs used for human
communication are generally of two different types, aural and visual. Children first
acquire the power of speech by responding to the sounds made by people around
them and imitating them out of their need for communication. Reading and writing
are learnt much later.
This block deals with the sound system of English. The units are as follows:
Unit 1: The Consonants of English

Unit 2: The Vowels of English
Unit 3: Word Stress in English
Unit 4: Stress and Rhythm in Connected Speech
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The material (pictures and passages) we have used is purely for educational
purposes. Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders of material
reproduced in this book. Should any infringement have occurred, the publishers and
editors apologize and will be pleased to make the necessary corrections in future
editions of this book.
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Sounds of English
Blank page
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UNIT 1 THE CONSONANTS OF ENGLISH
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Distinguishing between Spelling and Sounds in English
1.2.1 The Phonetic Symbols – Why We Need to Have Them
1.3 The Consonants of English
1.3.1 Consonants /p, b, t, d, k, g, tʃ, dʒ/
1.3.2 Consonants /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/
1.3.3 Consonants /m, n, ŋ, l, r, j, w/
1.4 Let Us Sum Up
1.5 Key Words
1.6 Answers
1.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit we shall consider the differences between the written word and the
spoken word in English. We shall establish that these differences necessitate the use
of phonetic symbols to represent each sound, and that we need to learn to associate
each symbol with the sound it represents. We shall present the consonant symbols
with the sounds they represent. Then we shall use the phonetic symbols to transcribe
simple words and pronounce them as they are transcribed. You can consult the
Internet for the pronunciation of words.
At the end of this unit you should be able to
 Differentiate between sound and spelling in English.

 Recognize the symbols for the consonants, that is, the sound each symbol stands
for.
 Recognize and produce each consonant sound as distinct from another.
 Listen to and transcribe the consonants in simple words.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Our study of words and word formation in English was confined to the written word.
In other words we concentrated on the spelling and meaning of words rather than
their pronunciation. In this unit we shall concentrate on how words, which are made
up of a combination of sounds are pronounced. The spoken word is as important as
the written word and its importance cannot be overestimated. This is so because of
the increasing use of oral communication owing to technological developments in
telecommunications in the context of globalization, and the growing importance of
English as a means of international communication. Another reason why we need to
know what the written word sounds like is that the written form of a language may
not always represent its spoken form. So the written word may not indicate how it is
to be pronounced. Let us look at numbers in different languages, for example. In
German, French and English the numbers when written have the same shapes, i.e. 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 etc. but these numbers do not give us any clue as to how they
are to be pronounced in these languages. We, therefore, have to learn how to count
in every language if we wish to speak the language.
Similarly, many languages may use the same letters of the alphabet, that is, the same
script. Yet these letters may not represent the same sounds or combinations of
5
Sounds of English sounds in every language, nor do they indicate how many sounds there are in a
language or how these sounds combine to form words and words combine to form
longer utterances. For example, German, French, English, Khasi (Indian tribal
language) use the Roman script but these letters do not always correspond with the
sounds, in these languages.
In English there is no one-to-one correspondence between spelling and sound.

Therefore, in addition to considering how words are formed, how they change and
how new words are created we also need to learn how these new words are
pronounced. Let us take up the plural and past tense morphemes, for example. The
plural morpheme has the spelling s or es. It can be pronounced in three different
ways. In other words, caps, huts, roofs, sticks, berths, the plural morpheme s is
pronounced as in sit. In the words, tubs, beads, logs, caves, wreaths, drums, sons,
songs, bells, boys, bears, days, cows, the plural morpheme is pronounced z as in zoo.
In the words, watches, badges, buses, dishes, bruises, garages, the plural morpheme
is pronounced iz as in his. The past tense morpheme spelt -ed is pronounced t as in
tub in words such as reaped, booked, bluffed, stitched, crossed, rushed, crushed. In
the words rubbed, dragged, massaged, -ed is pronounced d as in day. In the words,
wanted, parted, raided, founded -ed is pronounced id as in lid. It is for this reason
that it is as necessary to learn the consonant and vowel sounds and how they are
pronounced when they combine to form words.
1.2 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN SPELLING AND

SOUNDS IN ENGLISH
1.2.1 The Phonetic symbols – why we need to have them

As we have already said, English is one of those languages in which there is no
perfect correspondence between the letters of the alphabet and the sounds. This is
owing to the fact that while English has 44 sounds, it has only 26 letters of the
alphabet. So the alphabet is overburdened, and very often one letter or groups of
letters represent different sounds, and different letters stand for the same sound. This
is confusing for us because in a large number of Indian languages there is perfect
correspondence between spelling and sounds, and words are pronounced as they are
written. As a result of the influence of our mother tongue we tend to pronounce
English words also as they are spelt and quite often our pronunciation of those words
turns out to be incorrect. We need, therefore, to be aware of the different facets of
the lack of correspondence between the letters of the alphabet and the sounds of
English.
Activity 1
Let us consider the following.
A(i) Look at the following words and listen to them.
1. bough 3. dough 5. through

2. cough 4. thorough 6. tough
What is common to all the words above? Are all the words pronounced
alike? You must have noticed that though all the words end with the same
letters –ough, these letters are pronounced differently, that is, they represent
a different vowel in each word.
Listen to the words again. Can you pick out the words in which you can hear the
letters g and h being pronounced? They stand for the sound /f/, the first sound in the
6 word fall. These two letters are not pronounced in four of the words.
(ii) Let us look at some more words. Listen to them carefully, paying special The Consonants
attention to the letters underlined. of English
1. character 4. chalk 7. technical 10. cache

2. charm 5. charade 8. macho 11. breach
3. chagrin 6. chaff 9. machine 12. monarch
How many different sounds do the letters ch stand for in these words? Group
them according to the sound they represent. They represent three different
consonant sounds.
(iii) Listen to the different vowel sounds the letter a represents in the following
words.
1. age 6. date 11. say 15. surface

2. ask 7. fast 12. star 16. swan
3. about 8. woman 13. sofa 17. village
4. and 9. cat 14. match 18. watch
5. all 10. water
The letter a represents seven different vowel sounds in these words. Can you
hear them?
We have seen from all the examples above that one of the problems with
spelling in English is that the same letter or groups of letters can stand for
different sounds.
B Let us look at another problem that can cause confusion. Listen to the
following words, paying special attention to the pronunciation of the letters
underlined.
each reach sea piece people suite

eel deep tree believe geyser machine
eke these be receive key
What do you notice about the pronunciation of the vowel letters underlined?
The vowels letters in the words are different, that is, ea, ee, e, ie, ei, eo, ey, i,
ui, but all of them represent only one vowel sound — the vowel sound in the
word see. The letters ui in suite are pronounced like the word we.
Thus one vowel sound is represented by different letters or combinations of

letters.
C. Let us look at another problem arising out of the lack of one-to-one

correspondence between spelling and sound in English.
Listen to the following pairs of words.
A B A B
1. bad bade 6. right write
2. doe dough 7. sew sow (verb)
3. mail male 8. too two
4. know no 9. vain vein
5. pour pore 10. would wood
You must have noticed that the pronunciation of each pair of words is the
same though the spelling is different. 7
Sounds of English D(i) Here is another problem that makes pronunciation differ from the written
word.
Look at the following words and listen to them.
1. quack 4. quench 7. square

2. quarter 5. question 8. squash
3. queen 6. quilt 9. squirrel
Did you notice that the letter q in all these words represents two consonants
sounds, not one — the first sound in the word cold and the first sound in the
word watch.
(ii) There is a similar problem with the letter x
Listen carefully to another set of words.
1. excellent 6. exhibition
2. exclusive 7. exact
3. excursion 8. examine
4. excuse 9. example
5. exercise 10. exertion
Notice that the letter x represents two sounds. In words 1-6 x represents the
first sound in call and the first sound in sun. In words 7-10 the letter x
represents two sounds as well, but these are different from the words 1-6.
The first sound in words 7-10 is like the first sound in girl and the second
sound is like the first sound in zoo.
Thus we have seen that the spelling of a word in English does not always
give us an indication of how it is to be pronounced. Let us go over the
problems that arise out of a lack of perfect correspondence between spelling
and sound.
a. Words with the same spelling may represent different sounds.
b. One sound may be represented by different letters of the alphabet.
c. Words with different spelling may be pronounced alike.
d. One letter of the alphabet may represent two sounds. For example, q and x.
From this it is clear that we cannot depend on the spelling of words for their
pronunciation.
Check Your Progress 1
1. Listen to the following sets of words and answer the question for each set.
Here is an example of how you are to answer these questions.
i. How many different consonant sounds does the letter c have in the following
words?
cord, pencil, concentrate, certain, fleece, dice, medical, bicycle, hectic
The letter c has two sounds:
a. cord, concentrate, medical, bicycle, hectic, pronounced like ‘the first’

sound in the word kite.
b. pencil, concentrate, certain, fleece, dice, bicycle pronounced like the first
8 sound in sit.
ii. How many different consonant sounds does the letter i have in the following The Consonants
words? of English
rice, pity, light, terrible, mike, insight, sickle, final, triumph, police, ski
………………………………………………………………………….….
....…………………………………………………………………………..
..…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...
iii. How many different consonants sounds does the letter s have in the
following words?
days, months, plains, course, sugar, mansion, treasure, desert, reason

………………………………………………………………………….…
………………………………………………………………………….…
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...
iv. How many different consonant sounds does the letter e have in the following
words?
wicked, theme, send, temple, be, event, fete, severe, develop

………………………………………………………………………….…
………………………………………………………………………….…
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...
v. How many different vowel sounds does the letter g have in the following
words?
ginger, govern, gauge, engine, mirage, gallant
………………………………………………………………………….…
………………………………………………………………………….…
………………………………………………………………………….…
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...
2. Write down at least three words with different spelling to represent each of the
following consonant sounds. For this, follow the example given below:
a) p as the first sound in the word pot

b) j as the first sound in the word joy.
c) f as the first sound in the word fees.
d) s as the first sound in the word sit.
e) z as the first sound in the word zoo. 9
Example: p as in pot
i) poster
ii) appoint
iii) shepherd
……………………………………………………………………………….…
…...….……………………………………………………………………….…
...……….……………………………………………………………………….
….……….…………………………………………………………………...…
……..…….……………………………………………………………………..
3. Write down at least three words with different spelling to represent each of the
following vowel sounds.
a. ee as the second sound in the word peep

b. e as the first sound in the word end
c. o as the first sound in the word off
d. u as the second sound in the word fun
e. a as the first sound in the word ask
Example: ee as in peep
i. bead
ii. piece
iii. key
……………………………………………………………………………….…
…...….……………………………………………………………………….…
...……….……………………………………………………………………….
….……….…………………………………………………………………...…
How can a foreign language learner overcome the problems of pronunciation (as
shown above) arising out of the mismatch between spelling and sound in English?
How can we learn to pronounce words correctly? We can do so by consulting the
dictionary. But the dictionary cannot tell us how words are to be pronounced unless
it makes use of a device other than the spelling. Therefore, dictionaries generally
use phonetic symbols to represent the consonant and vowel sounds of English.
These symbols have been developed by the INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC
ASSOCIATION to help linguists recognize and describe the sounds of the
languages of the world. They are based on the principle ONE SYMBOL FOR ONE
SOUND. Thus each of the symbols for consonant and vowel sounds stands for one
sound only.
We shall now take up the symbols for the consonants of English as given in the
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (8th edition).
1.3 THE CONSONANTS OF ENGLISH

English has 24 consonant sounds in all. The dictionary has 24 phonetic symbols to
represent these sounds.
First, listen carefully to each of the following consonant sounds and look carefully
at the symbol that represents it. Then listen to each sound again and repeat it and
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also the key words in which it occurs. Notice that different spelling stand for the The Consonants
same sound. of English
1.3.1 Consonants p, b, t, d, k, g, tʃ, dʒ
Symbol Keywords
1. /p/ as in pen, open, cap
2. /b/ as in bead, rubber, knob
3. /t/ as in tea, butter, receipt
4. /d/ as in duck, ladder, called
5. /k/ as in keys, pocket, stomach
6. /g/ as in goal, beggar, ghost
7. /tʃ/ as in chin, question, catch
8. /dʒ/ as in joy, budget, courage
Let us now learn to associate the symbol with the sound it stands for. Notice that
the symbols p, b, t, d, k, g are the same as the letters of the alphabet and will not be
difficult to remember. We need to learn the symbols /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ which are not
familiar.
1. Listen to each consonant produced. Each consonant sound will be

followed by a vowel sound – the vowel in the word last for which we use
the symbol ɑ:, for example, pɑ:, dɑ:. Ignore the vowel sound. Write down
the symbol only for the consonant you hear.
1. __ ɑ: 2. __ ɑ: 3. __ ɑ: 4. __ ɑ: 5. __ ɑ:
6. __ ɑ: 7. __ ɑ: 8. __ ɑ: 9. __ ɑ: 10. __ɑ:
2 Listen to the words in the audio and fill in the blanks with the symbol for
the consonant you hear at the beginning and end of each word. The symbols
for the vowels have been provided. Follow the example given:
Example: take, __eɪ__ Answer: teɪk
1. ___i: ___ 2. ___əʊ___ 3. ___aɪ___ 4. ___æ___ 5. ___aʊ___

6. ___ eɪ___ 7. ___æ___ 8. ___ɑ: ___ 9. ___ɪ___ 10. ___ɒ___
3 The following words have been written in ordinary spelling. Refer to the
consonant symbols given and use the symbols to indicate the consonant
sounds and the letters which the spelling represent. For the vowel sound/s in
each word write the letter V. Place each transcribed word between slanting
lines to distinguish it from the word in ordinary spelling. For example: tape
is transcribed as /tVp/ and dog as /dVg/
1. big ……… 5. tape ……… 9. tight ………

2. peach ……… 6. pocket ……… 10.digit………
3. guide ……… 7. check ……… 11.jade………
4. cage……… 8. doubt ……… 12. gate………
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Sounds of English 4 Listen to the following words. Listen carefully to the consonant sounds
used in each word and write down the symbol for each. Write V for every
vowel sound used. Remember to place each word you transcribe between
slanting lines as you did before.
1. page …………. 6. chide ……………. 11. bucket ………….

2. boat …………. 7. package ……….. 12. gadget ………….
3. cheap………… 8. jacket …………… 13. cottage ………….
4. tied …………… 9. diet …….……….. 14. topic………………
5. catch…………. 10. poach………….. 15. chalk………………
1.3.2 Consonants: / f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/
Symbol Keywords
9. /f/ fall, surface, staff
10. /v / voice, civil, dive
11. /θ/ think, author, fifth
12. /ð/ the, gather, breathe
13. /s/ sea, assign, brass
14. /z/ zoo, ozone, noise
15. /ʃ/ she, assure, wash
16. /ʒ/ vision, leisure, garage
17. / h/ hat, perhaps, whole
1.3.2.1 Consonants /f/ and /v/

(a) Listen to the following words with /f/ on the audio and repeat each word.
/f/
1. phone 6. surface 11. refine
2. fact 7. rough 12. calf
3. coffee 8. behalf 13. proof
4. refuse (vb) 9. trophy 14. efficient
5. suffer 10. graph 15. favour
(b) Write down at least three words with the sound /f/ that have the spelling ph,
ff and gh
..………………….…………………………..………………………………
………………….…………………………..………………………………
…..……………….…………………………..………………………………
(c) Listen to the following words with /v/ on the audio and repeat them.
/v/
1. vague 6. govern 11. violent
2. vane 7. love 12. visa
3. voice 8. of 13. volunteer
4. arrival 9. curve 14. vowel
5. civil 10. dive 15. severe
To produce /f/ and /v/ correctly we must take care to place our upper teeth
lightly on the back of the lower lip and let the air pass out with friction
through the narrow passage between the upper teeth and the lower lip. For
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/f/ there is no vibration in the throat, while for /v/ there is vibration which The Consonants
you will feel if you place the palm of your hand on your throat while of English
articulating it.
(d) Listen to the difference between /f/ and /v/ in the following pairs of words
and repeat each pair.
/f/ /v/ /f/ /v/

fail veil surf serve
fine vine calf carve
file vile leaf leave
foil voile proof prove
off of belief believe
1.3.2.2 Consonants /θ/ and /ð/
Listen to the following words with the sounds /θ/ and /ð/ and repeat each word.
/θ/
1. thick 6. author
2. thatch 7. bath
3. thought 8. teeth
4. theft 9. faith
5. theatre 10.sixth
/ð/
1. that 6. other
2. though 7. father
3. they 8. bathe
4. their 9. soothe
5. gather 10.breathe
In India these sounds are generally pronounced like the first consonant sound in the
Hindi words थाली and ददद respectively. This pronunciation is acceptable.
1.3.2.3 Consonants /s/ and /z/

Listen to the following words with the sounds /s/ and /z/ and repeat each word
/s/
1. seat 6. ask 11. case
2. sage 7. ascend 12. fox
3. soak 8. muscle 13. cross
4. scent 9. massive 14. rice
5. cement 10.paste 15.niece
/z/
1. zoo 6. exist 11. noise
2. zest 7. puzzle 12. breeze
3. zigzag 8. lazy 13. buzz
4. zodiac 9. result 14. deeds
5. xerox 10. possess 15. knees
If you find it difficult to produce either /s/ or/and /z/, follow the procedure below.
Move the tip and blade of your tongue towards the teeth ridge (the hard portion
behind the upper teeth) so that there is a very narrow passage between them for the
air from the lungs to escape. When you allow the air to escape, it passes out with
friction making a ‘hissing’ noise for /s/ and a ‘buzzing’ noise for /z/. This 13
Sounds of English difference is owing to the fact that while for /s/ there is no vibration in the throat,
for /z/ there is. You will notice this if you try producing /s/ and /z/ alternately,
placing the palm of your hand on your throat.
Activity 2
Let’s listen to the difference between the two sounds in the following pairs of
words and repeat each pair.
/s/ /z/ /s/ /z/

(a) (b) (a) (b)
1. sip zip 6. cease seize

2. sink zinc 7. bus buzz
3. sue zoo 8. peace peas
4. dose doze 9. race rays
5. loose lose 10.source sores
If you wish to practice the consonants /s/ and /z/ further, read the following
sentences aloud.
1. The mechanic says the car’s due for servicing.

