BBA 205:

ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR

By: Dr. Ananta Narayana

Assistant Professor
Faculty of Management
Invertis University, Bareilly (U.P)
 Unit-2
Personality: Definition and Features, Big
five model, MBTI, Johari Window,
Managerial Implications of Personality,
Perceptions and Attributions: Definition
Features, Factors Affecting Perception and
Process,Attribution.
Definition
Personality refers to the enduring characteristics and
behavior that comprise a person's unique adjustment
to life, including major traits, interests, drives, values,
self-concept, abilities, and emotional patterns.

Personality is a characteristic way of thinking, feeling,

and behaving. Personality embraces moods, attitudes,
and opinions and is most clearly expressed in
interactions with other people. It includes behavioral
characteristics, both inherent and acquired, that
distinguish one person from another and that can be
observed in people’s relations to the environment and
to the social group.
Personality is any person's collection of
interrelated behavioral, cognitive and
emotional patterns that comprise a person’s
unique adjustment to life. These interrelated
patterns are relatively stable, but can change
over long time periods.
Gordon Allport's Definition:
Gordon Allport, a prominent American
psychologist, defined personality as "the
dynamic organization within the individual
of those psychophysical systems that
determine his unique adjustments to his
environment." Allport's definition
emphasizes the dynamic and adaptive
nature of personality, highlighting that it is
an ongoing process of organizing various
psychological and physiological systems to
interact effectively with the environment.
Carl Rogers' Definition:
Carl Rogers, a key figure in humanistic psychology,
described personality as "the organized, consistent set
of perceptions and beliefs about oneself." Rogers
emphasized the subjective and self-perceptive aspects of
personality.

He believed that individuals develop a self-concept

based on their experiences and interactions, and this
self-concept plays a central role in shaping personality.

According to Rogers, personal growth and well-being

occur when there is congruence between one's self-
concept and actual experiences.
Features
Personality refers to the unique set of
characteristics, traits, patterns of thinking,
feeling, and behaving that distinguishes one
individual from another.
It is a complex and multifaceted concept
that encompasses various aspects of an
individual's psychological makeup.

Several key features define and contribute to

the understanding of personality:
 Consistency: Personality traits often
exhibit a degree of stability and
consistency over time. While people may
change and evolve, there is a certain
continuity in their patterns of behavior
and reactions.

 Individual Differences: Personality

involves the study of differences between
individuals. Each person possesses a
distinct combination of traits, values, and
behaviors that set them apart from others.
 Psychological and Physiological
Elements: Personality is not only about
observable behaviors but also involves
internal psychological processes and, to
some extent, physiological factors. This
includes cognitive patterns, emotional
responses, and biological predispositions.

 Influence of Nature and Nurture: The

nature vs. nurture debate is relevant to the
study of personality. Some traits may have a
biological basis (nature), while others may be
shaped by environmental factors,
experiences, and upbringing (nurture).
 Psychodynamic, Behavioral, and Humanistic
Perspectives: Different theoretical perspectives offer
diverse explanations for personality development.
Psychodynamic theories, associated with Sigmund Freud,
focus on the role of unconscious processes. Behavioral
theories emphasize the impact of environment and
learning on personality, while humanistic theories, such
as those by Maslow and Rogers, highlight the
importance of self-actualization and personal growth.

 Trait Theories: Trait theories posit that personality can

be understood through identifying and measuring
specific traits. The trait approach categorizes individuals
based on characteristics such as openness,
conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and
neuroticism (often referred to as the Big Five
personality traits).
 Social and Cultural Influence: Personality
is also shaped by social and cultural factors.
Cultural norms, societal expectations, and the
influence of family, peers, and broader social
environments contribute to the development
and expression of personality.

