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A new closed-form method for inertia force and moment calculation in

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Article in Science China Technological Sciences · January 2018

DOI: 10.1007/s11431-017-9184-x

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 SCIENCE CHINA
Technological Sciences
•Article• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 2018 Vol.61 No.6: 879–885
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-017-9184-x

A new closed-form method for inertia force and moment

calculation in reciprocating piston engine design
XIE ZhiFeng, XU QuanYong, GUAN NanXiang* & ZHOU Ming

Institute for Aero-Engine, School of Aerospace Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

Received October 24, 2017; accepted December 18, 2017; published online January 24, 2018

The piston crank mechanism is an important component of a reciprocating piston engine. It is an inherent vibration system, and
as such, the calculation of unbalance quantity is a critical procedure in balancing mechanism design, which is adopted to balance
inertia loading. The traditional method usually applies a Taylor series expansion with the crank-conrod ratio, then a Fourier
transform with the crank angle. The Taylor expansion generally ignores the influence on calculations resulting from the high
order terms. However, the high order terms of the Taylor expansion will also contribute to the low order terms in the Fourier
series. This will induce poor precision in the inertia loading calculation, especially in a high crank-conrod ratio engine. Thus, this
paper proposes a new closed-form method, which only adopts a Fourier transformation for the calculation. The coefficients of the
Fourier transformation terms contain the contributions of all order terms of the crank-conrod ratio. Therefore, we named it as a
closed-form method. Compared with the traditional method, the closed-form method improves the numerical accuracy of the
secondary reciprocating inertia force by 1.5%–4%, when the crank-conrod ratio varies from 0.25 to 0.4. Using this new closed-
form method to design a balancing mechanism, the primary and secondary reciprocating inertia forces can be completely
balanced. For an engine, where the primary and secondary inertia forces are balanced, the ratio of the residual inertia force to the
total inertia force using the traditional method is 1.5%, while the ratio decreases to 0.5% using the closed-form method. The
closed-form method is independent of engine configurations, including centric and eccentric engines, and single and multi-
cylinder engines. Examples of applications using the proposed method are provided.
piston engine, balance, inertia loading, closed-form, vibration

Citation: Xie Z F, Xu Q Y, Guan N X, et al. A new closed-form method for inertia force and moment calculation in reciprocating piston engine design. Sci
China Tech Sci, 2018, 61: 879–885, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-017-9184-x

1 Introduction at reducing NVH. Boysal and Rahnejat [2] presented a multi-

body numerical nonlinear dynamic model of a single cylin-
Reciprocating piston engines are widely adopted in industry, der engine to allow the designer to carry out a comprehensive
military and agriculture, such as for transport machinery, NVH investigation of engine performance. Perera et al. [3]
engineering machinery, inland river ships. Noise, vibration developed a multi-physics approach in engine design ana-
and harshness (NVH) have serious negative influences on lysis, and adopted an analytical method to predict the force.
engine performance [1]. Thus, NVH has been an important Kim et al. [4] proposed an optimal conceptual design of a
subject in internal combustion engine research. balance shaft by determining locations of both unbalance and
Numerous research studies have been conducted on NVH, supporting bearings. Suh et al. [5] developed a concept of the
and many simulation methods have been proposed to predict primary balance shaft in a three-cylinder engine, and the
the characteristics of NVH. Many techniques are also aimed vibration was reduced to an acceptable level. Heifetz and
Marsh [6] investigated several methods for reducing the
*Corresponding author (email: [email protected]) dynamic unbalance generated by the inertia force in single-