2. We’ve had seven long days of strikes and agitations!
3. I missed the seven o’clock news this morning.
4. Rows of new houses have come up along this street.
5. The number of zebras in this zoo have increased to seven.
6. Several of them expressed their views on the subject.
7. Some drivers persist in blowing their horns in the silent zone.
Remember /z/ as in zoo must be distinguished from /dʒ/ as in joy.
Listen to the difference between /z/ and /dʒ/ in the following pairs of words and
repeat each pair.
/z/ /dʒ/ /z/ /dʒ/

(a) (b) (a) (b)
1. zoo jew 5. buzz budge

2. czar jar 6. raise rage
3. zealour jealous 7. seize siege
4. zest jest 8. ways wage
Activity 3
Here are some sentences and a passage to help you practice the difference between
/z/ and / dʒ/.
1. The players from Zimbabwe wore black badges.

2. The students staged two plays on college day.
3. The jury reserved their verdict in the case.
4. She enjoys bungee jumping.
5. The project proposal was challenging.
6. Jaya finds geography lessons enjoyable.
7. The executive engineers constructed two bridges in record time.
8. The majority of people praised the actors for their performance.
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The passage The Consonants
The girls and boys in the village went to the annual fair and enjoyed themselves. of English
What the majority of them loved was a joy ride on the camel and the giant wheel.
They all took turns to go to the magic show as well.
As we said earlier the plural morpheme and inflectional suffix that nouns take in the
formation of plurals is pronounced differently depending on the sound that precedes
them.
I Let us first look at the following nouns in their plural forms and listen
to them.
1. carts 7. tables 13. drums 19. mirages
2. shapes 8. knives 14. scythes 20. cows
3. cakes 9. bulbs 15. buses 21. fleas
4. cliffs 10. bags 16. brushes 22. rays
5. months 11. lemons 17. watches 23. flowers
6. birds 12. rings 18. judges 24. news
25. bruises
Try saying each word aloud. Can you group the words according to the
pronunciation of the plural suffix? There are three different pronunciations.
Let’s listen to each of these words and make three different groups
according to their pronunciation. Now look at the words in each group and
make a note of the last consonant sound (before the suffix) in each word.
You will notice that the plural suffix is pronounced /s/ as in see after nouns
ending in the consonants /p, t, k, f and θ/.
It is pronounced /z/ as in zoo after nouns ending in vowels and the

consonants /b, d, g, m, n, ŋ (as in thing), v, ð, l/
It is pronounced /ɪz/ as in is after nouns ending in /z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/
II Now let’s look at the 3rd person possessive forms of nouns and listen to
pronunciation of the inflectional suffix to which the same rule applies.
the cat’s fur

the dog’s ears
the judge’s verdict
the day’s work
III Similarly, let’s look at the inflectional suffix of the 3rd person singular
forms of verbs and listen to the pronunciation of each word.
1. jumps 5. comes 9. washes 13. carries
2. writes 6. runs 10. pleases 14. plays
3. risks 7. sings 11. crouches 15. tries
4. bluffs 8. saves 12. dodges 16. bows
1.3.2.4 Consonants /ʃ/ and /ʒ/

Let us take up the consonants /ʃ/ as in sheep and /ʒ/ as in pleasure. Notice that the
symbols for these consonants are not familiar and have to be learnt.
Listen to each of the following words with the consonant sound /ʃ/ on the audio and
repeat it.
1. sheet 6. ocean
2. shock 7. pressure
15
Sounds of English 3. sugar 8. crash
4. conscious 9. moustache
5. luxury 10. rubbish
Listen to each of the following words with the consonant sound /ʒ/ and repeat each
word.
1. decision 5. garage 9. casual

2. explosion 6. mirage 10. sabotage
3. pleasure 7. usual
4. occasion 8. prestige
Notice that the consonant /ʒ/ does not occur at the beginning of English words, and
it occurs in the final position only in a few words.
Activity 4
If you find it difficult to keep /s/ and /ʃ/ distinct from each other, practice saying the
following sentences.
1. She just went on shouting at the top of her voice.

2. Sirish likes crushed ice in his fruit juice.
3. This is the store that sells precious stones.
4. Polish your brassware with ash.
5. He didn’t succeed in catching a single fish.
6. Surely she’s not serious about signing the deal.
7. Your machine must be serviced regularly.
8. They shiver and shake at the sight of snakes.
9. Has Sheila shown you the silver salver she bought?
You could read the following aloud if you need further practice in the difference
between /s/ and /ʃ/.
It’s been such a long session that she’s no longer able to pay attention to the
discussion. So much so, that she almost fell asleep, when a sudden outburst from
some delegates shook her up.
1.3.2.5 Consonant /h/
Listen to some words with the consonant sound /h/ and repeat each word.
/h/
1. half 6. who
2. hall 7. whole
3. head 8. behind
4. heal 9. perhaps
5. history 10.behold
Notice that /h/ does not occur in the final position in words.
Note that the letter h is silent in the words honourable, honorarium, honorary,
honorific, honour, hour, honest. It is also silent in the spelling sequence gh e.g.
ghost, aghast, ghastly, ghetto.

Underline the letter(s) in the following words which represent(s) the consonant
shown between slanting lines. Mark a cross (x) on the top of words in which this
consonant does not occur.
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(x) The Consonants
Example: /p/ - supple, photograph, shepherd, tape, of English
1. /k/ calculate, choir, choice, ache, accent, century, occur, character, success
2. /g/ gauge, ghost, suggest, beggar, exact, ginger, guard, gypsy, gynaecology
3. /tʃ/ choir, feature, teach, chasm, brochure, chord, batch, posture, chronic
4. /dʒ/ gesture, guest, dagger, suggest, adjective, soldier, vogue, engine, gasket,
genius
5. /f/ cough, bough, daughter, laughter, physics, shepherd, graph, trophy, through
6. /s/ busy, assume, geese, desert, clothes, listen, bruise, decrease, exercise,
design
7. /z/ houses, assess, observe, dessert, cruise, listen, bristles, geese
8. /ʃ/ confusion, procession, charade, pressure, decision, precious, exposure,
chiffon, potassium
1. Look at the following sets of words. You will hear only one word of each set of
three on the audio. Tick the word you hear.
a.1 . fail bail veil

2. foil boil voile
3. ferry berry very
4. fan ban van
5. feign bane vain/vein
b. 1. pace page pays

2. race rage rays
3. gorse gorge gauze
4. cease siege seize
5. bus budge buzz
c.1 . sip ship chip

2. sue shoe chew
3. seat sheet cheat
4. sin shin chin
5. sore shore chore
1.3.3 Consonants /m, n, ŋ, l, r, j, w/

Look at the symbols for these consonant sounds and the key words in which they
occur.
Symbol Keywords
18. /m/ mass, commerce, steam

19. /n/ nest, finance, scene
20. /ŋ/ angle, drink, wrong
21. /l/ lamp, collar, roll
22. /r/ wrong, current, hurry
23. /j/ yes, reduce, view
24. /w/ west, whip, question
17
Sounds of English The symbol for the consonant sound in song, that is, /ŋ/ is not familiar, so we have
to learn it. The symbol /j/ does not stand for the letter j as in jam but for the first
sound in the words yard, young.
Look at the following words with the consonant sound /m/. Listen to each word
/m/
1. mail 6. emphasis
2. metre 7. plumber
3. mood 8. comb
4. hammer 9. solemn
5. emblem 10.stream
Here are some words with the consonant sound /n/. Listen to each word.
/n/
1. nine 6. pneumonia
2. knock 7. tone
3. fanatic 8. brown
4. manner 9. son
5. sunny 10. win
The following words have the consonant sound /ŋ/. Listen to each word carefully.
/ŋ/
1. bangle 4. uncle 7. ring
2. shrink 5. king 8. strong
3. tank 6. song 9. wing
This consonant does not occur at the beginning of words.
Listen to the following words carefully. Both the words have the sound /ŋ/ and the
spelling ng.
angle
singer
Did you perceive any difference in the pronunciation of the letter ng in these
words? In the word angle the letters ng stand for two sounds —/ŋ/ and /g/. In the
word singer the two letters stand for only one sound /ŋ/.
Listen to the two sets of words below. Both have the letters ng in the medial
position.
(a) (b)
1. finger 4. bringer
2. longer 5. hanger
3. stronger 6. ringer
7. singer
In set (b) all the words are derived from verbs ending in the consonant sound /ŋ/.
For example, bringer is the form bring /brVŋ/ and the letters ng in these words are
pronounced /ŋ/.
The letters ng in set (a) are pronounced /ŋ+g/.

Listen to both the sets of words again for the difference in the pronunciation of the
letters ng.
18
Then transcribe all the words in sets (a) and (b). Write V for the vowels in each The Consonants
word. of English
Listen to the following words with consonant sound /l/.

/l/
1. lead 6. pillar
2. lane 7. feeble
3. lamb 8. sample
4. collar 9. doll
5. early 10.roll
Here are some words with the consonant sound /r/. Listen to them.
/r/
1. rind 5. current
2. riot 6. irritate
3. wrong 7. peril
4. wrap 8. sorry
In Standard British English the sound /r/ generally does not occur in the final
position in isolated words. The letter r in the final position in words such as actor,
father, butter is pronounced /r/ only when they are followed by vowel sounds in
connected speech. For example, in the following phrases r is pronounced /r/ and is
not silent.
the actor+in the play
higher+and higher
butter+and cheese
Listen to these. Compare the pronunciation of these words when said in

isolation and in connected speech when followed by a vowel sound.
Indian speakers generally pronounce the r in the spelling in all positions in words.
This is perfectly acceptable. Other varieties of native English also pronounce the r
in all positions in words.
Listen to the following words with the sound /j/.

/j/
1. yacht 6. beauty
2. yes 7. news
3. yellow 8. reduce
4. uniform 9. tune
5. unity 10.view
/j/ does not occur in the final position in words.
Listen to the following words with the sound /w/.
/w/
1. one 5. toward
2. walk 6. quiet
3. whether 7. dwindle
4. whip 8. question
The sound /w/ does not occur in the final position in words. 19
Sounds of English We should distinguish /w/ as in wet from /v/ as in voice. Listen to the difference
between /w/ and /v/ in each of the following pairs of words.
/w/ /v/ /w/ /v/
1. wail veil 5. wheel veal

2. wane vein 6. wine vine
3. wary vary 7. wiper viper
4. west vest 8. worse verse

Listen to the following words on the audio and transcribe each word using the
symbols for the consonant sounds in each of them. Write V for the vowel sound(s)
in each word. Each word will be said twice.
Example: crease - /krVs/
1. below 11. blue

2. behave 12. utensils
3. reign 13. thumb
4. ridges 14. design
5. pleasure 15. pressure
6. wives 16. yolk
7. watches 17. rushed
8. cycle 18. beauty
9. squash 19. songs
10. beige 20. useful
1.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have learnt:
 that in English the spoken word does not always correspond with the written
word
 that it is therefore necessary to distinguish between spelling and sound
 that in order to pronounce English words correctly it is essential to have
phonetic symbols based on the principle – one symbol for one sound.
 to associate the consonant symbols in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
with the sounds they represent.
 to distinguish between one consonant sound and another.
 to transcribe English consonants in words as we listen to them.
1.5 KEY WORDS

Phonetic symbols: a writing system for representing speech sounds.
Consonant: a speech sound produced with constriction in the vocal tract
Vowel: a speech sound in the production of which the mouth is open and the tongue
does not come into contact with any part of the mouth, e.g. the teeth, the hard
palate, the soft palate
Transcription: any system of writing used by linguists that represents the speech
sounds of a language in a systematic way
20
The Consonants
1.6 ANSWERS of English
Activity 1
A(i) the letters gh are pronounced f, the first sound in the word fall in the words
cough and tough.
(ii) The letters ch represent the sound k as in kite in the words character,
technical, monarch. They represent the sound ch as in match in the words
charm, chalk, chaff, macho, breach.
They represent the sound sh as in shout in the words chagrin, charade,

machine, cache.
(iii) The letter ɑ represents the vowel sound ɑɑ in the word father in the words:
(a) ɑsk, fɑst, stɑr
the letter ɑ represents the vowel sound in bɑt in the words:

(b) ɑnd, cɑt, mɑtch
the letter ɑ represents the vowel sound as the last vowel sound in wɑter in
the words:
(c) ɑbout, womɑn
the letter ɑ represents the vowel sound in the word dɑy in the words:
(d) ɑge, dɑte, sɑy
the letter ɑ represents the vowel in cɑught in the words:

(e) ɑll, wɑter
The letter ɑ represents the vowel in hot in the words:

(f) swɑn, wɑtch
The letter ɑ represents the vowel as sit in the words:

(g) surfɑce, villɑge
i. The letter c has two different sounds in these words

a. c represents the first sound in the word sit in the words:
pencil, concentrate, certain, fleece, dice, bicycle
b. cord, concentrate, medical, bicycle, hectic are pronounced like the first
sound in the word kite.
ii. The letter i has four vowel sounds:
a. pity, insight, sickle pronounced like the vowel sound in bit.

b. rice, light, mike, insight, final, triumph pronounced like the vowel in my.
c. police, ski pronounced like the vowel sound in seat.
d. terrible pronounced like the first vowel in about
iii. The letter s has four consonant sounds:
a. days, plains, desert, reason pronounced like the first sound in zone.
b. months, course pronounced like the first sound in sit.
c. sugar, mansion pronounced like the first sound in she.
d. treasure pronounced like the s in the word pleasure. 21
Sounds of English iv. The letter e has five vowel sounds:
a. wicked, event, develop, severe pronounced like the vowel sound in bit.
b. event, develop, send, temple pronounced like the vowel sound in wet.
c. theme, be pronounced like the vowel sound in heat.
d. fete pronounced like the vowel sound in late.
e. severe pronounced like the vowel sound in fear.
v. The letter g has three consonant sounds:

a. ginger, gauge, engine pronounced like the first consonant sound in jug.
b. gauge, govern, gallant pronounced like the first sound in go.
c. mirage pronounced like the third consonant sound in pleasure.
3 b. e as in end
i any
ii head
iii said
c. o as in off
i want
ii cough
iii knowledge
d. u as in fun
i come
ii blood
iii does
e. a as in ask
i hard
ii laugh
iii clerk
1 1. dʒ 2. p 3. k 4. tʃ 5. t 6. g 7. dʒ 8. d 9. tʃ 10. b
2 Audio text:
1. bid, 2. coach 3. tide 4. badge 5. doubt
6. gauge 7. patch 8. cart 9. chip 10. dock
1. bi:d 2. kəʊtʃ 3. taɪd 4. bædʒ 5. daʊt
6. geɪdʒ 7. pætʃ 8. kɑ:t 9. tʃɪÞ 10. dɒk
3. 1. /bVg/ 2. /pVtʃ 3. /gVd/ 4. /kVdʒ/ 5. /tVp/