 Adaptability: Personality is not static and

can adapt to changing circumstances. While
certain traits may be relatively stable,
individuals can demonstrate flexibility and
adaptability in response to new situations and
challenges.
 Big Five Model
 The Big Five personality traits, also known as
the Five-Factor Model (FFM), is a widely
accepted framework in the field of psychology
for describing and understanding human
personality. The model identifies five broad
dimensions or traits that capture the major
aspects of individual differences in personality.
These traits are considered to be relatively
stable over time and have been found to be
cross-culturally applicable. The Big Five
personality traits are often remembered using
the acronym OCEAN:
Big FIVE Model
 Openness to Experience (O):
◦ High scorers: Open to new ideas, creative, curious, imaginative.
◦ Low scorers: Practical, traditional, prefer routine, resistant to
change.
 Conscientiousness (C):
◦ High scorers: Organized, responsible, reliable, self-disciplined.
◦ Low scorers: Impulsive, careless, disorganized, lack of focus.
 Extraversion (E):
◦ High scorers: Outgoing, sociable, assertive, energetic.
◦ Low scorers: Reserved, introverted, quiet, prefer solitude.
 Agreeableness (A):
◦ High scorers: Compassionate, cooperative, trusting, empathetic.
◦ Low scorers: Critical, competitive, skeptical, less concerned with
others' feelings.
 Neuroticism (N):
◦ High scorers: Prone to anxiety, mood swings, emotional instability.
◦ Low scorers: Calm, emotionally stable, secure, resilient.
 Openness to Experience (O):
 High Scorers: Individuals high in openness
are often creative, imaginative, and open-
minded. They are curious and willing to
explore new ideas and experiences.

 Low Scorers: Those low in openness tend

to be more practical, prefer routine and
familiar experiences, and may be more
resistant to change.
Conscientiousness (C):
 High Scorers: Conscientious individuals
are organized, responsible, and reliable.
They are often self-disciplined, goal-
oriented, and capable of planning ahead.

 Low Scorers: People with low

conscientiousness may be more impulsive,
disorganized, and less focused on long-
term goals. They may struggle with time
management.
Extraversion (E):
 High Scorers: Extraverts are outgoing,
sociable, and energized by social
interactions. They tend to be assertive,
talkative, and comfortable in group
settings.

 Low Scorers: Introverts are more

reserved, prefer solitude or smaller group
interactions, and may find large social
gatherings draining.
Agreeableness (A):
 High Scorers: Agreeable individuals
are typically compassionate, cooperative,
and empathetic. They value harmony in
relationships, are trusting, and
considerate of others' feelings.

 Low Scorers: Those low in agreeableness

may be more critical, competitive, and less
concerned with the impact of their behavior
on others. They may prioritize their goals over
relationship harmony.
Neuroticism (N):
 High Scorers: Neurotic individuals may
experience higher levels of anxiety, mood
swings, and emotional instability. They may
be more reactive to stress and prone to
negative emotions.

 Low Scorers: People with low neuroticism

tend to be calmer, emotionally stable, and
resilient in the face of stress. They are less
likely to be swayed by negative emotions.
 MBTI
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a
widely used personality assessment tool
developed by Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine
Cook Briggs. Based on Carl Jung's theory of
psychological types, the MBTI seeks to
understand and categorize individuals'
preferences in how they perceive the world and
make decisions. The four dichotomies—(1)
Extraversion vs. Introversion, (2) Sensing
vs. Intuition, (3) Thinking vs. Feeling, and
(4) Judging vs. Perceiving—combine to create
16 distinct personality types.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is
a popular psychological tool that assesses
and categorizes personality based on four
dichotomies, resulting in 16 possible
personality types. Here's an overview of
each dichotomy:
Extraversion (E) vs.
Introversion (I)
 Extraversion: Individuals who are
energized by interacting with others,
enjoy social situations, and are often
outgoing.

 Introversion: Individuals who are

energized by spending time alone, prefer
quieter environments, and may be more
reserved in social settings.
Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N):
 Sensing: Individuals who focus on
concrete details, rely on practical
information, and are often realistic and
observant.

 Intuition: Individuals who focus on

possibilities, future outcomes, and are
more inclined towards innovation and
imagination.
Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F):
 Thinking: Individuals who make
decisions based on logic, objective
analysis, and consistency.

 Feeling: Individuals who make decisions

based on values, personal beliefs, and
considerations for others.
Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P):
 Judging: Individuals who prefer
structure, planning, and organization.
They like to have things settled and
decided.