© Science China Press and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2018 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tech.scichina.com link.springer.com
880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xie Z F, et al. Sci China Tech Sci June (2018) Vol.61 No.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880

cylinder and multi-cylinder engines. convenient for application to various types of engines, in-
In recent years, engine speeds have significantly increased cluding eccentric or centric engines, and single and multi-
with a resulting greater impact on engine structure. The in- cylinder engines. Examples of applications using the pro-
creasing excitation in an engine exacerbates fatigue of the posed method are also presented in subsequent sections.
engine and mounting components [6]. Minimizing un-
balanced forces and moment to minimize excitation, vibra-
tion and noise has become increasingly urgent [7]. 2 The closed-form method in a single-cylinder
The main methods for reducing NVH are to reduce the engine configuration
exciting forces and moments [8,9] and set a damping me-
chanism [7]. It is an important direction to design a balancing We first briefly recall the steps to evaluate unbalanced re-
mechanism to balance the inertia force or moment of the ciprocating inertia loading using a traditional method. The
piston crank mechanism. The calculation of the unbalance basic assembly of the piston, connecting rod and crankshaft
quantity of the mechanism is a critical procedure in balan- are illustrated in Figure 1. When at time t=0, the piston is at
cing mechanism design [10]. The traditional method usually the top dead center (TDC). The crankshaft angle velocity is
used two steps to calculate the unbalance quantity [11,12]. ω, and the crankshaft angular is α, which is equal to ω
First, the inertia loading function is obtained based on a multiplied by time t. For a four-stroke engine, the relation-
Taylor series expansion with a small quantity λ, which is the ship between ω and revolutions per minute (RPM) denoted
crank-conrod ratio. Second, the coefficients of the primary as n is ω=2πn/60.
preceding terms are retained and then transformed in a The reciprocating inertia force or moment of the crank link
Fourier series with α, which is the crank angle. The coeffi- mechanism can be obtained according to the geometric re-
cients in a Fourier series are the basis for designing the un- lation of each part. In general, inertia loading is a function of
balanced shaft. However, we found that the coefficients of α and λ, and can be expressed formally as F=F(α, λ).
the high order terms in the Taylor series expansion with λ According to the traditional method [6,11,12], in order to
also notably influence the low order terms in the Fourier obtain the balance weight and moment of the balance me-
series. Thus, the traditional method is insufficiently accurate chanism, two mathematical transformations have to be ap-
for calculating the inertia loading, especially for a high plied on F(α, λ). Firstly, F(α, λ) can be rewritten as a Taylor
crank-conrod ratio engine. series expansion for small values of λ as follows:
This paper proposes a new closed-form method to calcu- F ( , ) = C1( ) + C2( ) 2
+ C3( ) 3
+ (1)
late the primary orders of the inertia loading. The new
Actually, the coefficients Ci(α) become smaller and smal-
method only adopts the Fourier transformation, so the
ler, and the preceding primary terms are of interest for en-
coefficients contain the contributions from all orders of λ. We
gineering application [10], for example, up to the first two
will show the differences between the traditional and closed-
orders,
form methods during a single-cylinder engine design process
in the following sections. By adopting the closed-form F( , ) F2 = C1( ) + C2( ) 2 . (2)
method to design a balancing mechanism, the primary and Then by employing the Dirichlet theorem, the above ex-
secondary reciprocating inertia force can be completely ba- pression can be expanded in the form of a Fourier series as
lanced. Compared with the traditional method, the closed- follows:
form method will improve the computational accuracy of the F2 = A0 / 2 + Ai cosi + Bi sini , (3)
i =1 i =1
secondary reciprocating inertia force by 1.5%–4%, which is
when the ratio of the crank radius to length of the connecting
rod varies from 0.25 to 0.4. When the primary and secondary
inertia forces are balanced, the residual inertia force ratio
will decrease from 1.5% to 0.5%. This improvement is sig-
nificant and useful for reducing the vibration of high speed
engines, and for also significantly reducing the exciting
force.
This paper first describes the unbalance analysis in a sin-
gle-cylinder engine configuration, and second derives the
closed-form equations. Then the closed-form results are
compared with traditional method results. According to the
results, the primary and secondary reciprocating inertia for- Figure 1 A single-cylinder engine, with center piston-connecting rod-
crankshaft. A is the piston assembly, AB is the connecting rod, OB is the
ces can be completely balanced. The closed-form method is crankshaft, R is the crank radius and L is the connecting rod length. The
independent of the engine configuration, and as such, is rotational speed of the crankshaft is ω.
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xie Z F, et al. Sci China Tech Sci June (2018) Vol.61 No.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881

where these coefficients can be derived based on the fol- Via the Fourier transformation as outlined in eq. (3), one
lowing integration: can obtain
1 2 FTM = b1-TM cos + b2-TMcos2 , (9)
Ai = F2cosi d ,
0
(4) where b1-TM=−mω2 and b2-TM=−mω2Rλ.
1 2
Bi = F2sini d .
0