6. /pVkVt/ 7. /tʃVk/ 8. /dVt 9. /tVt/ 10./dVdʒVt/
11. /dʒVd/ 12. /gVt/
4. 1. /pVdʒ/ 2. /bVt/ 3. /tʃVp/ 4. /tVd/ 5. /kVtʃ/

6. /tʃVd/ 7. /pVkVdʒ/ 8. /dʒVkVt/ 9. dVVt 10. /pVtʃ/
11. /bVkVt/ 12. /gVdʒVt/ 13. /kVtVdʒ/ 14. /tVpVk/ 15. /tʃVk/

x x
1. /k/ - calculate, choir, choice, ache, accent, century, occur, character, success
22
x x x
2. /g/ - gauge, ghost, suggest, beggar, exact, ginger, guard, gypsy, gynaecology The Consonants
of English
x x x x
3. /tʃ/- choir, feature, teach, chasm, brochure, chord, batch, posture,
x
chronic
x x x x
4. /dʒ/ - gesture, guest, dagger, suggest, adjective, soldier, vogue, engine, gasket,
genius
x x x
5. /f/ - cough, bough, daughter, laughter, physics, shepherd, graph, trophy,
x
through
x x x x
6. /s/ - busy, assume, geese, desert, clothes, listen, bruise, decrease, exercise,
x
design
x x x x
7. /z/ - houses, assess, observe, dessert, cruise, listen, bristles, geese
x x x
8. /ʃ/ - confusion, procession, charade, pressure, decision, precious, exposure,
x
chiffon, potassium
a. 1. veil 2. foil 3. very 4. ban 5. feign

b. 1. pays 2. rage 3. gauze 4. cease 5. buzz
c. 1. sip 2. chew 3. sheet 4. chin 5. chore
1. /bVlV/ 2. /bVhVv/ 3. /rVn/ 4. /rVdʒVz/ 5. /plVʒV/

6. /wVvz/ 7. /wVtʃVz/ 8. /sVkVl/ 9. /skwVʃ/ 10./bVʒ/
11. /blV/ 12. /jVtVnsVlz/ 13. /θVm/ 14. /dVzVn/ 15. /prVʃV/
16. /jVk/ 17. /rVʃt/ 18. /bjVtV/ 19. /sVŋz/ 20. /jVsfVl/
23
Sounds of English
UNIT 2: THE VOWELS OF ENGLISH
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Vowels
2.3 Let Us Sum Up
2.4 Answers
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Having established the need for a phonetic alphabet in the previous Unit, we
introduced the phonetic symbols for the consonant sounds as given in ‘Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary’ and practiced associating each symbol with the
consonant sound it stands for. We also practised the difference between consonant
sounds we are likely to find difficult to differentiate between.
In this unit we shall study the phonetic symbols for the vowels of English and
associate them with the vowel sounds they represent. We shall help you produce
each vowel correctly and provide extensive practice in distinguishing between one
vowel and another, particularly those English vowels that we find difficult to
produce.
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
 recognize the phonetic symbols for the vowel sounds;

 associate each symbol for the vowel sound it represents;
 distinguish between one vowel sound and another;
 transcribe English words using the consonant and vowel symbols;
 consult the Dictionary for the pronunciation of words; and
 pronounce words as transcribed.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning to recognize the vowels and produce them correctly can be more difficult
than recognizing and producing the consonants. One of the reasons for this is that
during the articulation of consonants there is some contact between the tongue and
other parts of the mouth (even if it be ever so slight) which we can feel and touch.
There is no such contact between the tongue and the other parts of the mouth for the
articulation of vowels. Another reason why we find the difference between vowels
more difficult to perceive and produce is that the vowel letters are overburdened.
While there are only 5 vowel letters i.e. a, e, i, o, u there are 20 vowel sounds. So
neither the articulators nor the spelling can help us produce or perceive the
difference between one vowel and another. A technique that might help us perceive
the difference between vowels would be to compare the extent to which the lower
jaw moves away from the upper jaw and the shape of the lips (spread, neutral or
rounded) during the production of one vowel and another. We shall use this
technique to distinguish one vowel from another.
24
2.2 THE VOWELS The Vowels of English
Let us look at the symbols for the following vowel sounds as given in ‘Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary’.
Symbol Keyword
1. /i:/ eat, sheet, tea

2. /ɪ/* in, tin, spin
3. /e/ edge, gem, men
4. /æ/ add, flag, gap
5. /ɑ:/ ask, flask, star
6. /ɒ/ odd, box, pot
Listen to the sound each symbol stands for. Repeat each sound and the keywords in
which it occurs.
*Note: ‘Advanced Learner’s Dictionary’ lists another vowel symbol /i/. This does
not need to be learnt because, in its place, we can use /ɪ/. But remember that both
stand for the same sound.
1 The Vowel /i:/

(a) Listen to the following words with the vowel /i:/
/i:/
1. easy 6. conceive 11. quay 16. key
2. even 7. police 12. theme 17. ski
3. equal 8. siege 13. sea 18. fee
4. eel 9. weep 14. tree 19. knee
5. aesthetic 10.people 15. be 20. flea
(b) Listen to some sentences with words that have the vowel /i:/, and repeat
them.
1. She loves to eat sweets.

2. Keep your street clean.
3. We walk to the beach every evening.
4. He’s never seen beech trees.
5. They breed ducks and geese here.
6. This is not the breeding season for sheep.
7. Please buy me some shelled peas.
2 The Vowel /ɪ/
(a) Listen to the following words with the vowel /ɪ/ and repeat each word.
/ɪ/
1. in 7. eclipse 13. sieve 19. busy
2. ill 8. ecology 14. simile 20. biscuit
3. instant 9. effect 15. rhythm
4. evade 10. elect 16. foreign
5. evoke 11. carriage 17. women
6. elude 12. mischief 18. build
(b) Listen to the following sentences containing words with the vowel /ɪ/ and
repeat them.
25
Sounds of English 1. There’s no improvement in the living conditions.
2. Have you filled the pitcher with water?
3. This is the only village that has electricity.
4. Fill in this form and hand it in.
5. Is this the building they live in?
6. Give the chit to the captain of the ship.
7. If you give in, you’ll never win.
Compare vowels /i:/ and /ɪ/. To produce /i:/ move the lower jaw quite close to the
upper jaw and spread your lips wide as you do when you smile. To produce /ɪ/
move the lower jaw down slightly and keep your lips loosely spread.
1 Listen to the following pairs of words and repeat each pair.
(a) (b) (a) (b)

1. beat bit 6. neat knit
2. cheat chit 7. leak lick
3. deep dip 8. meal mill
4. feel fill 9. sleep slip
5. heed hid 10. wheat wit
2 Listen to the following words and fill in the blank spaces with the vowel /i:/
or /ɪ/ whichever you hear.
1. /w___ʃ/ 2. /s___n/ 3. /b___d/ 4. /fl____t/ 5. /s___z/

6. /ð____s/ 7. /br__sk/ 8. /d___p/ 9. /w____p/ 10./gr___d/
3 Listen to following words and transcribe them using the consonant symbols
you have learnt and the vowels /i:/ or /ɪ/ or both.
1. ship……………. 2. cheap……………… 3. weak……………..

4. tin…………….. 5. sing………………... 6.sheet……………..
7. zeal……………. 8. beneath…………… 9. reveal……………..
10. begin…………. 11. dismiss…………… 12. refill……………..
13. civics…………. 14. peace…………….. 15. easy……………..
3 The Vowel /e/
(a) Listen to the following words with the vowel /e/ and repeat each word.
/e/
1. egg 6. feather 11. bury
2. echo 7. friend 12. guess
3. effort 8. leisure 13. says
4. any 9. leopard 14. sense
5. escort 10.said 15. tempt
(b) Listen to some sentences with words containing the vowel /e/ and repeat
them.
1. I like bread and butter, and eggs for breakfast.
2. He’s been sent on several errands since eleven o’clock.
3. When can you get the dress ready?
26
4. Can one do better than one’s best? The Vowels of English
5. They collect birds’ feathers.
6. All the seventy seven members attended the convention.
7. It’s best to let them help themselves.
Compare vowels /ɪ/ and /e/. To produce /e/ move the lower jaw slightly lower than
you do for /ɪ/ and spread your lips just a little more than you do for /ɪ/.
1. Listen to the following pairs of words carefully and repeat each pair.
(a) (b) (a) (b)

1. big beg 6. lift left
2. fill fell 7. miss mess
3. hid head 8. win when
4. knit net 9. sit set
5. lid led 10. pin pen
2 Listen to the following words and fill in the blank spaces with either /ɪ/ or
/e/ whichever you hear.
1. /f___tʃ/ 2. /b____ld/ 3. /θ____ ŋk/ 4. /r____st/ 5. /kl____n tʃ/

6. /w___l/ 7. /bl____s/ 8. /r___st/ 9. /l____tə/ 10. /bl___s/
3 Listen to some words and transcribe each word using the symbols for the
consonants you have learnt and either the vowel /ɪ/ or /e/ whichever you hear.
1. ridge ……………….. 2. chemist ……………….

3. frisk ………………... 4. middle …..…………….
5. guess ……………….. 6. selfish …..…………….
7. dissect………………. 8. finish………………….
9. cheque………………. 10. said……….………….
4 The Vowel /æ/
(a) Listen to the following words with the vowel /æ/ and repeat each word.
/æ/
1. absent 6. allopath 11. band 16. calendar
2. action 7. ally 12. carriage 17. hammock
3. addict 8. ambulance 13. cattle 18. palate
4. album 9. anarchy 14. gasket 19. plait
5. algebra 10.attitude 15. habit 20. satisfy
(b) Listen to some sentences with words that have the vowel /æ/ and repeat them.
1. Put some oil into a shallow pan.

2. That man practices black magic.
3. This was one aspect of her character we hadn’t seen before.
4. He deserves a pat on the back.
5. In fact they’re not satisfied with the plan.
6. The land allocated to villagers is for agriculture.
7. Who ran away with the fans we had?
8. Catch the first plane if you can.

Compare vowels / æ/ and /e/. To produce /e/ move your jaw slightly lower than for
/ɪ/ and spread your lips a little more than for /ɪ/. To produce /æ/ open the jaw fairly
wide and spread your lips wider than you do for /e/. 27
Sounds of English 1. Listen to the difference between the vowel /æ/ as in bad and /e/ as in bed in
the following pairs of words and repeat each pair.
/æ/ /e/ /æ/ /e/

(a) (b) (a) (b)
1. bat bet 6. sand send
2. sad said 7. lather leather
3. man men 8. had head
4. gas guess 9. rack wreck
5. knack neck 10. fallow fellow
2. Listen to the following words and fill in the blank spaces with the vowel
you hear, either /e/ or /æ/.
1. r____nt 2. bl___nd 3. fl____ʃ 4. h___d 5. h___kl

6. s____nd 7. fl__ʃ 8. p___k 9. m____rɪ 10. r____k
3. Listen to some words and transcribe each word using the symbols for the
consonants you hear and either the vowel /æ/ or /e/ whichever you hear.
1. …………… 2. …………… 3. ……………

4. …………… 5. …………… 6. ……………
7. …………… 8. …………… 9. ……………
10. ………….
5 The Vowel /ɑː/

(a) Listen to the following words with the vowel /ɑː/ and repeat each word.
/ɑː/
1. ask 6. argue 11. balm 16. half 21. bar*
2. after 7. armour 12. basket 17. last 22. scar
3. almond 8. article 13. calm 18. laugh 23. star
4. alms 9. artist 14. class 19. nasty 24. far
5. arch 10. aunt 15. dance 20. staff 25. jar
* The vowel /ɑː/ occurs in the word final position in Standard British English
because the r is not pronounced in the final position in isolated words. In India,
however, the r in the spelling is pronounced in all positions. In that case this vowel
would not occur in the word final position.
(b) Listen to some sentences with words that have /ɑː/and repeat them.
1. My car was parked in my aunt’s garage.
2. They asked for some plastic glasses.
3. She’ll end her fast at half past seven.
4. A demanding boss is hard to please.
5. Apart from being a cardiologist she’s also an artist.
6. Do you think he’s mastered the art of storytelling?
6 The Vowel /ɒ/
(a) Listen to some words with the vowel /ɒ/ and repeat each word.
/ɒ/
1. odd 6. oblong 11. because 16. quantity
2. on 7. opposite 12. knowledge 17. squash
3. ox 8. optimist 13. jockey 18. rocket
28
4. occupy 9. honest 14. monarch 19. was The Vowels of English
5. often 10.honour 15. quality 20. what
(b) Listen to sentences with words containing the vowel /ɒ/ and repeat each
sentence.
1. What have you got in that copper pot?
2. These locks cost a lot of money.
3. Can I have some orange squash please?
4. It didn’t take long to solve the problem.
5. I’d like a pot of hot coffee and lots of sugar please.
6. The whole lot of them occupied the box in the theatre.

Compare vowels /ɑː/ and /ɒ/. To produce /ɑː/ and /ɒ/ your mouth must be wide
open. While for /ɑː/ the lips are not rounded, for /ɒ/ they are.
The main difference between the two vowels is that while for /ɑː/ the lips are
unrounded, for /ɒ/ they are rounded. The mouth is wide open.
1. Listen to the difference between the two vowels in the following pairs of
/ɑː/ /ɒ/ /ɑː/ /ɒ/ /ɑː/ /ɒ/

(a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b)
1. balm bomb 4. heart hot 8. calf cough
2. cast cost 5. large lodge 9. dart dot
3. guard god 6. shark shock 10. stark stock
7. last lost
2. Listen to the following words and fill in the blank spaces with the symbol
for the vowel you hear — either /ɑː/or /ɒ/
1. f__st 2. gl___s 3. b___ks 4. st____k 05. l___k

6. d___k 7. k___f 8. l____f 9. l___ dʒ 10. st___k
3. Listen to some words and transcribe each word using the symbols for the
consonants you hear and either the vowel /ɑː/ or /ɒ/ whichever you hear.
1. …...………… 2. ……………. 3. ………………

4. …………….. 5. ……………. 6. ………………
7. ………..…… 8. ……………. 9. ………………
10. …………… 11. …………… 12. ……………..
13. …………… 14. ……………
Look at the symbols for some more vowel sounds as given in ‘Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary’. Listen to the sound each symbol represents and the key
words in which it occurs.
Symbol Keywords
7. /ɔː/ awe, caught, saw

8. /ʊ/ put, wool, could
9. /u:/ food, juice, flew
10. /ʌ/ up, flood, tough
11. /ɜː/ earth, first, occur
12. /ə/ above, animal, grammar
29
Sounds of English 7 The Vowel /ɔː/
(a) Listen to some words with the vowel /ɔː/ as in caught and repeat each word.
/ ɔː/
1. all 5. corn 9. door
2. audience 6. cause 10. jaw
3. order 7. fall 11. saw
4. ought 8. story 12. four
Notice that this vowel is longer than the vowel /ɒ/ as in hot and is only
slightly different from it.
8 The Vowel /ʊ/
(a) Listen to some words with the vowel /ʊ/ as in put and repeat each word.
/ʊ/
1. push 4. wool 7. good
2. could 5. should 8. full
3. cook 6. woman 9. sugar
(b) Listen to some sentences with words containing the vowel /ʊ/ and repeat
each sentence.
1. Could you buy me some wool to knit you a hood?

2. What would you like me to cook today?
3. They tried to bully the old woman but she stood her ground.
4. Put a little more sugar in the pudding.
5. Look at all the soot that has settled on the wood.
6. At the push of a button he could get a whole list of books.
7. He put his best foot forward.
9 The vowel /u:/
/u:/
1. food 6. smooth
2. crude 7. blue
3. choose 8. flew
4. juice 9. queue
5. beauty 10. view
(a) Listen to some sentences with words containing the vowel /u:/ and repeat
each sentence.
1. She’s always as cool as a cucumber.

