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Stresses Under Centric Loading

1. CENTRIC/AXIAL LOADING
When a beam, or long bone in the human body, is loaded with an external force parallel to its long (i.e.
central) axis, the external force is known as an axial loading force. Axial loading forces come in two varieties,
concentric and eccentric axial loading forces.

1.1. Concentric / Centroidal Axial Loading

When an external axial compression loading force acts directly in line with the central axis of a
structure, the compression force will cause only compression of the beam, or long bone, without any
bending moment.
Figure (a) shows a bar of constant cross-sectional area A. The ends of the bar carry uniformly
distributed normal loads of intensity p (units: Pa or psi).
We know from statics that “when the loading is uniform, its resultant passes through the
centroid of the loaded area.”
Therefore, the resultant P =σ A of each end load acts along the centroidal axis (the line
connecting the centroids of cross sections) of the bar, as shown in Fig 1. (b). The loads shown are
called axial or centroidal loads.
Although the loads in Figs 1. (a) and (b) are statically equivalent, they do not result in the same
stress distribution in the bar. In the case of the uniform loading in Fig 1. (a), the internal forces acting on
all cross sections are also uniformly distributed. Therefore, the normal stress acting at any point on a
cross section is:

The stress distribution caused by the concentrated loading in Fig 1. (b) is more complicated.
Advanced methods of analysis show that on cross sections close to the ends, the maximum stress is
considerably higher than the average stress P/A. As we move away from the ends, the stress becomes
more uniform, reaching the uniform value P/A in a relatively short distance from the ends. In other
words, the stress distribution is approximately uniform in the bar, except in the regions close to the ends.

Figure 1. A bar loaded axially by a. uniformly distributed load of intensity p; and b. a statically equivalent
centroidal force P = σ A.

As an example of concentrated loading, consider the thin strip of width b shown in Fig 2.a. The
strip is loaded by the centroidal force P. Figures 2 b– d show the stress distribution on three different
cross sections. Note that at a distance 2.5b from the loaded end, the maximum stress differs by only
0.2% from the average stress P/A.

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Figure 2. Normal stress distribution in a strip caused by a concentrated load.

1.2. Eccentric Axial Loading

If the external axial compression loading force is offset from being in line with its central axis, it
will cause an eccentric axial loading force.

With eccentric axial loading, the externally-acting compression force will cause a bending moment
on the beam, or long bone, which is resisted by the internal molecular structure of the beam, or long
bone. The internal resistance to deformation of a structure is known as stress. If the beam or long bone
is tending to become more convex on one surface, this surface of the beam or long bone will have
increased tension stress.

In the example below, the eccentric axial compression loading force causes the beam to tend to
bend the beam so that it becomes more convex on the right side of the beam, and becomes more
concave on the left side of the beam. As a result, this creates an increase in tension stress on the right
hand side of the beam and an increase in compression stress on the left hand side of the beam.

Therefore, if bending moments are being created in beams, or long bones, one way to decrease the
bending moments and resultant tension and compression stresses acting on walls of the beam, or long
bone, is to attempt to make the external loading forces become more concentric and less eccentric
relative to its central axis.

Figure 3. Concentric and eccentric axial loading.

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Moments of Inertia for Geometric Shapes

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2. SAINT VENANT’S PRINCIPLE

About 150 years ago, the French mathematician Saint Venant studied the effects of statically equivalent
loads on the twisting of bars. His results led to the following observation, called Saint Venant’s principle: “The
difference between the effects of two different but statically equivalent loads become very small at sufficiently
large distances from the load.”
Most analysis in mechanics of materials is based on simplifications that can be justified with Saint Venant’s
principle. We often replace loads (including support reactions) by their resultants and ignore the effects of
holes, grooves, and fillets on stresses and deformations. Many of the simplifications are not only justified but
necessary. Without simplifying assumptions, analysis would be exceedingly difficult. However, we must always
keep in mind the approximations that were made, and make allowances for them in the final design.
Consider, as an example, the grooved cylindrical bar of radius R shown in Fig. 3 (a). The loading consists of
the force P that is uniformly distributed over the end of the bar. If the groove were not present, the normal
stress acting at all points on a cross section would be P/A. Introduction of the groove disturbs the uniformity of
the stress, but this effect is confined to the vicinity of the groove, as seen in Figs. 3(b) and (c).