According to eq. (3), one can design an unbalanced shaft, 2.3 The closed-form method
and more details are given in references [10,12]. We find Eq. (3) can be rewritten as the summation of a Fourier series
that, for example, the coefficient λ3 may also contribute to for an even function as follows:
cos2α or cosα, i.e., coefficients of higher orders of λ may
F = A0 / 2 + Bi cosi . (10)
contribute to lower orders of the coefficients in a Fourier i =1

transformation. Thus, one cannot determine these contribu- Generally, only the several preceding terms have dominant
tions by only keeping more finite terms in eq. (2). Thus, the contributions to the inertia force and need to be balanced by
traditional method is inaccurate, and needs improvement. the balancing mechanism. According to the above transfor-
Since we have developed a closed-form method, the Taylor mation, one can derive the closed-form of the first two terms:
series expansion used in the traditional method is no longer FCF = mx¨ A( ) = b1-CF cos + b 2-CF cos2 + (11)
necessary. It is only necessary to employ the Fourier trans- and
form F(α, λ) as follows: 2
b2-CF = m L{16[(2 2)EllipticE( 2)
F ( , ) = A0 / 2 + Ai ( )cosi + Bi ( )sini , (5)
i =1 i =1 2(1 2 )EllipticK( 2)]} / 3 2 , (12)
where Ai(λ) and Bi(λ) contain all orders of λ, and in general where b1-CF=−mω R. 2

one can find their closed-form by integrating as shown in eq. Eq. (12) is the closed-form method of the secondary inertia
(4). For some complicated cases, one can obtain their nu- force factor, EllipticK and EllipticE are the complete elliptic
merical forms, which are also adequate for engineering ap- integrals of the first and second kind, respectively [13].
plications. The primary inertia forces calculated by the traditional and
In the following subsection, the calculation of a Fourier closed-form equations are the same. According to eq. (12),
series using the traditional method and closed-form method one can identify the mass of the counter-rotating balance,
are shown and comparisons are given. which can null the secondary inertia force.
By employing Taylor series expansion, b2-CF can be ex-
2.1 The inertia force panded in terms of λ as follows:
2 2 1 4 15 6
The ratio of the crank radius to the connecting rod length is λ, b2-CF = mL + + + O[ ]7 . (13)
4 128
and the displacement of the piston is determined as a func-
Obviously, the traditional factor b2-TM is the first term of the
tion of α:
closed-form factor b2-CF, and the other terms are essential
xA( ) = L cos + 1 ( 2
sin2 ). (6) differences between the traditional and the closed-form
methods.
Differentiating eq. (6) twice with respect to time and
multiplying it by the reciprocating mass m, which consists of
the mass of the piston assembly and big-end of the con- 2.4 Comparing the traditional and closed-form meth-
necting rod [12], the inertia force will be equal to F. ods
F = mx¨ A( ) According to the above analysis, the closed-form of the
2
4 sin 22 2 cos2 secondary inertia force can be obtained, which enables a
= mL cos + 3/2
+ 2
. (7) comparison of the differences between the traditional and
4(1 2 sin 2
) 1 sin 2
closed-form methods. Firstly, the error of the secondary re-
ciprocating inertia force calculated by the traditional and
2.2 The traditional method closed-form methods is denoted as Err. The exact secondary
inertia force calculated by the closed-form referring to eq. (9)
According to the traditional method, eq. (7) is transformed is b2-CFcos2α, and the inexact secondary inertia force calcu-
based on the Taylor series expansion with λ as outlined in eq. lated by the traditional method referring to eq. (11) is
(1), subscript TM denotes the traditional method, bi denotes b2-TMcos2α,
the coefficient of the i-th order term.
b 2-TM
FTM = m 2
R(cos + cos2 ). (8) Err = 1 . (14)
b 2-CF
882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xie Z F, et al. Sci China Tech Sci June (2018) Vol.61 No.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882