2. They had no clue which route to follow.
3. The menu lists food to suit every palate.
4. Can you prove this is true?
5. Which shoes would you choose if they’d let us buy?
6. He played a new tune on his flute.
The vowels /ʊ/ and /u:/ do not occur in the initial position in words except
for the word ooze in which /u:/ does occur initially. /ʊ/ occurs in the final
30 position very rarely.
Check Your Progress 5 The Vowels of English
Compare vowels /ʊ/ and /u:/. To produce /ʊ/ move your lower jaw as close to the
upper jaw as you would for /ɪ/ and make your lips rounded loosely. To produce /u:/
move your lower jaw very close to the upper jaw as you would do for /i:/, and make
your lips closely or tightly rounded.
/ʊ/ /u:/
(a) (b)
1. full fool
2. pull pool
3. soot suit
4. should shooed
5. wood wooed
2. Listen to each of the following words and fill in the blank space with the
symbol for the vowel you hear — /ʊ/ or /u:/
1. /fr___t/ 2. /w___l/ 3. /gr___p/ 4. /sm___ð/ 5. /w___mən/

6. /ɒkj__paɪ/ 7. /stj__pɪd/ 8. /g___s/ 9. /f___d/ 10. /br___k/
3. Listen to some words on the audio and transcribe each word using the
symbols for the consonants you hear and the vowels you have learnt so far.
1. ……………… 2. ……………… 3. ………………

4. ……………… 5. ……………… 6. ………………
7. ……………… 8. ……………… 9. ………………
10. ………………
10 The Vowel /ʌ/ as in hut
Listen to some words with the vowel /ʌ/ as in cut, and repeat each word. This
vowel does not occur in the final position in words.
/ʌ/
1. ugly 6. brother
2. uncle 7. multiply
3. utter 8. husband
4. under 9. once
5. onion 10. rough
Compare /ʌ / as in cut and /ɑː/ as in cart. To produce /ʌ/ keep the lower and upper
jaw apart though not as open as for /ɑː/, and the lips neutral. /ʌ/ is not as long as
/ɑː/.
1. Listen to the following pairs of words and repeat each pair.
/ʌ/ /ɑ:/ /ʌ / /ɑː/
(a) (b) (a) (b)
1. bun barn 6. hut heart
2. come calm 7. must mast
3. cut cart 8. tusk task
4. duck dark 9. lust last
5. fuss farce 31
Sounds of English 2. Listen to each of the following sounds and fill in the blank space with the
symbol for the vowel you hear — /ɑː/ or /ʌ/
1. /r___stɪk/ 2. /d___n/ 3. /st___f/ 4. /b___k/ 5. /d___ns/

6. /m__stə/ 7. /kl___k/ 8. /m___sk/ 9. /k____f/ 10. /l___k/
11 The Vowel /ɜː/ as in bird
Listen to some words with the vowel /ɜː/and repeat each word.
/ ɜː/
1. early 5. certain 9. blur
2. earn 6. surface 10. err
3. earth 7. thirst 11. refer
4. irksome 8. worse 12. stir
Notice that this sound is long and is generally represented in the spelling by a vowel
letter or letters plus the consonant letter /r/. In British English /r/ in the spelling is
not pronounced when it occurs before consonants or when it occurs word finally. In
India the /r/ in the spelling is generally pronounced, and therefore the length of the
vowel /ɜː/ is reduced.
Listen to some sentences with words containing /ɜː/ and repeat each sentence.
1. It’s the early bird that gets the worm.

2. That was the worst earthquake we’ve ever had.
3. She worked hard for the first prize.
4. They scrubbed the surface until it was smooth.
5. It’s your turn to search for the herb.
6. They found the Indian Bustard perched on the roof of an old hut.
7. The hungry children enjoyed the curd rice they were served with.
Compare the vowels /ɑː/, /ɜː/ and /ʌ/. While the lower jaw is lowered for the
production of /ɑː/ and /ʌ/, it is fairly close to the upper jaw for the production of
/ɜː/. While /ʌ/ is a short vowel /ɑː/ and /ɜː/ are long vowels. For /ɜː/ the upper and
lower lips are close to each other.
1. Listen to the following sets of words and repeat each set.

/ɑː/ /ɜː/ /ʌ/ /ɑː/ /ɜː/ /ʌ/
(a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c)
1. barn burn bun 5. fast first fussed
2. card curd cud 6. heart hurt hut
3. cart curt cut 7. lark lurk luck
4. mark murk muck
2. Listen to the following words. They are transcribed. Fill in the blank
space/s in each word with the vowel/s you hear – /ɑː/, /ɜː/ or /ʌ/
1. /k___rənt/ 2. /k___ fju:/ 3. /g___gl/ 4. /h___d/ 5. /m___stə/
6. /g___gl/ 7. /s___b___b/ 8. /k___tn/ 9. /t___sk/ 10. /st___k/
3. Listen to some words on the audio and transcribe each word using the
symbols for the consonants you hear and the vowels you have learnt so far.
1. shuttle …………. 2. cartoon …………. 3. begun ………….
32 4. girdle …………. 5. forfeit …………... 6. format ………….

7. sultry ………….. 8. cardboard ………. 9. hockey …………. The Vowels of English
10. service ………. 11. expert …………. 12. reverse ………….
12 The Vowel /ə/
Listen to the following words with the vowel sound / ə / as in about.

1. about 6. custom 11. fictitious 16. donor
2. across 7. fungus 12. illustrate 17. father
3. allot 8. gorgeous 13. salary 18. popular
4. appeal 9. lemon 14. welcome
5. approve 10. decorate 15. colour
Listen to the words again. Notice that the vowel / ə / always occurs only in that
part of a word which is not heard as prominent or which is not stressed.
1 Transcribe the following words. Check your transcription with the

transcription of these words in the dictionary.
1. essential …………… 2. territory.…………… 3. solution..…………

4. furnishes…………… 5. pressure …………… 6. pollute....………...
7. nuisance …………… 8. burden.…….……… 9. atomic……………
10. naughty ……………
2. Listen to the pronunciation of these words and repeat them.
Diphthongs
In this section we shall listen to some more vowel sounds. Look at the symbols for
these sounds and the key words for each.
Symbols Key words

13. /eɪ/ As in aim, eight, ache, make, straight, break, say, grey,
they
14. /aɪ/ As in ice, island, eye, mike, dive, rhyme, die, buy, try
15. /ɔɪ/ As in oil, oyster, coin, toil, toy, ploy, buoy
16. /əʊ/ As in old, own, oak, comb, bowl, mauve, toe, sew, beau
17. /aʊ/ As in out, owl, mouth, brown, how, vow
18. /ɪə/ As in ear, era, idea, clear, here, theory, fierce, serious,
19. /eə/ As in area, aerobics, airport, stairs, declare, wear, scarce,
heir, precarious
20. /ʊə/ As in gourd, jury, truant, poor, tour, pure, mature
Notice that these vowel sounds have two symbols each. They represent the
movement of the tongue from one vowel sound towards another and in this respect
are different from vowels 1-12 in the production of which there is only one
movement of the tongue. Therefore they are also known as monophthongs. Vowel
sounds 13-20 are called diphthongs.
Listen to each vowel sound carefully once again. In vowels 13-15 the movement is
towards the vowel /ɪ/, in vowels 16 and 17, there is a movement towards the vowel
/ʊ/ and in vowels 18-20 the movement is towards /ə/.
33
Sounds of English Check Your Progress 9
13 /eɪ/
Compare the vowels /eɪ/ as in eight with /e/ as in let. In India the diphthong /eɪ/ is
pronounced like the vowel in the Hindi words दे ख, लेख. The vowel in these words
is the monophthong /e:/. There is no movement towards /ɪ/. This pronunciation of
the vowel is understood by other speakers of English in India and is therefore quite
acceptable.
1 However, this vowel is long and must be distinguished from the short vowel
/e/. Listen to the difference between /eɪ/ and /e/ in the following pairs of
/eɪ/ /e/ /eɪ/ /e/

(a) (b) (a) (b)
1. bait bet 6. late let
2. date debt 7. mate met
3. gate get 8. raid red
4. fail fell 9. taste test
5. hail hell 10. wait wet
14&15 The Vowel /aɪ/ and /ɔɪ/
Compare vowels /aɪ/ as in tile and /ɔɪ/ as in toil
1 Listen to the difference between /aɪ/ and /ɔɪ/ in the following pairs of words
and repeat each pair.
/aɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /aɪ/ /ɔɪ/

(a) (b) (a) (b)
1 isle oil 4 tie toy
2 buy boy 5 imply employ
3 file foil 6 line loin
7 ply ploy
2 The following words are transcribed. Listen to each word and fill in the
blank space/s with the symbol for the vowel/s you hear.
1 k____s 2 ch___st 3 s__l__br__t 4 d___ t 5 __l__
6 kr ___t 7 tʃ___ st 8 kl___m___t 9 p___nt 10 d__str___
16 The Vowel /əʊ/
Listen to some words with /əʊ/ as in goat and repeat each word.
/əʊ/
1 own 6 boulder
2 oath 7 glow
3 only 8 sew
4 comb 9 owe
5 goal 10 toe
In India this vowel is pronounced as a long vowel with no movement towards /ʊ/. It
is pronounced like the vowel in the Hindi बोल, छोड़. This pronunciation is
understood and is acceptable.

Compare vowels /əʊ/ as in coat and /ɔ:/ as in caught.
34
1 Listen to the difference between the two in the following pairs of words. The Vowels of English
/əʊ/ /ɔ:/ /əʊ/ /ɔ:/

1. bone born 8. foe four
2. boat bought 9. cone corn
3. coat caught 10. load lord
4. bowl ball 11. phone fawn
5. owe awe 12. folk fork
6. sew saw 13. road roared
7. toll tall 14. low law
2 The following words are transcribed. Listen to each word and fill in the
blank space in each word with the symbol for the vowel you hear.
1. Ikspl__d 2. fl___r 3. st___k 4. p__tnt 5. dr____n

6. m___ld 7. m__ld 8. p__ltrɪ
17 The Vowel /aʊ/
Listen to some words with the vowel /aʊ/ as in cow and repeat each word.
/ aʊ/
1. out 6. gown
2. owl 7. gout
3. oust 8. now
4. frown 9. bough
5. doubt 10. plough
18 The Vowel /ɪə/
Listen to the following words with /ɪə/ as in real, and repeat each word.
/ɪə/
1. fierce 5. serious 9. deer
2. ideal 6. theatre 10. here
3. inferior 7. real 11. fear
4. period 8. appear 12. tier
19 The Vowel /eə/
Listen to the following words with /eə/ as in there and repeat each word.
/eə/
1. aeroplane 4. parent 7. prayer 10. wear
2. careful 5. scarce 8. flair
3. daring 6. various 9. their

Compare vowels /ɪə/ as in here, and /eə/ as in hare.
words.
/ɪə/ /eə/ /ɪə/ /eə/
(a) (b) (a) (b)
1. deer dare 6. mere mare
2. beer bear 7. rear rare
3. ear air 8. sneer snare
4. fear fare/fair 9. steer stare
5. hear hair/hare 10. peer pair/pear 35
Sounds of English 2. Listen to the following words. They are transcribed. Listen to each word
carefully and fill in the vowel/s you hear in the blank space/s in each case.
1. b___d 2. v___l___nt 3. st___r___ ŋ 4. m__l___n

5. pr___ 6. st____z 7. ___nd__n 8. k____r___
20 The Vowel /ʊə/ as in poor
Listen to the following words with the vowel /ʊə/

/ʊə/
1. cruel 6. ensure
2. durable 7. cure
3. fuel 8. obscure
4. gruel 9. mature
5. casual 10. tour
In words like tour, poor, moor, pure, cure there is a growing tendency to use the
vowel /ɔː/in place of /ʊə/. In other words, they are alternatively being pronounced
with the vowel /ɔː/ (instead of /ʊə/).
1. Transcribe the following words. Listen to each word carefully and write it
down using the vowel and consonant sounds you hear. Check your
transcription of each word in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. You
can listen to a word as many times as you like. The first word has been
transcribed for you as an example.
1. admission /ədmɪʃn/
2. allergy ...................
3. amateur ...................
4. anarchy ...................
5. asthma ...................
6. beverage ...................
7. biography ...................
8. blatant ...................
9. cartoon ...................
10. career ...................
11. casual ...................
12. character ...................
2.3 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have learnt:
 that in the absence of a one-to-one correspondence between spelling and sound

dictionaries have phonetic symbols each of which stands for one and only one
sound. Dictionaries (even online ones) can be consulted for the pronunciation of
words.
36
 that there are 20 vowel sounds in English. The Vowels of English
 that it is easier to distinguish between one vowel and another by comparing
them, particularly those between which the difference is slight and therefore
difficult for us to perceive, and those that we are not familiar with.
 to associate the symbols for the vowels with the sounds they represent.
 to listen to words and transcribe them.
 to consult the dictionary for the pronunciation of words.
 to pronounce words as they are transcribed.
2.4 ANSWERS
2 1 ɪ (wish) 2 ɪ, (sin) 3 i: (bead) 4 i: (fleet) 5 i: (seize)
6 ɪ (this) 7 ɪ (brisk) 8 i: (deep) 9 ɪ (whip) 10 i: (greed)
3 1 /ʃɪp/ 2 /tʃi:p/ 3 /wi:k/ 4 /tɪn/ 5 /sɪŋ/

6 /ʃi:t/ 7 /zi:l/ 8 /bɪni:θ/ 9 /rɪvi:l/ 10 /bɪgɪn/
11. /dɪsmɪs/ 12. /ri:fɪl/ 13. /sɪvɪks/ 14. /pi:s/ 15./i:zɪ/

2. 1. e (fetch) 2. ɪ (build) 3. ɪ (think) 4. e (rest) 5. e (clench)
6. e (well) 7. ɪ (bliss) 8. ɪ (wrist) 9. ɪ (letter) 10. e (bless)
3 1. /rɪdʒ/ 2. /kemɪst/ 3. /frɪsk/ 4. /mɪdl/ 5. /ges/

6. /selfɪʃ/ 7. /dɪsekt/ 8. /fɪnɪʃ/ 9. /tʃek/ 10. /sed/
2 1. /e/ rent, 2. / æ/ bland, 3. / æ/ flash, 4. /e/ head, 5. /e/ heckle, 6. /e/ send
7. /e/ flesh 8. / æ/ pack 9. /e/ merry 10. / æ/ rack
Audio script
1. friend, 2. shelf, 3. strand, 4. chef, 5. gang, 6. apple,
7. hacked, 8. scratch, 9. health, 10. lens
3. 1. /frend/ 2. /ʃelf/ 3. /strænd/ 4. /ʃef/ 5. /gæŋ/

6. /æpl/ 7. /hækt/ 8. /skrætʃ/ 9. /helθ/ 10. /lenz/

2. 1 /ɑː/ fast, 2 /ɒ/ gloss, 3 /ɑː/ barks, 4 /ɒ/ stock, 5 /ɑː/ lark,
6 /ɑː/ dark, 7 /ɒ/ cough, 8 /ɑː/ laugh, 9 /ɒ/ lodge, 10 /ɑː/ stark
3. 1. /stɒk/ 2. /frɒst/ 3. /pɑːks/ 4. /sɒŋz/ 5. /stɑːvd/

6. /grɑːsp/ 7. /prɒŋd/ 8. /ʃɑːft/ 9. /hɑːf/ 10./brɑːntʃ/
11. /glɒst/ 12. /plɒdz/ 13. /bɑːθ/ 14. /brɒθ/
Audio script
1. stock, 2. frost, 3. parks, 4. songs, 5. starved, 6. grasp, 7. pronged
8. shaft, 9. half, 10.branch, 11. glossed, 12. plods, 13. bath, 14. broth

2 1 /u/: fruit 2 /ʊ/ wool 3 /u:/ group 4 /u:/ smooth
5 /ʊ/ woman 6 /ʊ/ occupy 7 /u:/ stupid 8 /u:/ goose
9 /u:/ food 10 /ʊ/ brook
37
Sounds of English Audio script:
1. pushing, 2. huge, 3. school, 4. mistook, 5. youth,
6. pudding 7. fulfill, 8. crooked, 9. frugal
3 1/pʊʃɪŋ/ 2 /hju:dʒ/ 3 /sku:l/ 4 /mɪstʊk/ 5 /ju:θ/
6 /pʊdɪŋ/ 7 /fʊlfɪl/ 8 /krʊkɪd/ 9 /fru:gl/
2 1 /ʌ/ rustic 2 /ɑː/ darn 3 /ʌ/ stuff 4 /ɑː/ bark 5 /ʌ/ dunce
6 /ʌ/ muster 7 /ɑː/ clerk 8 /ʌ/ musk 9. /ʌ/ cuff 10 /ɑː/ lark
2 1 /ʌ/ current 2 /ɜː/ curfew 3 /ɜː/ gurgle 4 /ɑː/ hard 5 /ʌ/ muster
6 /ɑː/ gargle 7 /ʌ, ɜː/ suburb 8 /ɑː/ carton 9 /ʌ/ tusk 10 /ɑː/ stark
3 1 /ʃʌtl/ 2 /kɑːtu:n/ 3 /bɪgʌn/ 4 /gɜːdl/ 5 /fɔːfɪt/