 Perceiving: Individuals who prefer

flexibility, spontaneity, and adaptability.
They like to keep their options open
and are more comfortable with
uncertainty.
16 Personality Types
 These four dichotomies combine to form 16
personality types, each represented by a four-
letter code (e.g., ISTJ, ENFP). Here's a brief
description of each type:
1. ISTJ - The Inspector: Practical, organized,
reliable, and detail-oriented.
2. ISFJ - The Protector: Caring, responsible, and
committed to meeting the needs of others.
3. INFJ - The Counselor: Insightful, creative, and
dedicated to helping others.
4. INTJ - The Mastermind: Strategic,
independent, and focused on long-term goals.
5. ISTP - The Craftsman: Adaptable, hands-on,
and enjoys exploring how things work.
6. ISFP - The Composer: Artistic, sensitive, and
values personal expression.
7. INFP - The Healer: Idealistic, creative, and
committed to personal values.
8. INTP - The Architect: Analytical, innovative,
and enjoys problem-solving.
9. ESTP - The Dynamo: Energetic, outgoing, and
thrives in dynamic environments.
10. ESFP - The Performer: Spontaneous, lively,
and enjoys entertaining others.
11. ENFP - The Champion: Enthusiastic,
imaginative, and values possibilities.
12. ENTP - The Visionary: Inventive, curious,
and thrives on new ideas and challenges.
13. ESTJ - The Supervisor: Practical, decisive,
and focused on efficiency.
14. ESFJ - The Provider: Sociable, caring, and
dedicated to the well-being of others.
15. ENFJ - The Teacher: Charismatic,
empathetic, and committed to inspiring
others.
16. ENTJ - The Commander: Decisive,
strategic, and natural leaders.
Let's take the example of the ISTJ
personality type:
 ISTJ - The Inspector:

 Introversion (I): ISTJs are often reserved and

prefer spending time alone or in smaller groups. They
may need time alone to recharge.
 Sensing (S): ISTJs are detail-oriented and practical.
They focus on facts and concrete information, paying
attention to the present reality.
 Thinking (T): ISTJs make decisions based on logic
and objective analysis. They prioritize efficiency and
effectiveness.
 Judging (J): ISTJs prefer structure and order. They
like to plan, organize, and stick to a schedule.
Johari Window
Johari Window is a popular framework
for understanding the dynamics of
inter-personal relations.

This model was developed by Joseph

Luft and Harry Ingham and the
term ‘Johari’ was coined by
combining the first few letters of
their names.
Johari Window Model
 The Johari Window is a psychological tool
developed by psychologists Joseph Luft and
Harrington Ingham in the 1950s. It's used
to help individuals understand their
interpersonal relationships and increase
self-awareness.

 The Johari Window consists of a four-

quadrant grid, representing different
aspects of one's personality and self-
awareness:
Open Area (or Arena):
 This quadrant represents information
about oneself that is known to both the
individual and others.
 It includes behaviors, feelings,
motivations, and other personal
characteristics that are openly shared
and understood by both parties. Effective
communication and transparency
contribute to expanding the open area.
Blind Area (or Blind Spot):
 In this quadrant, aspects of oneself that are
unknown to the individual but are evident
to others are placed.

 These can be behaviors, attitudes, or traits

that others perceive but the individual is
unaware of. Feedback from others and self-
reflection can help reduce the blind area by
bringing unconscious aspects into
conscious awareness.
Hidden Area (or Facade):
 This quadrant contains aspects of oneself
that the individual knows but chooses not
to reveal to others.

 It encompasses thoughts, feelings,

experiences, or intentions that the
individual keeps private or deliberately
hides from others. Trust and vulnerability
play a role in reducing the hidden area by
disclosing personal information to trusted
individuals.
Unknown Area (or Unknown
Self):
 This quadrant represents aspects of
oneself that are neither known to the
individual nor to others.

 It includes unconscious motivations,

undiscovered talents, or repressed
memories. Self-discovery, introspection,
and experiences can help uncover the
unknown area over time.
 The goal of the Johari Window is to increase self-
awareness, enhance communication, and strengthen
interpersonal relationships by expanding the open area
and reducing the blind, hidden, and unknown areas.

 Through feedback, disclosure, and exploration,

individuals can gain insights into their own behaviors
and perceptions, leading to personal growth and
improved interactions with others.
 Managerial Implications of
Personality
 Hiring and Selection: Understanding the
personality traits relevant to job roles can aid in
better selection and placement of employees.
Matching individual personalities with job
requirements can lead to higher job satisfaction,
performance, and lower turnover rates.