Submitting eq. (9) and eq. (11) into eq. (14), and then
making a simplification, it is clear that Err is related to λ,
which is the ratio of the crank radius to the length of the
connecting rod.
The curve of Err as a function of λ is plotted in Figure 2.
Actually, in engineering, when λ varies from 0.25 to 0.4, the
error of the secondary reciprocating inertia force varies from
1.5%–4%. Thus, by using the closed-form method the
computational accuracy of the secondary reciprocating in-
ertia force will improve by 1.5%–4%. The counter-rotating
balance mechanism is identified by the computational re-
ciprocating inertia force. By adopting the closed-form Figure 3 (Color online) For a typical 4-stroke engine, λ=1/3, L=210 mm,
the speed n=3000 RPM, m=1 kg, the unbalanced reciprocating inertia force
method to design the balancing mechanism, the unbalance of the traditional design (dashed curve) and the closed-form design (solid
force will decrease. Since the magnitude of the inertia force curve) are functions of the crankshaft angle. Meanwhile, the corresponding
is proportional to the square of speed , it is significant for variations of errorTM (dashed curve) and errorCF (solid curve) are also
demonstrated.
the unbalance reduction of a high-speed engine. This is an
important measure to reduce NVH.
For a typical 4-stroke engine, λ=1/3, L=210 mm, m=1 kg forces of the balancing mechanism with the closed-form
and the speed n=3000 RPM, submitting these variables into design is smoother than the traditional design, and the am-
eq. (14), one can obtain Err=2.85%, and meanwhile, the plitude is smaller. The right ordinate shows that the ratio of
maximum absolute value of the error of the secondary inertia the residual inertia force to the total inertia force with the
force is 67.5 kN. traditional method is 1.5%, while the ratio decreases to 0.5%
Next, the residual inertia force corresponding to the two using the closed-form method.
methods are compared. The reciprocating inertia force cal- As known, unbalanced inertia force is proportional to the
culated by eqs. (7), (9) and (11) are denoted as Ftrue, FTM, and square of speed ω. Thus, with an increase in engine speed,
FCF, respectively. The differences between them are denoted the unbalanced force becomes larger, and the vibration be-
as comes increasingly serious.
errorCF = Ftrue FCF ,
(15)
errorTM = Ftrue FTM .
2.5 Closed-form method for the fourth order
From a physical point of view, errorCF and errorTM are the
unbalanced reciprocating inertia forces using the closed- Figure 3 suggests that curve errorCF almost obeys a cosine
form design and the traditional design, respectively. function, and the frequency is four times that of the crank-
It is known that the trajectory of the rotation of the engine shaft rotational speed, which indicates that primary and
rotatation is circular, so the value of the crankshaft angle secondary reciprocating inertia forces are completely ba-
ranges from 0 to 2π. The variations of errorCF and errorTM are lanced by the closed-form method. By modifying the bal-
plotted in Figure 3. ancing mechanism, such as adding a four times speed gear
As shown in Figure 3, the unbalanced reciprocating inertia system, the value of the unbalanced inertia force will be close
to zero.
According to eq. (5), the fourth order of the inertia force
can be derived as b4-CFcos4α, where
2 2 4
b4-CF = 64mL [(16 16 + )EllipticE( 2)
8(2 2)(1 2)EllipticK( 2 )] / 15 4. (16)
According to the above method, we can modify the bal-
ancing mechanism to balance the fourth order inertia force.
Based on the closed-form method introduced, any high order
term can be derived to satisfy the balance requirement.