6 /fɔːm æt/ 7 /sʌltrɪ/ 8 /kɑːdbɔːd/ 9 /hɒkɪ/ 10 /sɜːvɪs/
11 /ekspɜːt/ 12 /rɪvɜːs/
1 1. /ɪˈsənʃəl 2. /tərɪtri/ 3. /səljuʃən/ 4. /f ɜːnɪʃiz/ 5. /prəʃər/

6. /pəljut/ 7. /njusəns/ 8. /bədən/ 9. /ətɒmɪc/ 10. /nɔːti/
2 1 eɪ (case) 2 eɪ (chaste) 3 e, ɪ, eɪ (celebrate) 4 aɪ (diet)

5 æ, ɔɪ (alloy) 6 ɪ, eɪ (create) 7 e (chest) 8 aɪ, ɪ (climate)
9 eɪ (paint) 10 ɪ, ɔɪ (destroy)

2 1 /əʊ/ explode 2 /ɔː/floor 3 /ɔː/ stork 4 /əʊ/ potent 5 /əʊ/ drone
6 /əʊ/ mould 7 /ɔː/mauld 8 /ɔː/ paltry
2 1 ɪə (beard) 2 ai, ə (violent) 3 ɪə, ɪ (steering) 4 ɪ, ɪə (million)

5 /eə/ (pray) 6 ɪə (steers) 7 ɪ, ɪə (Indian) 8 ə, ɪə (career)

1 Transcription of words:
1. /admɪʃn/
2. /ælədʒɪ/
3. /æmətə/
4. /ænəkɪ/
5. /æsmə/
6. /bevərɪdʒ/
7. /baɪɒgrəfɪ/
8. /bleɪtənt/
9. /kɑːtu:n/
10. /kərɪə/
11. /kæʒʊəl/
38 12. /kærəktə/
UNIT 3: WORD STRESS IN ENGLISH
Structure
3.0. Objective
3.1. Introduction
3.2. The Syllable
3.2.1. Identifying the Number of Syllables in a Word
3.2.2. Identifying the Stressed Syllable in a Word
3.3. Stress Patterns in Words
3.4. Change in Stress Patterns in Words According to Grammatical Function
3.5. Shift in Word Stress in Derivatives
3.6. Some Derivational Suffixes that Affect Word Stress
3.7. Let Us Sum Up
3.8. Key Words
3.9. Suggested Reading
3.10. Answers
3.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Count the number of syllables in a word
 Recognize the stressed syllable in a word
 Apply rules for placement of stress in words with some derivational suffixes
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the first two units we practised the consonants and vowels of English. We
concentrated on the distinction between one sound and another. In this unit we shall
consider the pronunciation of words in English. In order to pronounce English
words correctly we not only need to produce the correct sounds but we also need to
use extra breath force on one of the elements of a word as specified in the
dictionary. This part of the word is marked with a short vertical line above and in
front of it. For example, in the word believe the second element i.e. lieve is said
with greater energy and is heard as the more prominent of the two elements in the
word. This prominent element is marked thus: be'lieve and is said to be stressed.
The elements of a word, which are the smallest units for the analysis of speech are
known as syllables. In words of more than one syllable, one of the syllables is more
prominent than the others. Stress in an English word forms part of the character of
that word. In other words, stress is inherent in the word, and therefore absolutely
essential for intelligibility.
We shall study the structure of the syllable in English and its importance for word
stress. We shall look at word patterns in English, and the changes in stress pattern
that the addition of some derivational suffixes can bring about.
3.2 THE SYLLABLE

As we have already seen, each word is made up of one or more consonant and
vowel sounds. Let us look at the following words.
Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 Set 4
air bee am beat
ear day eat call
eye go eight din
I hay ice fetch
oh! joy oil gain 39
Sounds of English ah! key own hawk
awe sea ought judge
Can you tell the difference between the sets? If you transcribe all the words in each
set you will notice that all the sets have one feature common to all of them. Can you
say what that feature is? Well, all the words have only one vowel sound each. Now
let us look at the difference between the words in each set. In set 1 the words have
only one vowel and no consonants. In set 2 the words have one consonant at the
beginning and end in a vowel. In set 3 on the other hand, the words begin with a
vowel and end with a consonant. In set 4 the words have a consonant each at the
beginning and in the end and a vowel in the central position. You must have noticed
that though some words do not have a consonant e.g. set 1, all the words have a
vowel. Thus even the shortest word must have a vowel sound though it may or may
not have a consonant sound, because a vowel has the carrying power of speech.
Consequently, a syllable, which is the minimal unit in the analysis of speech can
have only one vowel sound though the number of consonants before and after the
vowel can vary. Since the words in all four sets above have only one vowel sound
they have only one syllable. Longer words have as many syllables as they have
vowel sounds. For example, the words credit, celebrate, education have two, three
and four vowel sounds and therefore two, three and four syllables respectively.
As we have said the number of consonants before and after the vowel in a word of
one syllable, may vary. They could vary from 0 to 3 at the beginning and 0 to 4 at
the end. More than one consonant at the beginning of a single-syllable word form
an initial consonant cluster. For example, /st/ in stop, /sp/ in speak, /skr/ in
scream. More than one consonant after a vowel in a single-syllable word forms a
final consonant cluster. For example, /-st/ in test, /-ld/ in build, /-kst/ in next. The
syllable can thus be analysed in terms of its parts, that is, the vowel and consonant
sounds. Let us look at some words with more than one syllable. The word exact for
example, has two vowel sounds and therefore two syllables – ex-act /ɪg-zækt/. The
first syllable has the vowel /ɪ/ and the consonant /g/. The second syllable has the
consonant /z/ the vowel /æ/and the final consonant cluster /-kt/. In order to show
syllable division particularly of words like this one, we need to transcribe the word.
This is so because the transcribed version indicates the exact number of sounds the
letters represent.
3.2.1 Identifying the Number of Syllables in a Word

As we have already seen, the number of vowel sounds in a word are in one-to-one
correspondence with the number of syllables in that word. Thus if there are two
vowel sounds in a word, there are also two syllables in that word. Normally, it is
not difficult to identify the number of syllables in a word. In some cases, however,
it is not easy to identify the number of vowels in a word. In such cases we should
consult the dictionary.
1. Listen to the following words and identify the number of vowels and hence
the number of syllables in each word.
(i) streams (ii) skies (iii) classes (iv) family (v) corridor
(vi) mistake (vii) hesitate (viii) develop (ix) calendar (x) economics
Example: Calculate – It has three vowel sounds æ, ʊ, eɪ in that order.
Therefore, it has 3 syllables.
2. How many syllables can an English word have? Listen to some more words
and identify the number of syllables they have and you will have got the
answer to this question. Each word will be said twice.
1. always 2. furniture 3. screen 4. examination
40 5. begin 6. honorary 7. multiplication 8. responsibility
9. squash 10. potato 11. understand 12. community Word Stress in English
13. originality 14. suspect 15. mathematics 16. internationalization
Which word has the largest number of syllables? Well, the word
internationalization (ɪntənæʃənəlaɪzeɪʃən) has 8 vowel sounds i.e. /ɪ/, /ə/,
/æ/, /ə/, /ə/, /aɪ/, /eɪ/, /ə/ in that order, and therefore 8 syllables. An English
word can have up to 8 syllables. There are, however, very few words with 8
syllables. For the number of syllables in the other words you may consult
the internet.
3.2.2. Identifying the Stressed Syllable in a Word

As we have said of the syllables in an English word of more than one syllable, one
is heard as more prominent than the others because the speaker uses breath force
and extra muscular energy on that syllable. This is known as a stressed syllable.
Look at the following words and listen to them carefully.
(i) admit (ii) among (iii) activity (iv) business (v) foreign
(vi) police (vii) economics (viii) already (ix) complete (x) minister
(xi) important (xii) below
Mark the stressed syllable with an upright stroke above and in front of it. For
example, the first word admit receives stress on the second syllable and is marked
thus – ad'mit.
1. Listen for the number of syllables in the following words and write down
the number of syllables in each word. Then transcribe all the words and
mark the stress. You may also consult a dictionary on the Internet.
Example: expect – no. of syllables – 2 /ɪk'spekt/
1. enough …………….… 2. bicycle ……………….
3. develop………………. 4. frequent ……………...
5. delicate ………………. 6. arithmetic…………….
7. distinguish……………. 8. familiar ………………
9. opportunity …………… 10.necessary…………….
3.3 STRESS PATTERNS IN WORDS

In English it is absolutely essential to stress the correct syllable in words of more
than one syllable. If you are not sure which syllable is stressed in a word, make it a
point to consult the dictionary/Internet. As we have seen above, English words
canhave as many as 8 syllables. Words of three or four syllables may or may not
bederived. Words that have more than four syllables are generally derived.
In otherwords, derivational suffixes add to the number of syllables that the stem
may haveand the words grow longer.
Words with varying number of syllables have different stress patterns. In fact words
with the same number of syllables have different stress patterns. For example, there
are words of two syllables with stress on the first syllable and also two-syllable
words with stress on the second syllable.
1. Let us look at and listen to some words of two syllables with the stress on
the first syllable.
(i) 'agent (vi) 'curious (xi) 'knowledge (xvi) 'subject
(ii) 'awkward (vii) 'drunkard (xii) 'moment (xvii) 'therefore
(iii) 'certain (viii) 'effort (xiii) 'output (xviii) 'upward
(iv) 'courage (ix) 'exile (xiv) 'question (xix) 'workman
(v) 'crayon (x) 'interest (xv) 'second (xx) 'yellow 41
Sounds of English 2. The following two-syllable words have stress on the second syllable. Listen
to them and repeat each word.
(i) ac'count (vi) be'fore (xi) di'sease (xvi) o'mit (xxi) su'perb
(ii) ad'dress (vii) be'tween (xii) ef'fect (xvii) per'mit (xxii) sup'port
(iii) a'go (viii) ca'nal (xiii) in'tend (xviii) pro'tect (xxiii) tech'nique
(iv) al'though (ix) col'lect (xiv) in'crease (xix) re'gret (xxiv) to'wards
(v) ap'pear (x) di'rect (xv) ne'glect (xx) re'turn (xxv) wi'thout
3. Look at the words of three syllables with stress on the first syllable. Look at
the following words and listen to them. Then listen again and repeat each
word.
(i) 'advertise (vi) 'character (xi) 'excellent (xvi) 'passenger

(ii) 'agency (vii) 'civilize (xii) 'industry (xvii) 'probable
(iii) 'avenue (viii) 'delicate (xiii) 'instrument (xviii) 'relative
(iv) 'bicycle (ix) 'discipline (xiv) 'memory (xix) 'sympathy
(v) 'century (x) 'educate (xv) 'minister (xx) 'yesterday
4. Look at the following words of three syllables with the stress on the second
syllable and listen to them. Then listen to them again and repeat each word.
(i) ac'custom (vi) com'mercial (xi) de'cision (xvi) fa'miliar

(ii) ad'vantage (vii) com'mittee (xii) de'termine (xvii) im'portant
(iii) al'ready (viii) com'parison (xiii) de'velop (xviii) to'bacco
(iv) ar'tistic (ix) con'sider (xiv) dis'tinguish (xix) to'gether
(v) be'havior (x) con'tinue (xv) en'courage (xx) to'morrow
5. The following three-syllable words receive stress on the third syllable.

Listen to each word and repeat it.
(i) ˌcorre'spond (vi) ˌbriga'dier (xi) ˌafter'noon

(ii) ˌdevo'tee (vii) ˌcoin'cide (xii) ˌcompre'hend
(iii) ˌdisap'pear (viii) ˌabsen'tee (xiii) ˌemploy'ee
(iv) ˌdisap'point (ix) ˌguaran'tee (xiv) ˌrepre'sent
(v) ˌengi'neer (x) ˌrecol'lect (xv) ˌunder'stand
Notice that in addition to the stress mark on the third syllable of these words, there
is also a stress mark below and in front of the first syllable in each word. The third
syllable of each word is said with extra breath force and the pitch of the voice
generally changes on that syllable. It is, therefore said to have the primary stress.
Placing the primary stress on the correct syllable of an English word is absolutely
essential for it be understood. The first syllable is said with some degree of force
and is therefore heard as prominent but is not as prominent as the third syllable. It
is therefore said to receive secondary stress. The latter occurs in longer words to
maintain the rhythm of the word with the alternation of stressed and unstressed
syllables. In the next unit we shall see that alternation of stressed and unstressed
syllables is also an important feature of the rhythm of spoken English sentences.

1. Look at the following words of two syllables. Arrange them in two columns
– (a) those that receive the stress on the first syllable (b) and those that
receive the stress on the second syllable. Mark the stressed syllable.
(i) almost (ii) arrange (iii) business (iv) always (v) foreign
(vi) below (vii) behind (viii) enough (ix) honest (x) husband
(xi) bargain (xii) forbid (xiii) govern (xiv) police (xv) canal
42 (xvi) unless (xvii) message (xviii) technique (xix) interest (xx) monsoon
2. Look at the following words of three syllables. Arrange them in three Word Stress in English
columns – (a) those that receive primary stress on the first syllable (b) those
that receive primary stress on the second syllable and (c) those that receive
primary stress on the third syllable.
(i) recollect (ii) advertise (iii) disapprove (iv) determine
(vi) comprehend (vii) develop (viii) bicycle (ix) educate
(xi) disappoint (xii) encourage (xiii) character (xiv) represent
(xvi) envelope (xvii) important (xviii) industry (xix) already
Stress on 1st syllable Stress on 2nd syllable Stress on 3rd syllable

……………………. ……………………. …………………….
……………………. ……………………. …………………….
……………………. ……………………. …………………….
……………………. ……………………. …………………….
……………………. ……………………. …………………….
6. Words of four syllables
Words of four syllables can have primary stress on the first, second, third and
fourth syllable.
Listen to the following words of four syllables and mark the syllable that has
primary stress. Then group the words according to the syllable on which they
receive primary stress i.e. first, second, third or fourth syllable. You may also
consult a dictionary or Internet.
(i) absolutely (ii) agriculture (iii) benevolent (iv) carbohydrates

(v) ceremony (vi) ceremonious (vii) comfortable (viii) competitive
(ix) difficulty (x) efficacious (xi) embroidery (xii) enteritis
(xiii) equivalent (xiv) fashionable (xv) haemoglobin (xvi) judiciary
(xvii) melancholy (xviii) necessary (xix) paralysis (xx) participant
(xxi) particular (xxii) phenomenon (xxiii) qualitative (xxiv) responsible
(xxv) testimony (xxvi) misrepresent (xxvii) misunderstand (xxviii) eligible
(xxix) education (xxx) empirical
7. Let’s look at the following words which have 5 or 6 or 7 or 8 syllables.
Notice that all these words are derived and have derivational affixes that
increase the number of syllables when added to the stem.
(a) Listen to words of 5 syllables.
(i) consideration (ii) interdependence (iii) satisfactory
(iv) rehabilitate (v) administrative (vi) empiricism
(vii) ceremoniously
(b) Now listen to words that have six syllables.