Figure 4. Normal stress distribution in a grooved bar.

3. STRESSES ON INCLINED PLANES

When a bar of cross-sectional area A is subjected to an axial load P, the normal stress P/A acts on the
cross section of the bar. Let us now consider the stresses that act on plane a – a, that is inclined at the angle y
to the cross section, as shown in Fig. 4 (a). Note that the area of the inclined plane is A/cos Ɵ: To investigate
the forces that act on this plane, we consider the free-body diagram of the segment of the bar shown in Fig.
4(b). Because the segment is a two-force body, the resultant internal force acting on the inclined plane must be
the axial force P, which can be resolved into the normal component P cos Ɵ and the shear component P sin y.
Therefore, the corresponding stresses, shown in Fig. 4(c), are

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Figure 5. Determining the stresses acting on an inclined section of a bar.

From these equations we see that the maximum normal stress is P/A, and it acts on the cross section of the
bar (that is, on the plane Ɵ = 0). The shear stress is zero when Ɵ = 0, as would be expected. The maximum
shear stress is P/2A, which acts on the planes inclined at Ɵ = 45 to the cross section. In summary, an axial load
causes not only normal stress but also shear stress. The magnitudes of both stresses depend on the
orientation of the plane on which they act.
By replacing Ɵ with Ɵ + 90 in the equation above, we obtain the stresses acting on plane a’ – a’ , which
is perpendicular to a - a, as illustrated in Fig. 5 (a):

Similarly, applying trigonometric identity: cos (Ɵ + 90) = - sin Ɵ

sin 2(Ɵ + 90) = - sin 2Ɵ

In other words, “The shear stresses that act on complementary planes have the same magnitude
but opposite sense.”

Figure 5. Stresses acting on two mutually perpendicular inclined sections of a bar.

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Procedure for Stress Analysis:

In general, the stress analysis of an axially loaded member of a structure involves the following steps.

1. Equilibrium Analysis
 If necessary, find the external reactions using a free-body diagram (FBD) of the entire structure.
 Compute the axial force P in the member using the method of sections. This method introduces an
imaginary cutting plane that isolates a segment of the structure. The cutting plane must include the
cross section of the member of interest. The axial force acting in the member can then be found from
the FBD of the isolated segment because it now appears as an external force on the FBD.
2. Computation of Stress
 After the axial force has been found by equilibrium analysis, the average normal stress in the member
can be obtained from ơ = P/A, where A is the cross-sectional area of the member at the cutting plane.
 In slender bars, ơ = P/A is the normal stress if the section is sufficiently far from applied loads and
abrupt changes in the cross section (Saint Venant’s principle).
3. Design Considerations
✓ For purposes of design, the computed stress must be compared with the allowable stress, also called
the working stress. To prevent failure of the member, the computed stress must be less than the
working stress.

Sample Problems:
1. The rectangular wood panel is formed by gluing together two boards
along the 30-degree seam as shown in the figure. Determine the largest
axial force P that can be carried safely by the panel if the working stress
for the wood is 1120 psi, and the normal and shear stresses in the glue
are limited to 700 psi and 450 psi, respectively.

2. The simply supported beam as shown has a rectangular cross section 120 mm wide and 200 mm
high.
With a maximum moment of 16 KN – m
a. compute the maximum bending stress of the beam
b. compute the bending stress at a point on section B that is 25 mm below the top of the beam whose
moment is 9.28 KN-m.

3. The simply supported beam has the T-shaped cross section shown. Determine the values and
locations of the maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses. Let the maximum moments for x
= 10 ft & 4 ft length are 4000 lb – ft and 3200 lb – ft respectively.

4. A cast-iron machine part is acted upon by a 3 KN-m couple. Knowing E = 165 GPa and
neglecting the effects of fillets, Determine the following:
a. the maximum tensile and compressive stresses,
b. the radius of curvature.

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