3 Extending applications of the closed-form

method
Figure 2 (Color online) Error of the secondary reciprocating inertia force
calculated by the traditional and closed-form methods, versus the ratio of
crank radius to the length of the connecting rod λ. In the above analysis, the closed-form method was applied to
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xie Z F, et al. Sci China Tech Sci June (2018) Vol.61 No.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883

calculate the reciprocating inertia force of a single-cylinder 3.1.1 With a traditional method
engine, with a center piston-connecting rod-crankshaft sys- As we know [14], in the traditional method, one can obtain
tem. The new method can be extended to calculate the inertia Fec-TM = m 2
R(a 1cos + a 2-TM cos2 + b1-TMsin ), (20)
force of a single-cylinder with an eccentric piston-connect-
where
ing rod-crankshaft system, and to calculate the inertia mo-
a 1 = 1, a 2-TM = , b1-TM = . (21)
ment of a connecting rod.

3.1.2 With the closed-form method

3.1 Applying the closed-form to an eccentric piston
As described in Section 2, one obtains Fec with the closed-
single-cylinder engine
form method,
2
In order to increase the intake stroke and expansion stroke, Fec-CF = m R(a 1cos + a 2-CF cos2 + b1-CF sin ). (22)
which allows the intake to more fully expands, or to reduce Since the complex form of Fec in eq. (19), the closed-form
the slap force of the piston, it is typical to use an engine of the coefficients in eq. (22) cannot be expressed explicitly,
configuration with an eccentric piston-connecting rod- but one can obtain them by a numerical integrate method. For
crankshaft (Figure 4). example, if λ=1/3, and ξ=1/70, one can obtain a1=1.0000,
The eccentric displacement of the piston is e, and the ec- a2-CF=0.3431, b1-CF=4.9758/103.
centricity ratio is defined as Submitting them into the following error method, one has
e
= . (17) b 1-TM
R Errb1 = 1 =4.29%, (23)
b 1-CF
The displacement of the piston can be calculated as
a
xA( ) = Erra2 = 1 a1-TM =2.85%. (24)
1-CF
2
1 2 1 2 (18) Erra2 is the percentage error of the secondary reciprocating
R +1 cos + 1 (sin )2 . inertia force calculated by the traditional method (i.e., eq.
(16)) and a closed-form method (i.e., eq. (19)), which is
Differentiating eq. (18) twice with respect to time and almost the same as the center piston-connecting rod-crank-
multiplying it by the reciprocating mass m, which consists of shaft system.
the mass of the piston assembly and a portion of the mass of
the connecting rod, the inertia force imposed upon the re-
3.2 Applying the closed-form to the moment inertia of
ciprocating mass will be equal to Fec.
the connecting rod
Fec = mx¨ A( )
2
The inertia moment of the connecting rod induces vibration
2
3
cos2 (sin ) problems in a motor engine [15]. One-shaft balance is
= m R cos + 3/2
2 adopted after dynamic balance analysis.
1 2
(sin )
As shown in Figure 5, for a single-cylinder engine, with a
center piston-connecting rod-crankshaft system, the mass of
cos2 sin (sin )
+ 2 2
. (19) the connecting rod is mL, and the inertia moment of the
1 2
(sin ) 1 2
(sin ) connecting rod to point O can be obtained as follows [15]:
2 sin
M= I (1 2) 3/2
, (25)
(1 2 sin2 )
in which
I = LmLL 2 I2 , (26)
where L2 is the distance from the mass center of the con-
necting rod to point A, and I2 is the inertia moment of the
connecting rod to point A.
For the traditional method, up to the first order, we can
obtain
2
MTM = Ia 1-TMsin with a 1-TM = . (27)
By the closed-form method, eq. (25) can be rewritten as the
Figure 4 A single-cylinder engine, with eccentric piston-connecting rod- summation of a Fourier series for an odd function such as
crankshaft. A is the piston assembly, AB is the connecting rod, OB is the
crankshaft, R is the crank radius and L is the connecting rod length. The
M = i =1 a i sin(i ).
rotational speed of the crankshaft is ω. In general, only the several preceding terms have essential
884 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xie Z F, et al. Sci China Tech Sci June (2018) Vol.61 No.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884