(i) impossibility (ii) characteristically (iii) uncooperative
(iv) nationalization (v) identification
(c) Listen to some words with 7 or 8 syllables.
(i) unreliability (ii) enthusiastically (iii) impenetrability
(iv) internationalization 43
Sounds of English
3.4. CHANGE IN STRESS PATTERNS IN WORDS
ACCORDING TO GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION
In English there are a small number of two-syllable words which receive the stress
on the first syllable when they function as nouns or adjectives and on the second
syllable when they function as verbs in sentences. For example, the word conduct
is pronounced 'conduct as a noun or adjective and con'duct when it functions as a
verb.
Look at the following words and listen to the change in pronunciation

corresponding to the change in grammatical function.
Noun/Adjective Verb
'absent ab'sent
'abstract ab'stract
'accent ac'cent
'combine com'bine
'compress com'press
'concert con'cert
'conduct con'duct
'contract con'tract
'contrast con'trast
'convict con'vict
'desert de'sert
'digest di'gest
'export ex'port
'frequent fre'quent
'object ob'ject
'perfect per'fect
'permit per'mit
'present pre'sent
'produce pro'duce
'progress pro'gress
'project pro'ject
'protest pro'test
'rebel re'bel
'record re'cord
Check the dictionary for changes, if any, in the vowels of these words when they
function as verbs.
3.5 SHIFT IN WORD STRESS IN DERIVATIVES

English words, as they grow longer with the addition of certain derivational
suffixes, also change their stress pattern. The primary stress shifts towards the right.
Indeed, the influence of such suffixes is so strong that several words related to one
another in meaning and form, but having different endings, are stressed differently.
For example, the word 'photograph has stress on the first syllable, but when we add
the suffix –er, to form photographer the stress shifts to the second syllable of the
word. Similarly, with the addition of the suffix –ic the word photo'graphic receives
primary stress on the third syllable. Thus we have 'photograph, pho'tographer,
photo'graphic.
Here are some more commonly used words on which there is a shift in stress when
certain derivational suffixes are added. Listen to them carefully.
44
1st syllable 2nd syllable 3rd syllable 4th syllable Word Stress in English
'benefit be'neficent bene'ficial
'competence com'petitor compe'tition
'courage cou'rageous
'democrat de'mocracy demo'cratic
'diplomat di'plomacy diplo'matic
'educate edu'cation
'government govern'mental
'hypocrite hy'pocrisy hypo'critical
'intellect in'telligence intel'lectual
'mechanism me'chanical mecha'nician mechani'zation
'personal per'sonify perso'nality
'politics po'litical poli'tician
'photograph pho'tographer photo'graphic
'telegraph te'legraphy tele'graphic
Listen to these words again and repeat each set. Take care to stress the correct
syllable in each case.
Try making a list of as many words as you know and show the shift in stress as they
grow longer with the addition of derivational suffixes. Remember not all
derivational suffixes bring about a change in the stress pattern of a word. For
example, if we add either the suffix –ful or the suffix –fully to the word beauty
there is no change in the stress.
In the next section we shall take up those derivational suffixes that affect word
stress.
3.6 SOME DERIVATIONAL SUFFIXES THAT

AFFECT WORD STRESS
Having looked through the long lists of words that have different stress patterns you
might ask ‘Aren’t there any rules that can help us to stress the right syllable in
words of more than one syllable?’ Well, the stress pattern of the majority of words
in English is fixed and has to be learnt. We need to refer to the dictionary all the
time. There are a few rules, however, that can help you to remember which affixes
affect stress and which ones do not affect stress. The following rules should be
useful.
1. All English words have either the primary or the secondary stress on the
first or the second syllable. For example, two-syllable words have the
primary stress either on the first or the second syllable (refer to section 3.3).
Words that receive primary stress on the third or fourth syllable have
secondary stress on the first or second syllable.
2. No inflexional suffix is stressed; none affects stress either. Look at some
examples:
'table 'tables en'joy en'joyed
'garage 'garages mi'stake mi'staken
se'lect se'lects 'clever 'cleverer
cor'rect cor'recting 'ugly 'ugliest
3. The following derivational suffixes are not stressed, nor do they affect
stress. Here are some examples of each of the suffixes.
-age postage, breakage
-ance appearance, governance (exception: main'tain, 'maintenance)
-en soften, brighten
45
Sounds of English -ence subsistence
-er doer, keeper
-ess lioness, goddess
-ful dutiful, faithful
-fy classify, falsify
-hood childhood, manhood
-ice cowardice
-ish childish, foolish
-ive creative, attractive (exception: ne'gate, 'negative)
-less aimless, careless
-ly faithfully, happily
-ment government, postponement (exception: 'advertise, ad'vertisement)
-ness boldness, heaviness
-or governor
-ship scholarship, fellowship
-ter laughter
-ure enclosure, failure
-y bloody, woolly
-zen citizen
4a. The following suffixes affect word stress or are stressed. -1, -2, -3 mean
respectively the first, the second and the third syllable from the end. These
rules determine only the primary stress.
1. -aire -1 millio'naire
2. -eer, -ee -1 ˌchario'teer, nomi'nee, ˌmountai'neer,
ˌaddress'ee, ˌengi'neer
3. -esque -1 ˌpictu'resque
4. -ique -1 phy'sique, tech'nique
5. -ental -2 ˌfunda'mental, seg'mental, ˌgovern'mental
6. -ial -2 ˌarti'ficial, es'sential, ˌcere'monial, of'ficial,
ˌconfi'dential, re'medial
7. -ian -2 gram'marian, mu'sician, li'brarian,
phone'tician, ma'gician
8. -ic* -2 ˌaca'demic, ro'mantic, ar'tistic, ˌscien'tific,
ˌphoto'graphic
9. -ics* -2 ˌeco'nomics, lin'guistics, pho'netics
10. -tion -2 ado'ration, so'lution, compe'tition, reso'lution,
occu'pation
11. -ious, -uous -2 fal'lacious, tem'pestuous, in'dustrious,
con'tiguous, re'bellious, lu'xurious
12. -eous -2 cou'rageous, out'rageous
13. -itis -2 bron'chitis, neu'ritis
* Exceptions to this rule – 'catholic/s, 'lunatic/s, 'politics, 'arithmetic
Look at the following words. Applying the rules of word stress you have learnt so
far, mark the primary stress on each word. Then listen to each word.
1. commericial 2. trustee 3. systematic 4. mathematics
5. accidental 6. politician 7. examination 8. laborious
9. questionnaire 10. parental 11. rebellious 12. memorial
13.electrician 14. profiteer 15. employee 16. organization
17. physician 18. ornamental 19. presidential 20.cosmetic
4 b. Look at some more word endings. In words with these, the primary stress
46 falls on the third syllable from the end.
1. -graphy -3 bi'ography, pho'tography, bibli'ography Word Stress in English
2. -metry -3 ge'ometry, trig'onometry,
3. -cracy/-crisy -3 de'mocracy, hy'pocrisy
4. -nomy -3 a'stronomy, e'conomy
5. -pathy -3 al'lopathy, te'lepathy
6. -tomy -3 va'sectomy, tu'bectomy, hyste'rectomy
7. -grapher -3 bi'ographer, pho'tographer
8. -logy -3 bi'ology, ge'ology, zo'ology
9. -logist -3 bi'ologist, ge'ologist, zo'ologist
10. -ical -3 eco'nomical, geo'graphical
11. -ity -3 possi'bility, a'bility, suita'bility
12. -ate -3 'complicate, 'educate, 'fortunate
Look at the following words. Applying the rules of word stress given above, mark
the primary stress on each word.
1. autocracy 2. illustrate 3. philosophical 4. opportunity

4. geography 6. psychology 7. physiognomy 8. bureaucracy
9. physiologist 10. suitability 11. recapitulate 12. publicity
13. stenographer 14. repatriate 15. photography 16. psychological
17. anonymity 18. autocracy 19. philology 20. collegiate
3.7 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit we have learnt about:
 the syllable is the smallest unit for speech analysis.

 there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowel sounds.
 one of the syllables in a word of more than one syllable is said with greater
breath force and is heard as more prominent than the others.
 the syllable that is the most prominent in a word is said to receive primary stress
 the syllable that is second to the most prominent is said to receive secondary stress.
 there are rules for placement of stress on words with some derivational suffixes
 isolated words derive their rhythm from the alternation of stressed and
unstressed syllables.
3.8 KEY WORDS

Syllable the smallest unit for speech analysis, which has an obligatory
element that is generally occupied by a vowel, and optional
element, that is generally occupied by a consonant.
Stress the extra breath force used on one of the syllables of a word,
which makes that syllable louder and more prominent than
the others.
Suffix a part that is attached to the end of a word.
Derivational suffix is a part that is attached to the end of a word. It generally

modifies the meaning of that word.
Inflectional suffix is a bound morpheme that is attached to the end of a word to

perform grammatical functions e.g. plurals, tenses
47
Sounds of English 3.9 SUGGESTED READING
Sethi, J. Sadanand K. and Jindal D V 2004 A Practical Course in English
Pronunciation. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
3.10 ANSWERS
Sl.no. No. of syllables Transcription
1 2 ɪ'nʌf enough
2 3 'baɪsɪkəl bicycle
3 3 dɪ'veləp develop
4 2 'fri:kwənt frequent
5 3 'delɪkət delicate
6 4 ə'rɪθmətɪk arithmetic
7 3 dɪ'stɪŋgwɪʃ distinguish
8 3 fə'mɪlɪə familiar
9 5 ˌɒpə'tju:nətɪ opportunity
10 4 'nesəsərɪ necessary
1. Stress on the 1st syllable Stress on 2nd syllable

(i) 'almost (ii) ar'range
(iii) 'business (vi) be'low
(iv) 'always (vii) be'hind
(v) 'foreign (viii) e'nough
(ix) 'honest (xii) for'bid
(x) 'husband (xiv) po'lice
(xi) 'bargain (xv) ca'nal
(xiii) 'govern (xvi) un'less
(xvii) 'message (xviii) tech'nique
(xix) 'interest (xx) mon'soon
2. Stress on 1st syllable Stress on 2nd syllable Stress on 3rd syllable
'advertise de'termine recol'lect
'bicycle de'velop disap'prove
'educate en'courage compre'hend
'character im'portant ˌdisap'point
'envelope al'ready repre'sent
'industry

1. com'mercial 2. trus'tee 3. syste'matic 4. mathe'matics
5. acci'dental 6. poli'tician 7. exami'nation 8. la'borious
9. question'naire 10. pa'rental 11. re'bellious 12. me'morial
13. elec'trician 14. profi'teer 15. employ'ee 16. organi'zation
17. phy'sician 18. orna'mental 19. presi'dential 20. cos'metic

1. au'tocracy 2. 'illustrate 3. philo'sophical 4. oppor'tunity
5. ge'ography 6. psy'chology 7. physi'ognomy 8. bu'reaucracy
9. physi'ologist 10. suita'bility 11. reca'pitulate 12. pu'blicity
13. ste'nographer 14. re'patriate 15. pho'tography 16. psycho'logical
17. ano'nymity 18. au'tocracy 19. phi'lology 20. col'legiate
48
UNIT 4 STRESS AND RHYTHM IN
CONNECTED SPEECH
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Stress in Sentences
4.2.1 Stress in Context
4.3 Rhythm in Connected Speech
4.3.1 Contracted Forms
4.3.2 Weak forms and Weak Syllables
4.4 Let Us Sum Up
4.5 Suggested Reading
4.6 Answers
4.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit you should be able to
 Recognize stressed and unstressed syllables in connected speech;
 Stress the right words in utterances spoken at slow speed and in an
objective/neutral setting;
 Stress the right words in a context depending upon what the context
requires;
 Recognize and use contracted forms in conversation; and
 Recognize the weak forms of words in connected speech.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last Unit we learnt that English words have varying stress patterns and that
stress on some two syllable words differentiates between nouns/adjectives and
verbs. We saw that as words grow longer stress shifts to the right. Though the stress
pattern of the majority of words is fixed and has to be learnt, there are a few rules
that help us to remember which derivational suffixes affect stress, and longer words
may have two stressed syllables one of them receives primary stress and the other
secondary stress. Thus the rhythm of these words depends on the alternation of
stressed and unstressed syllables and their varying combinations.
In this unit we shall see that English sentences also have varying rhythmic patterns
depending on the number of stressed syllables and the number of unstressed
syllables between them. There are two features that comprise connected speech –
stress and rhythm. Both these are properties of speech not of writing. We have to
therefore listen to as much spoken English as possible in order to capture its
rhythm. First, we shall consider the kinds of words that are generally stressed, and
then other features such as contracted forms and weak forms that also constitute the
rhythm of English. Extensive practice in listening and speaking will help you
recognize the rhythm and acquire it.
4.2 STRESS IN SENTENCES

Let us first look at the kinds of words that are normally stressed in English
sentences. As we said earlier, not all the syllables in a word are stressed. Instead,
we have a combination of stressed and unstressed syllables. For example, in the 49
Sounds of English sentence, “She 'said that the 'guests had 'left,” there are three words that are
stressed, i.e. said, guests, and left. The other words — she, that, the, had are
unstressed. This alternation of stressed and unstressed words constitutes the essence
of the ‘rhythm’ of English speech. Ordinarily, therefore, it would sound rather odd
if we were to stress every word in an English sentence.
Listen to the following sentences on the audio for example.
1. 'Cut the 'cake.

2. 'Look at the 'sky.
3. 'Put it on the 'floor.
4. 'Show them what you have 'bought.
5. 'Why did they 'leave in a 'huff?
However, please note in connected speech the stress mark (in writing) is used on
single – syllable words also, if they are stressed. Though this is not the case when
they occur in isolation.
You must have noticed that all the words in these sentences have only one syllable
each, and sentences 1 to 4 have two stressed syllables each but the number of
unstressed syllables between the stressed syllables varies from 1 to 4. The speaker
concentrates on the stressed syllables, moves quickly from one stressed syllable to
the next and slurs over the unstressed words in the process. As a result, some of the
unstressed words are weakened. For example, in sentence 2 the word at is
weakened and pronounced /ət/. In sentence 4 the words them and have are
weakened and pronounced /ðəm/ and /həv/ respectively. We shall take up all those
words that have weak forms in the section on rhythm.
Let us look at some more sentences which have a combination of words of more than
one syllable and words of one syllable. Listen to these sentences carefully.
1. Try again.
2. Ring me up.
3. I’ve read it.
4. It’s pretty.
5. They wanted it.
6. We welcomed them.
7. Colour the walls.
8. Polish the floor
9. Look at the blackbird.
10. Put up the notice.
You must have noticed that all these sentences have different combinations of
stressed and unstressed syllables and therefore varying rhythms. Can you make a
list of sentences according to the stress pattern they have? For example, sentences 1
and 2 have similar stress patterns, that is, they have a stressed syllable (Try and
Ring) followed by an unstressed syllable (a and me) and in turn followed by a
stressed syllable (gain of again and up). Sentences 3 and 4 have the same stress
pattern, that is, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable and then an
unstressed syllable. I’ve is unstressed, read is stressed and it is unstressed.
Similarly, in sentence 4 It’s is unstressed, pre the first syllable of pretty is stressed
and tty is unstressed. In sentences 5 and 6 the stress pattern is an unstressed
syllable followed by a stressed syllable, followed by two unstressed syllables.
Sentences 7 and 8 have a stressed syllable – Co and Po followed by two unstressed
syllables – lour, the and ish, the, followed by a stressed syllable –walls and floor.
Sentences 9 and 10 have the stress pattern stressed+unstressed+unstressed +stressed
+unstressed. These sentences are examples of some of the stress patterns in
50 English.
So far we have seen that English sentences consist of an alternation of stressed and Stress and Rhythm in
unstressed syllables. This brings us to the question of which syllables we must Connected Speech
stress and which syllables are not normally stressed. Let’s look at the following
sentences for an answer to this question.
1. 'Give him a 'glass of 'water.

2. I 'think it was an 'excellent per'formance.
3. It’s 'nearly as 'far as the 'bridge.
4. My 'friend 'bought a 'new 'clock.
5. You should have 'come at 'ten.
6. 'That’s not the 'pen I 'asked for.
7. She made 'me 'buy her a 'ticket.
* Notice that those words that have more than one syllable receive stress on the
same syllable as they do when said in isolation.
Let’s write down those words in each sentence that have a stress mark in front of
the stressed syllable. Can you tell what the function of each of these words is, that
is, what part of speech do they belong to? Their function is to convey the meaning
of the sentences. They are all content words, that is, nouns, main verbs, (except the
verb ‘to be’) adjectives, adverbs and demonstrative pronouns, question-words
(what, where, when, who, why, how etc.) and the words yes, no and not. The
words that are not stressed belong to the category called structure words. They
could be personal pronouns, auxiliary verbs, articles, conjunctions and prepositions
and ‘to be’ verbs (am, is, are, was, were). Thus content words, which convey
meaning, are generally stressed and structure words, which do not carry information
or convey meaning are generally not stressed.
Those utterances that have a large number of content words and fewer structure
words between them have a slower rhythm; and sentences with a large number of
unstressed syllable between stressed syllables have a faster rhythm.
Listen to the following utterances, for example, and compare the rhythm.
1. 'Have 'fresh 'fruit.