 Team Composition: Personality diversity within

teams can enhance creativity and problem-solving
abilities. Managers can leverage insights into team
members' personalities to create balanced teams
that complement each other's strengths and
weaknesses.
 Communication and Leadership Styles:
Different personality types respond differently to
communication and leadership styles. Managers need
to adapt their communication and leadership
approaches to accommodate the preferences and
tendencies of individual team members, fostering
better engagement and collaboration.

 Conflict Resolution: Awareness of personality

differences can facilitate more effective conflict
resolution strategies. Managers can mediate conflicts
by recognizing underlying personality clashes and
addressing them through tailored interventions and
communication techniques.
 Motivation and Rewards: Individuals with
different personality traits may be motivated by
different incentives and rewards. Managers can
design reward systems that resonate with the
intrinsic motivations of diverse personality types,
thereby maximizing employee engagement and
performance.

 Training and Development: Personality

assessments can inform personalized training and
development plans tailored to individual strengths
and developmental areas. By recognizing employees'
unique personality profiles, managers can offer
targeted support and opportunities for growth.
 Performance Evaluation: Personality traits
can influence performance outcomes.
Managers should consider personality factors
when evaluating performance, recognizing that
certain traits may contribute to success in
specific roles or tasks.

 Organizational Culture: Personality traits

collectively contribute to organizational
culture. Managers play a crucial role in shaping
and nurturing a culture that aligns with the
organization's values and objectives while
accommodating the diverse personalities of
employees.
 Change Management: Personality differences
can influence reactions to organizational change
initiatives. Managers should anticipate and address
resistance to change by considering how different
personality types may respond and tailoring
change management strategies accordingly.

 Stress Management: Understanding how

personality traits relate to stress responses can
help managers identify and mitigate sources of
stress in the workplace. By providing support and
resources that cater to individuals' coping
mechanisms, managers can foster a healthier work
environment.
Perceptions and Attributions:
 Perceptions and attributions are
fundamental psychological processes that
influence how individuals interpret and
make sense of the world around them.

 Here's a breakdown of each concept:

 Perception:
 Perception refers to the process by which
individuals organize and interpret sensory
information to form mental representations
of their environment.
 It involves selecting, organizing, and
interpreting sensory inputs to create
meaningful experiences.
 Perception is subjective and influenced by
various factors, including past experiences,
cultural background, beliefs, expectations, and
emotions.
 Key Features of Perception:
 Selective Attention: Individuals tend to focus
on certain stimuli while ignoring others based
on their relevance and significance.

 Example: In a crowded and noisy café, you may

focus your attention on your friend's voice
while filtering out background conversations
and music. Despite the surrounding noise, you
selectively attend to the relevant stimulus (your
friend's voice) to engage in conversation.
 Perceptual Organization: Sensory inputs
are organized into meaningful patterns and
structures, such as shapes, objects, and scenes,
to facilitate understanding.

 Example: When looking at a painting, you

might perceive various shapes, colors, and
lines organized into recognizable objects or
scenes. For instance, you might see a
combination of shapes forming a tree, people,
or buildings, even though the painting consists
of abstract patterns.
 Interpretation: Perceptions are
interpreted and assigned meaning based on
individuals' cognitive processes, prior
knowledge, and contextual cues.

 Example: Imagine seeing a person with a

serious expression walking quickly down
the street while looking at their watch.
Based on this observation, you might
interpret that the person is running late
and feeling anxious about being on time.
 Perceptual Constancy: Despite
changes in sensory inputs, individuals
maintain stable perceptions of objects
and phenomena.

 Example: Even as you move around an

object, such as a table, its size and shape
appear relatively consistent. Despite
changes in your viewing angle or distance
from the table, your perception of it as a
stable object remains unchanged.
 Perceptual Set: Pre-existing mental
frameworks and expectations influence how
individuals perceive and interpret new
information.

 Example: If you expect a job applicant to be

confident and assertive based on their resume,
you might perceive their behavior during an
interview as fitting those expectations, even if
they exhibit nervousness or hesitation. Your
pre-existing mental framework influences how
you interpret and evaluate the applicant's
behavior.
 Factors Affecting Perception:
 Characteristics of the Perceiver:
Personal factors, including attitudes, beliefs,
values, personality traits, and cognitive
biases, shape how individuals perceive and
interpret stimuli.