Figure 5 A single-cylinder engine, with center piston-connecting rod-

Figure 6 (Color online) The unbalanced inertia moment to point O of a
crankshaft. A is the piston assembly, AB is the connecting rod, OB is the
traditional design and closed-form design versus the CA (crankshaft angle).
crankshaft, C is the mass center of the connecting rod, R is the crank radius
and L is the connecting rod length. The rotational speed of the crankshaft is
. 4 Conclusions
contributions to the inertia moment and need to be balanced.
An unbalanced reciprocating inertia force and inertia mo-
Up to the first order, one has
ment in a piston engine will result in severe vibration pro-
2
MCF = Ia 1-CF sin , (28) blems. Many balance mechanisms have been reported to
where balance the inertia loading. The calculation of the unbalance
quantity is a critical procedure in balancing mechanism de-
a 1-CF = 4[EllipticE( 2) (1 2
)EllipticK( 2 )] / . (29) sign. According to the traditional method, the coefficients of
Here, by Taylor series expansion, a1-CF can be expanded in the high order terms in a Taylor series expansion with will
term of the small value λ as follows: influence the low order terms in a Fourier series. Thus, the
3 traditional method is insufficiently accurate for calculating
5 5
a 1-CF = + + + O[ ]7 . (30) inertia loading.
8 64
Obviously, the traditional factor a1-TM is the first term of the The closed-form method proposed in this paper can pre-
closed-form factor a1-CF. cisely calculate all orders of the inertia loading. The new
If λ=1/3, L=210 mm, I=0.0637 kg m2, the speed of the method only adopts a Fourier transformation, so the coeffi-
engine can be given, i.e., n=3000 RPM. Moreover, the per- cients contain the contributions from all orders of λ. The
centage error of the first order between the traditional accuracy of the closed-form equations can be guaranteed,
method and closed-form method can be estimated as Erra1= because they are obtained based on a theoretical derivation.
1−a1-TM/a1-CF=1.43%. The closed-form equation is a kind of analytical method,
The inertia moment calculated by eqs. (25), (27) and (28) which retains high order terms with the low-frequency
is denoted as Mtrue, MTM and MCF, respectively. The difference components.
between them is denoted as The closed-form method will improve the computational
accuracy of the secondary reciprocating inertia force by
errorCF = Mtrue MCF , about 1.5%–4% for a single cylinder engine. The counter-
(31)
errorTM = M true MTM . rotating balance mechanism is identified by the computa-
From a physical point of view, errorCF and errorTM are the tional reciprocating inertia force. By adopting the closed-
unbalanced inertia moments with a closed-form design and form method to design the balancing mechanism, the pri-
traditional design, respectively. It is known that the trajectory mary and secondary reciprocating inertia forces are com-
of the rotation of engine rotation is circular, so the value of pletely balanced. For the engine balancing primary and
the crankshaft angle ranges from 0 to 2π. The variations of secondary inertia force, the ratio of the residual inertia force
errorCF and errorTM are plotted in Figure 6. to the total inertia force can be reduced from 1.5% to 0.5% by
Figure 6 shows the unbalanced inertia moment to the point using the closed-form method. This is significant for redu-
O of the traditional design and closed-form design. The cing vibration in high-speed engines, as the reduction of the
unbalanced inertia moment of the balancing mechanism with exciting force will be great.
the closed-form design is smoother than the traditional de- We also extended the application of the closed-form
sign, and the amplitude is smaller. The value of errorCF al- method to calculate the reciprocating inertia force of a sin-
most obeys a sine function, and the frequency is three times gle-cylinder with an eccentric piston-connecting rod-crank-
that of the crankshaft rotational speed, which indicates that shaft system and the inertia moment of the connecting rod.
the primary inertia moment is completely balanced by the Comparing with the traditional method, the new closed-form
closed-form method. method was more effective and precise. The new closed-
7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xie Z F, et al. Sci China Tech Sci June (2018) Vol.61 No.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885

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