2. It’s a 'clear 'sky.
3. He’s a 'very 'naughty 'boy.
4. I 'want a 'pair of 'shoes.
5. She 'asked me to 'go.
6. I’m 'glad you have 'come.
7. I’ll 'try to be on 'time.
8. She 'wanted you to 'know.
9. 'Throw it into the 'fire.
10. 'Show him up to his 'room.
Notice that the rhythm tends to be slower when there are no unstressed syllables
between stressed syllables as in sentences 1 and 2. As the number of unstressed
syllables between stressed syllables increases the rhythm becomes faster.
Practice saying the sentences you have just listened to. You could repeat them after
the teacher on the audio.

1. Listen to each of the following sentences on the audio and put a stress mark
in front of the stressed syllables in each.
i It’s a sunny day.
ii Thank you very much. 51
Sounds of English iii Come and see me soon.
iv Your watch has been repaired.
v When can you come and see me?
vi Several of them have left.
vii I’ve often wanted to meet you.
viii You must write it on the blackboard.
2. Keeping in mind the general rule that normally content words are stressed
and structure words are not stressed in sentences, mark the stressed syllables
in each of the following sentences.
i How much money does it cost?

ii They’ve invited us to meet the artists.
iii We’ve asked them to meet us at ten.
iv Where shall we go for a holiday?
v They’ve promised to discuss it tomorrow.
vi I go for a swim every morning.
vii Don’t forget to return them to him.
viii Has she been invited to the party?
ix The meeting has been postponed.
x Ask her to buy tickets for the play.
xi When d’you expect to finish it?
xii They’ll certainly be late for the show.
xiii The train is two hours late.
xiv There’s been a serious road accident.
xv It was a rather tiring journey.
xvi We enjoyed ourselves at the fair.
xvii The circus has come to town.
xviii There are some rare coins in his collection.
xix Which is the way to the station?
xx The girl guides spent two weeks at camp in summer.
3. Mark the stressed syllables in the following dialogues. Remember in

connected speech single-syllable words that are stressed need to be
marked.
i) A: Shankar’s late today.

B: He said he’d be here by five.
A: There’s no sign of him.
B: Well, we’ll leave him behind.
A: Shall we wait a little longer?
B: We’ve waited long enough. Let’s go.
ii) A: Would you like a cup of coffee?

B: Yes, thanks. I’d love it.
A: Let’s go to the coffee house.
B: The coffee there’s no good. Let’s go to the college canteen.
A: Oh no. It’s no good there either.
B: Well, where shall we go then?
A: Shall we try the new restaurant round the corner?
B: That’s a good idea.
iii) A: You look tired. What’s the matter?

B: I’ve had a hard day.
A: A cup of hot cocoa should pep you up.
B: I’m sure it will.
A: I’ll get it ready in a minute.
52 B: Thank you so much.
iv) A: Hello, Tara. You look fresh after the break. Stress and Rhythm in
B: Thanks. I’m ready to take on the new assignment. Connected Speech
A: You’ll have to work very hard to a deadline.
B: I’m eager to face the challenge.
A: Good luck! I hope it goes well.
B: Thanks a lot.
v) A: Where are you off to?

B: The city Mall. There’s a Diwali sale on. Would you like to come?
A: I’d love to, but I have an appointment in twenty minutes.
B: Never mind. It’s on for two weeks. You can always go at the
weekend.
A: Probably will. I must be going now. See you later. Bye!
B: Bye!
4. Mark the stressed syllables in the following passages. Compare your

marking with the one given in the answers. Then read each passage aloud.
(i) Every night, flowers from around the world arrive at the auction halls of
Flora Holland near Amsterdam, from where they are re-sold to
wholesalers and distributors. The metal trolleys with their colourful
merchandise are then wheeled to trucks at the loading dock; twelve
billion flowers pass through here every year.
(ii) Woodlands play a far greater role in climate change than was previously
understood. In a study on carbon dioxide balance published recently in
a science magazine, a team of researchers found that global forests
absorb about two point four billion tons of green house gases each year.
Tropical rain forests have the largest share – 55 percent – in this
absorption.
4.2.1 Stress in Context

We have seen that normally in neutral utterances content words are stressed and
structure words are not stressed. Though this is generally the case, there are
exceptions to this rule i.e. when the context demands that content words remain
unstressed and structure words be stressed.
Let us first look at contexts in which content words are not stressed.
1. Look at the following dialogues. Pay special attention to the stress marks.
i) A: 'Have some 'wine.

B: I 'don’t 'see any wine.
ii) A: I’ve 'heard she 'sings 'well.

B: Oh 'no! She 'doesn’t sing well at 'all.
iii) A: 'Where have they all 'gone?

B: I 'haven’t got the 'slightest i'dea.
iv) A: This is a 'good 'dictionary.

B: 'Yes. I have the 'latest e'dition of this dictionary.
You must have noticed that in the first dialogue the word wine is not
stressed when it occurs the second time. This is so because it gives us no
new information. Also, the omission of stress on the repeated word wine 53
Sounds of English helps to focus the listener’s attention on the negative don’t and the verb see.
Again in the second conversation the word sing is not stressed when it
occurs the second time. The focus shifts to doesn’t which conveys negation
and adds new information to the given context.
In dialogue (iii) the content word got has not been stressed for the purpose
of emphasizing the words haven’t and slightest.
In the fourth dialogue the word have has not been stressed even though it is
the main verb and therefore a content word. In B’s response have means ‘to
possess’, and when used in this sense, it is often not stressed. Have is
generally stressed when we use it to convey other meanings such as ‘to
each’, ‘to suffer’ ‘to experience’. For example:
(i) 'Have some des'sert.

(ii) 'Both of them 'have con'gestion of the 'lungs.
(iii) 'Have 'fun at the exhi'bition.
2. Now let us look at contexts in which structure words are stressed.
(i) A: 'Who 'made all these 'kites?

B: 'I made them.
A: Could you 'make 'me some 'too.
(ii) A: 'Who 'broke that 'window?
B: It 'wasn’t 'me 'sir.
(iii) A: 'Can I 'have a 'apple?
B: You say 'an 'apple not 'a apple.
(iv) A: Ex'cuse me. Is 'this the 'train 'going 'to 'Chandigarh?
B: No. It’s 'coming 'from Chandigarh. 'The train going to
'Chandigarh is on platform 5.
A: ˌThank you 'so 'much.
B: You’re 'welcome.
(v) A: 'Please 'put that 'basket under the 'table.
B: Oh, 'all 'right.
A: Oh, 'no! I 'didn’t say put it 'on the table. I said put it 'under the
'table.
Notice that in dialogues (i) and (ii) the pronoun me is stressed. In (i) it
means me in addition to you and in (ii) me as distinct from others who may
have broken the window.
In dialogue (iii) the articles a and an are stressed. They have been cited or
quoted.
In dialogue (iv) the prepositions from and to have been stressed to contrast
the direction of the two trains.
In dialogue (v) again on and under are stressed for the purpose of contrast.
(vi) A: 'What shall we 'give her on her 'birthday?

B: 'Let’s 'give her some 'sweets.
A: She 'doesn’t ˌlike sweets.
(vii) A: Will you 'go 'home 'early to'day?
B: Most 'probably I 'will.
In dialogue (vi) the word doesn’t is stressed. But the stress here does not, in
fact, belong to the auxiliary does; it belongs instead to the negative particle
54
not (here contracted to n’t) attached to does. We shall learn more about Stress and Rhythm in
contraction as a feature of rhythm in the next section. Connected Speech
In dialogue (vii) in B’s response the auxiliary will is stressed. This happens when
an auxiliary verb occurs at the end of a sentence. At the beginning of a sentence
too it may sometimes be stressed, especially in slow speech.
I. Bearing in mind the points made above regarding the omission of stress on
content words in certain context, mark the stressed syllables in the following
conversations.
1. A: Would you like some tea?

B: No thanks. I’ve already had tea.
2. A: Did you say she has two sisters?
B: No. I said she’s got two brothers?
3. A: That’s a lovely bungalow. Is it yours?
B: No. I have a flat.
4. A: Is this the car we’re going in?
B: Yes.
A: But it’s too small. There isn’t enough room for all of us.
5. A: Could you lend me your coloured pencils please.
B: I’m sorry. I haven’t got coloured pencils. I can give you lead pencils
if you like.
A: No, thank you.
II. Keeping in mind the contexts in which some structure words are also
stressed, mark the stressed syllables in the following dialogues.
1. A: He seems to be fond of pets.
B: He is fond of them. Haven’t you seen the aviary he has at home?
2. A: You’re going rather early today.
B: Yes, I have to sign an important deal.
A: Oh no! Not today. It’s not auspicious.
B: Don’t be superstitious. All days are alike. If things have to go wrong
they will go wrong.
3. A: When is Radha going on a holiday?
B: She’s not going.
A: Then who’s going?
B: I am.
4. A: Did you ask me to buy you fruit or vegetables?
B: I asked you to buy me fruit and vegetables.
5. A: Are you going to the party tomorrow?
B: I don’t think I am.
6. A: Who chopped this branch off the tree?
B: I didn’t do it.
A: Then who did it?
B: He did it.
4.3 RHYTHM IN CONNECTED SPEECH

We have seen that in English sentences, content words i.e. words that are important
from the point of view of meaning are generally stressed and structure words are
generally not stressed.
Native speakers generally move from one stressed syllable to the next and
recurrence of beats heard on those stressed syllables constitutes the characteristic
rhythm of English. They use two main devices to achieve this rhythmic beat.
55
Sounds of English (i) They join words together and
(ii) They glide over structure words
(i) The ‘joining of words’ results in contractions. For example, in the sentence
we’ll find out where she’s gone.
the words we’ll and she’s are the contracted forms of we will and she has
(ii) The ‘gliding over of structure words’ results in weakening of the structure
words. For example, in the sentence
Many of them have left.

the words of them and have have the weak forms /əv/, /ðəm/ and /həv/.
Let’s look at the first of these devices in detail.
4.3.1 Contracted Forms

Let us look at examples of contracted forms:
1. I’m, he’s, they’re, we’ll, we’d, they’ve

2. Isn’t, aren’t, wouldn’t, hasn’t, haven’t
In the first type of contracted forms the weakened forms of the auxiliary verbs am,
is (or has) are, will, had (or would) and have are attached to the pronouns I, s/he,
we and they.
In contractions of the second type, while the auxiliary verbs retain the full form, the
weakened form of the negative not (i.e. n’t) is attached to them: is+n’t, are+n’t,
would+n’t, has+n’t, have+n’t.
4.3.1.1 Look at the following pairs of sentences. The first sentence of each pair
represents the written form and the second sentence represents the spoken form.
1a. I am told she has got an award.

1b. I’m told she’s got an award.
2a. He is sure they are coming tonight.

2b. He’s sure they’re coming tonight.
3a. We are too lazy to go out.

3b. We’re too lazy to go out.
4a. They are late again today.

4b. They’re late again today.
5a. I will see you in the evening.

5b. I’ll see you in the evening.
6a. He said he will be away on tour.

6b. He said he’ll be away on tour.
7a. Ask them whether they have completed the task.
7b. Ask them whether they’ve completed the task.
8a. We have already bought tickets for the play.
56 8b. We’ve already bought tickets for the play.
9a. I would have helped him if he had asked me. Stress and Rhythm in
9b. I would’ve helped him if he’d asked me. Connected Speech
10a. He has told me he is very busy.

10b. He’s told me he’s very busy.
11a. They will stay here for two days.

11b. They’ll stay here for two days.
Notice that in formal writing (1a, 2a, etc.) all the words have their full forms. In the
spoken form on the other hand the weakened forms of auxiliary verbs are attached
to the pronoun that precedes the auxiliary verb.
Now listen to the second sentence of each of the sentences. Listen for the
pronunciation of the contracted form in each.

1. The following sentences represent formal writing. Re-write them as they
would be spoken, using contracted forms. For this, follow the example
given below.
Example: He has written her a letter.

Spoken form: He’s written her a letter.
i They said they will be here by ten.

ii She has told us she is going to resign.
iii This is the house they have decided to buy.
iv I am sure he will be careful in future.
v We have started working on the project.
vi It is not the best way to do it.
vii They have promised me they will be on time.
viii You sign here and I will do the rest.
ix We are going home early today.
x They would have come to your rescue if they had been here.
2. Listen to the spoken form of these sentences and repeat them. Mark the
stressed syllables in these sentences.
As we said earlier, the second type of contracted forms are those in which
the shortened form of not is attached to an auxiliary verb. The resulting
contracted forms are stressed to emphasize the negation.
3 Look at the following pairs of sentences. The first of each pair represents
formal writing and the second the spoken form. Mark the stressed syllables
in the spoken form.
1a. She does not like cooking.

1b. She doesn’t like cooking.
2a. I did not have the time to see her.

2b. I didn’t have the time to see her.
3a. They do not want to be disturbed.

3b. They don’t want to be disturbed.
4a. You need not stay here the whole day.

4b. You needn’t stay here the whole day.
57
Sounds of English 5a. They have not understood the instructions.
5b. They haven’t understood the instructions.
6a. You should not have waited for them to return.

6b. You shouldn’t have waited for them to return.
7a. He did not have anything to do with it.

7b. He didn’t have anything to do with it.
8a. She cannot sew to save her life.

8b. She can’t sew to save her life.
In the case of some auxiliary verb both the types of contractions are possible. Look
at the following sentences for example:
1a. She is not leaving before six.

1b. She’s not leaving before six.
1c. She isn’t leaving before six.
2a. They are not happy with the results.
2b. They’re not happy with the results.
2c. They aren’t happy with the results.
Whereas sentences 1a and 2a represent the written form, sentences 1b, 1c and 2b,
2c represent the spoken form. In 1b and 2b the verbs is and are are weakened and
attached to she and they respectively. The negative not retains its full form. In 1c
and 2c on the other hand, the negative not is shortened and attached to is and are
respectively.
Look at some more sentences in which both the types of contractions are possible
and can be used.
3a. He has not had the time to read this book.

3b. He’s not had the time to read this book.
3c. He hasn’t had the time to read this book.
4a. They have not been to the north at all.

4b. They’ve not been to the north at all.
4c. They haven’t been to the north at all.
5a. I will not be able to help you.

5b. I’ll not be able to help you.
5c. I won’t be able to help you.
6a. They would not have done it if we had not asked them.
6b. They’d not have done it if we’d not asked them.
6c. They wouldn’t have done it if we hadn’t asked them.
You must have noticed that the auxiliary verbs is, are, has, have, will and would can
either themselves be weakened and attached to the pronoun preceding them or they
can be attached to the shortened form of not.
1 Mark the stressed syllables on the sentences marked b and c i.e. 1b, 1c, 2b,
2c etc. above and check your stressed syllables with those given in the
answers at the end of this Unit. Then read them aloud.
58
2 The following sentences represent formal writing. Rewrite them as they Stress and Rhythm in
would be rendered in speech. Mark the stressed syllables and check your Connected Speech
answers with those given at the end of this unit in the ‘Answers’.
i I do not know the way to the football stadium.

ii Do you not know it’s women’s day today?
iii They are absolutely certain he has got nothing to hide.
iv She cannot find a solution to the problem.
v We will not forget all that they have done for us.
vi Do not attempt a question if you are not sure of the answer.
vii They have decided they will tour the country on bicycles.
viii Can they not explain what all these symbols mean?
ix They have said they would not like to be disturbed.
x We could not help him much as we wanted to.
3 Listen to each of the following dialogues on the audio and fill in B’s
responses exactly as you hear them. Mark the stressed syllables.
i. A: Haven’t we got a holiday today?