 Characteristics of the Target: Features

of the stimulus, such as its salience,
familiarity, complexity, and ambiguity,
influence how it is perceived.
 Contextual Factors: Environmental context,
social norms, cultural background, and
situational cues impact individuals' perceptions
and interpretations.

 Time Factors: The duration of exposure to

a stimulus and temporal context influence
perceptions and interpretations.

 Perceptual Adaptation: Individuals can

adapt to changes in their sensory environment
over time, altering their perceptions
accordingly.
 Perceptual Process:
 Sensation: Sensory receptors detect and
transmit external stimuli (e.g., light, sound, touch)
to the brain.
 Selection: Individuals selectively attend to
certain stimuli while filtering out irrelevant
information based on factors like attention and
interest.
 Organization: Sensory inputs are organized and
structured into coherent patterns and
representations.
 Interpretation: Perceptions are interpreted and
assigned meaning based on individuals' cognitive
processes, prior experiences, and contextual cues.
 Example of Perceptual Process
 Sensation: Your nose picks up the yummy
smell from the kitchen.
 Selection: You focus on the smell, ignoring
other smells around you.
 Organization: Your brain figures out that
the smell is coming from food cooking in the
kitchen.
 Interpretation: You realize you're hungry
because of the smell, and you know it's time
to eat.
 Attribution:
 Attribution refers to the process by which
individuals explain the causes of behavior,
events, or outcomes.

 When making attributions, individuals seek

to understand why things happen and
attribute causality to either internal
(personal) or external (situational) factors.
 Key Features of Attribution:
 Internal Attribution: Attributing the cause of
behavior to personal characteristics, traits, abilities,
or intentions.
 External Attribution: Attributing the cause of
behavior to situational factors, environmental
influences, or external circumstances.
 Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency
to overemphasize internal factors and underestimate
external factors when explaining others' behavior.
 Self-Serving Bias: The tendency to attribute
successes to internal factors (e.g., abilities, effort) and
failures to external factors (e.g., luck, situational
factors) in order to maintain self-esteem.
 Factors Affecting Attribution:
 Consistency: The extent to which a
behavior is consistently displayed across
different situations influences attributions
of its cause.

 Distinctiveness: The degree to which a

behavior is unique to a particular situation
affects attributions of its cause.
 Consensus: The extent to which others
behave similarly in a given situation influences
attributions of the behavior's cause.
 Availability of Information: The amount and
accessibility of information about the situation
and the individual's behavior influence
attributions.
 Cultural Factors: Cultural norms, values, and
beliefs shape attributions by influencing the
importance attributed to individual versus
situational factors in explaining behavior.
Attribution Theory
Attribution theory is a psychological
concept that explores how people explain
the causes of events or behaviors.

It suggests that individuals try to

understand the reasons behind actions,
outcomes, or events by attributing them to
either internal factors (personal traits or
characteristics) or external factors
(situational influences).
 Attribution theory was developed by
psychologist Fritz Heider in the 1950s.
Heider's work laid the foundation for
understanding how individuals perceive and
explain the actions of themselves and
others.
 Internal Attribution: When people attribute
the cause of an action or event to factors
within the individual's control, such as their
personality, abilities, or attitudes. For example,
if someone performs well in a task, we
might attribute their success to their
intelligence or hard work.

 External Attribution: When people attribute

the cause of an action or event to factors
outside the individual's control, such as the
situation, luck, or other people's actions. For
example, if someone fails a test, we might
attribute it to the test being difficult or
distractions in the environment.
 Fundamental Attribution Error: This is a common
tendency for people to overemphasize internal factors
and underestimate external factors when explaining the
behavior of others. In other words, we often attribute
others' actions to their personality or disposition
rather than considering situational factors. For
instance, if someone is late for a meeting, we
might assume they are always disorganized,
rather than considering that they might have
been stuck in traffic.

 Self-Serving Bias: This bias occurs when individuals

attribute their successes to internal factors but blame
external factors for their failures. For example, if
someone does well on a test, they might
attribute it to their intelligence or hard work,
but if they perform poorly, they might blame the
test being unfair or the teacher's teaching style.