B:
ii. A: I’d like to meet the director.
B:
iii. A: They’ve enjoyed themselves. Haven’t they?
B:
iv. A: I’m so sorry I couldn’t make it.
B:
A: You bet I will.
v. A: Why hasn’t Radha come today?
B:
vi. A: I don’t think we can leave early today.
B:
vii. We’ve been waiting for half an hour! There’s no sign of them.
B:
viii. A: She’s the life and soul of the party; isn’t she?
B:
ix. A: I’d appreciate it if you could help me.
B:
A: Thank you. I’ll wait for as long as you like.
x. A: Haven’t you finished writing the report yet?
B:
We have to be careful when we use contracted forms, because not all contracted
forms can be used in the final position in utterances. While contracted forms of the
second type (auxiliary verb attached to the negative n’t) are used in the final
position, contracted forms of the first type (weakened auxiliary attached to pronoun
are not used. This is so because auxiliary verbs are generally stressed in the final
position in an utterance and a stressed word as we know cannot be used in its weak
form. For example, look at the following dialogues.
1. A: I don’t think he’ll manage on his own.
B: I’m sure he will. He’s good at his job.
2. A: Have you completed your project?
B: No, I haven’t.
3. A: Have you completed your project?
B: Yes, I have. (not I’ve)
4. A: Is she coming tomorrow?
B: Yes she is. (not she’s)
5. A: I wonder if you’d like to take up this project.
B: Yes, I think I would (not I’d) 59
Sounds of English 4.3.2 Weak Forms and Weak Syllables
As we said earlier, an important feature that contributes to the more or less regular
movement from one stressed syllable to the next in English is the weakening of the
unstressed structure words that occur between them. The weak forms of these
structure words are pronounced with the vowels /ə/, /ɪ/ or /ʊ/. The strong forms
(which are pronounced with a vowel other than /ə/) occur in the final position in
sentences, or when they are stressed.
Here is a list of structure words along with their weak and strong forms.
Structure Word Strong Form Weak Form

Pronouns: he, she, you, hi:, ʃi:, ju:, wi:, h3:, hɪ, ʃɪ, jʊ, wɪ, hə, mɪ, ðəm,
we, her, me, them, us mi:, ðem, ʌs əs
Prepositions: at, for, æt, fɔ:, frɒm, ɒv, tu: ət, fə, frəm, əv, tə (before
from, of, to consonants), tʊ (before
vowels)
Articles: a, an, the eɪ, æn, ði: ə, ən, ðə (before conso-
nants), ðɪ (before vowels)
Some sʌm səm
Conjunctions: and, as, ænd, æz, ðæn, ðæt, ənd, /ən/n, əz, ðən, ðət, bət
than, that, but bʌt
Auxiliary Verbs: am, are, æm, ɑ:, ɪz, wɒz, w3:, əm, ə, z/s, wəz, wə, d(as
is, was, were, do, does, du:, dʌz, hæd, hæz, in d’you), dəz, həd, həz,
had, has, have, can, could hæv, kæn, kʊd həv/v, k(ə)n, kəd
shall, should, must, will, ʃæl, ʃʊd, mʌst, wɪl, ʃ(ə)l, ʃəd, məst, l (as in
would be, been wʊd bi:, bi:n i’ll, we’ll) wəd/əd/d (as in
I’d, we’d) bɪ, bɪn
Now listen to some of these weak forms in sentences, and repeat each sentence.
1. 'Give them some 'sweets.

2. 'Nine of them have 'come.
3. We’ll 'have 'bread and 'butter and 'fruit for 'breakfast.
4. 'Can you 'come and 'see me?
5. There has been an 'earthquake in Ja'pan.
6. She’s 'brought some 'photographs for us to 'see.
7. 'These are some of the 'trophies she’s 'won.
8. 'What would they have 'done wi'thout him?
9. There’s 'nothing I can 'do to 'help you.
10. 'What does he 'do for a 'living?
4.4 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit we have learnt that
 The rhythm of English utterances depends upon the alternation of stressed and
unstressed syllables.
 Generally, in a neutral setting in sentences content words which are important
for meaning are stressed, and structure words are unstressed.
 In a context, content words may sometimes remain unstressed and structure
words may be stressed, depending upon what the context requires.
60
 The more or less regular movement from one stressed syllable to the next is Stress and Rhythm in
facilitated by contractions of two kinds. Connected Speech
 Another feature which contributes to this movement from one stressed syllable
to the next is the weakening of the structure words that occur between them.
 It is important to be able to recognize weak forms and contractions in English in
order to understand native speakers and other speakers of English.
4.5 SUGGESTED READING

J Sethi, K Sadanand, D V Jindal (2004) A Practical Course in English
Pronunciation, Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi (2004)
4.6 ANSWERS
1 Stress mark:
i It’s a 'sunny 'day.
ii 'Thank you 'very 'much.
iii 'Come and 'see me 'soon.
iv Your 'watch has been re'paired.
v 'When can you 'come and 'see me?
vi 'Several of them have 'left.
vii I’ve 'often 'wanted to 'meet you.
viii You must 'write it on the 'blackboard.
ix I 'haven’t for'gotten to 'post it.
x 'Fold them 'carefully and 'give them to him.
xi 'That’s the ad'dress you must 'send it to.
xii The 'office-boy will 'show you 'where to 'go.
xiii There’s 'hardly any 'time for a 'chat.
xiv 'Speak to him as 'soon as he 'comes.
xv She was in-'charge of the 'team.
2
i 'How much 'money does it 'cost?
ii They’ve in'vited us to 'meet the 'artists.
iii We’ve 'asked them to 'meet us at 'ten.
iv 'Where shall we 'go for a 'holiday?
v They’ve 'promised to dis'cuss it to'morrow.
vi I 'go for a 'swim every 'morning.
vii 'Don’t for'get to re'turn them to him.
viii Has she been in'vited to the 'party?
ix The 'meeting has been post'poned.
x 'Ask her to 'buy 'tickets for the 'play.
xi 'When d’you ex'pect to 'finish it?
xii They’ll 'certainly be 'late for the 'show.
xiii The 'train is 'two 'hours 'late.
xiv There’s been a 'serious 'road 'accident.
xv It was a 'rather 'tiring 'journey.
xvi We en'joyed our'selves at the 'fair.
xvii The 'circus has 'come to 'town.
xviii There are some 'rare 'coins in his col'lection.
xix 'Which is the 'way to the 'station?
xx The 'girl 'guides 'spent 'two 'weeks at 'camp in 'summer.
3i) A: 'Shankar’s 'late to'day.
B: He 'said he’d be 'here by 'five.
61
Sounds of English A: There’s 'no 'sign of him.
B: Well, we’ll 'leave him be'hind.
A: Shall we 'wait a 'little 'longer?
B: We’ve 'waited long e'nough. 'Let’s go.
ii) A: Would you 'like a 'cup of 'coffee?

B: 'Yes 'thanks. I’d 'love it.
A: Let’s 'go to the 'coffee 'house.
B: The 'coffee there’s 'no 'good. Let’s 'go to the 'college can'teen.
A: Oh 'no. It’s 'no good 'there 'either.
B: Well, 'where shall we 'go then?
A: Shall we 'try the 'new 'restaurant round the 'corner?
B: That’s a 'good i'dea.
iii) A: You 'look 'tired. 'What’s the 'matter?

B: I’ve 'had a 'hard 'day.
A: A 'cup of 'hot 'cocoa should 'pep you 'up.
B: I’m 'sure it 'will.
A: I’ll 'get it 'ready in a 'minute.
B: 'Thank you 'so 'much.
iv) A: 'Hello. 'Tara. You look 'fresh 'after the 'break.

B: 'Thanks. I’m 'ready to 'take on the 'new as'signment.
A: You’ll 'have to 'work 'very 'hard to a 'deadline.
B: I’m 'eager to 'face the 'challenge.
A: 'Good 'luck! I 'hope it 'goes 'well.
B: 'Thanks a 'lot.
v) A: 'Where are you 'off to?

B: The 'City 'Mall. There’s a Di'wali 'sale 'on. Would you 'like to 'come?
A: I’d 'love to, but I 'have an ap'pointment in 'twenty 'minutes.
B: 'Never 'mind. It’s 'on for 'two 'weeks. You can 'always 'go at the
week'end.
A: 'Probably 'will. I must be 'going 'now. 'See you 'later. 'Bye!
B: 'Bye!
4 (i) 'Every 'night, 'flowers from a'round the 'world ar'rive at the 'auction 'halls of
'Flora 'Holland near 'Amsterdam, from where they are 're-sold to 'wholesalers
and dis'tributors. The 'metal 'trolleys with their 'colourful 'merchandise are 'then
'wheeled to 'trucks at the 'loading 'dock; 'twelve 'billion 'flowers 'pass through
'here 'every 'year.
(ii) 'Woodlands 'play a 'far 'greater 'role in 'climate 'change than was 'previously
under'stood. In a 'study on 'carbon di'oxide 'balance 'published 'recently in a
'science maga'zine, a 'team of re'searchers 'found that 'global 'forests ab'sorb
about two point four 'billion 'tons of 'green house 'gases each 'year. 'Tropical
'rain 'forests have the 'largest 'share – fifty' five per'cent – in this ab'sorption.
I. 1. A: Would you 'like some 'tea?

B: 'No 'thanks. I’ve al'ready 'had tea.
2. A: Did you 'say she has 'two 'sisters?
B: 'No. I said she’s 'got two 'brothers.
3. A: 'That’s a 'lovely 'bungalow. Is it 'yours?
B: 'No. I have a 'flat.
4. A: Is 'this the 'car we’re 'going in?
62
B: 'Yes. Stress and Rhythm in
A: But 'it’s 'too 'small. There 'isn’t enough 'room for 'all of us. Connected Speech
5. A: Could you 'lend me your 'coloured 'pencils 'please.
B: I’m 'sorry. I 'haven’t got coloured pencils. I can 'give you 'lead pencils if
you 'like.
A: 'No, 'thank you.
II. 1. A: He 'seems to be 'fond of 'pets.

B: He 'is fond of them. 'Haven’t you 'seen the 'aviary he has in his 'house?
2. A: You’re 'going 'rather 'early to'day.
B: 'Yes. I have to 'sign an im'portant 'deal.
A: Oh 'no! 'Not to'day. It’s 'not au'spicious.
B: 'Don’t be super'stitious. 'All 'days are a'like. If 'things 'have to go
'wrong they 'will go wrong
3. A: 'When is 'Radha 'going on a 'holiday?
B: 'She’s 'not 'going.
A: Then 'who’s going?
B: 'I 'am.
4. A: Did you 'ask me to 'buy 'fruit or 'vegetables?
B: I 'asked you to 'buy me 'fruit 'and 'vegetables.
5. A: Are you 'going to the 'party to'morrow?
B: I 'don’t think I 'am.
6. A: 'Who 'chopped this 'branch 'off the 'tree?
B: 'I 'didn’t 'do it.
A: Then 'who 'did it?
B: 'He did it.
1
i They 'said they’ll 'be here by 'ten.
ii She’s 'told us she’s 'going to re'sign.
iii 'This is the 'house they’ve 'decided to 'buy.
iv I’m 'sure he’ll be 'careful in 'future.
v We’ve 'started 'working on the 'project.
vi It’s 'not the 'best 'way to 'do it.
vii They’ve 'promised me they’ll 'be on 'time.
viii 'You 'sign 'here and 'I’ll 'do the 'rest.
ix We’re 'going 'home 'early to'day.
x They’d have 'come to your 'rescue if they’d 'been 'here.
3 1b She 'doesn’t like 'cooking.

2b I 'didn’t have the 'time to 'see her.
3b They 'don’t 'want to be di'sturbed.
4b You 'needn’t 'stay here the 'whole 'day.
5b They 'haven’t under'stood the in'structions.
6b You 'shouldn’t have 'waited for them to re'turn.
7b He 'didn’t have 'anything to 'do with it.
8b She 'can’t 'sew to 'save her 'life.

1 1b She’s 'not 'leaving be'fore 'six.
1c She 'isn’t 'leaving be'fore 'six.
2b They’re 'not 'happy with the re'sults.
2c They 'aren’t 'happy with the re'sults.
3b He’s 'not had the 'time to 'read this 'book.
3c He 'hasn’t had the 'time to 'read this 'book.
63
Sounds of English 4b They’ve 'not 'been to the 'North at 'all.
4c They 'haven’t 'been to the 'North at 'all.
5b I’ll 'not be 'able to 'help you.
5c I 'won’t be 'able to 'help you.
6b They’d 'not have 'done it if we’d 'not 'asked them.
6c They 'wouldn’t have 'done it if we 'hadn’t 'asked them.
2
i I 'don’t 'know the 'way to the 'football 'stadium.
ii 'Don’t you 'know its 'women’s 'day to'day?
iii They’re 'absolutely 'certain he’s got 'nothing to 'hide.
iv She 'can’t 'find a so'lution to the 'problem.
v We 'won’t for'get all that they’ve 'done for us (or we’ll not)
vi 'Don’t at'tempt a 'question if you’re 'not sure of the 'answer. (or you 'aren’t)
vii They’ve de'cided they’ll 'tour the 'country on 'bicycles.
viii 'Can’t they ex'plain what all these 'symbols 'mean?
ix They’ve 'said they 'wouldn’t like to be di'sturbed.
x We 'couldn’t 'help him 'much as we 'wanted to.
3 B’s responses:
i B: I 'don’t 'know. We’ll 'have to 'find out.
ii B: I’m a'fraid he’s 'not 'in at 'present.
iii B: 'Oh 'yes. They’re 'quite 'pleased with the 'organizers.
iv B: 'All of us 'missed you. We 'hope you’ll come 'next 'Friday.
v B: She’s 'not well at 'all.
vi B: 'Can’t we 'ask for per'mission to 'leave 'early?
vii B: 'Don’t 'worry. If they 'aren’t 'here wi'thin 'five 'minutes, we’ll 'leave.
viii B: 'Yes. 'There’s 'never a 'dull 'moment when she’s a'round.
ix B: I 'certainly 'will if you 'don’t 'mind 'waiting for a 'while.
x B: Well I’ve 'nearly 'finished. I’m 'doing the 'final 'draft. That 'shouldn’t
take 'long.
64

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BEGG-172

Indira Gandhi National Open University Language and Linguistics

Unit 1: The Consonants of English

At the end of this unit you should be able to

 Differentiate between sound and spelling in English.

In English there is no one-to-one correspondence between spelling and sound.

1.2 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN SPELLING AND

1.2.1 The Phonetic symbols – why we need to have them

A(i) Look at the following words and listen to them.

1. bough 3. dough 5. through

1. character 4. chalk 7. technical 10. cache

1. age 6. date 11. say 15. surface

each reach sea piece people suite

Thus one vowel sound is represented by different letters or combinations of

C. Let us look at another problem arising out of the lack of one-to-one

Listen to the following pairs of words.

Look at the following words and listen to them.

1. quack 4. quench 7. square

(ii) There is a similar problem with the letter x

Listen carefully to another set of words.

Check Your Progress 1

cord, pencil, concentrate, certain, fleece, dice, medical, bicycle, hectic

The letter c has two sounds:

a. cord, concentrate, medical, bicycle, hectic, pronounced like ‘the first’

days, months, plains, course, sugar, mansion, treasure, desert, reason

wicked, theme, send, temple, be, event, fete, severe, develop

a) p as the first sound in the word pot

a. ee as the second sound in the word peep

1.3 THE CONSONANTS OF ENGLISH

1.3.1 Consonants p, b, t, d, k, g, tʃ, dʒ

Check Your Progress 2

1. Listen to each consonant produced. Each consonant sound will be

1. ___i: ___ 2. ___əʊ___ 3. ___aɪ___ 4. ___æ___ 5. ___aʊ___

1. big ……… 5. tape ……… 9. tight ………

1. page …………. 6. chide ……………. 11. bucket ………….

1.3.2.1 Consonants /f/ and /v/

/f/ /v/ /f/ /v/

1.3.2.2 Consonants /θ/ and /ð/

1.3.2.3 Consonants /s/ and /z/

/s/ /z/ /s/ /z/

1. sip zip 6. cease seize

1. The mechanic says the car’s due for servicing.

Remember /z/ as in zoo must be distinguished from /dʒ/ as in joy.

/z/ /dʒ/ /z/ /dʒ/

1. zoo jew 5. buzz budge

1. The players from Zimbabwe wore black badges.

It is pronounced /z/ as in zoo after nouns ending in vowels and the

It is pronounced /ɪz/ as in is after nouns ending in /z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/

the cat’s fur

1.3.2.4 Consonants /ʃ/ and /ʒ/

1. decision 5. garage 9. casual

1. She just went on shouting at the top of her voice.

1.3.2.5 Consonant /h/

Check Your Progress 3

Check Your Progress 4

a.1 . fail bail veil

b. 1. pace page pays

c.1 . sip ship chip

1. _i: _ 2. _əʊ_ 3. _aɪ_ 4. _æ_ 5. _aʊ_

1. /w_ʃ/ 2. /s_n/ 3. /b_d/ 4. /flt/ 5. /s_z/

1. /f_tʃ/ 2. /bld/ 3. /θ ŋk/ 4. /rst/ 5. /kl__n tʃ/

1. r__nt 2. bl_nd 3. fl__ʃ 4. h_d 5. h___kl

1. fst 2. gl_s 3. b_ks 4. stk 05. l_k