EXPERIMENT 1

AIM: TO OBTAIN THE CHARACTERSTICS OF SCR,

MOSFET AND IGBT
 EXPERIMENT 2
AIM: TO PERFORM TRIGGERING OF SCR, MOSFET
AND IGBT
 EXPERIMENT 3
AIM: STUDY OF INVERTERS (BRIDGE, STEPPED WAVE,
SPWM)
Objective
The objectives of this experiment were to be familiar with a pure sine wave inverter, its application in solar PV
system and to measure its efficiency, frequency, input power, output power etc.

Theory
DC-to-AC converters are known as inverter. The function of an inverter is to change a DC input voltage to a
symmetrical AC output voltage of desired magnitude and frequency. The output voltage can be fixed or variable at
a fixed or variable frequency.
Depending on the output waveform there are three types of inverter:

1. Square wave inverter 2. Modified sine wave inverter 3. Sine wave inverter

A variable output voltage can be obtained by varying the input DC voltage and maintaining the gain of the inverter
constant. On the other hand, if the DC input voltage is fixed and it is not controllable, a variable output voltage can
be obtained by varying the gain of the inverter, which is normally accomplished by pulse-width-modulation (PWM)
control within the inverter.
Sine wave inverters are mostly used because this inverter produces a pure sine wave output. The output AC voltage
range is 220V±10% and the input DC voltage may be 12, 24 or 48 Volt. The main advantage of this inverter is its
low harmonic distortion.
Inverters can also be classified into two broad categories:

1. Single phase inverter 2. Three phase inverter

The output of a
single phase inverter
is a

symmetrical ac voltage either square wave or sine wave.

The three phase inverter may be considered as three single phase inverter where each output is 1200 apart.
PWM Sine Wave inverter: PWM inverters are particularly useful when used as ac motor controllers, since the
speed of an ac motor can be controlled by adjustment of the frequency of the motor excitation.

Figure: Generation of PWM Wave

Figure: Two Level PWM wave generation Technique

It must be recalled, however, that the flux developed in the motor is inversely proportional to the excitation
frequency, and that every motor has a saturation flux above which the motor draws significant current without
further flux increase. Hence, as a motor excitation frequency is decreased, the peak value of the applied voltage
must also decrease proportionally to keep the motor out of saturation. A PWM controller coupled with MPT
capability can be a very efficient means of maximizing the efficiency of a PV pump.
The process begins with a triangle wave at the frequency of the pulse waveform applied to one input of a voltage
comparator. Next, the desired waveform is applied as a modulating waveform at the other input of the comparator.
Whenever the modulating signal exceeds the triangle waveform, the comparator output goes high, and whenever
the modulating signal is less than the triangle waveform, the comparator output goes low. The comparator output
is then used to switch the output pulse on and off. The result is an output PWM waveform that has a moving
average value proportional to the modulating signal.
The average value of the PWM output is obtained in a manner similar to the detection process used to pick off the
modulation signal of an amplitude modulated communications signal. A filter needs to be incorporated that will
not allow the voltage (or current) of the load to change instantaneously, but will allow it to change quickly enough
to follow the moving average of the PWM waveform. This can be achieved with inductive and/or capacitive
filtering, depending on whether it is desired to smooth the current, the voltage or both. The harmonic content of
the two-level PWM waveform can be significantly reduced through the use of a three-level PWM waveform.
The harmonic content of the two-level PWM waveform can be significantly reduced through the use of a three-
level PWM waveform. A three-level PWM waveform can be generated by incorporating a second comparator into
the circuit, so that one comparator will control the positive-going pulse when the modulating signal is positive and
the other comparator will control the negative going pulse when the modulating signal is negative. The challenge
here, however, is to switch the PV input so the array is never turned off if the inverter is powered directly from the
array. If a storage mechanism is used for array current, so the array is continuously supplying dc power to the
storage mechanism, then the storage mechanism can be switched on and off to meet the load requirements
without interrupting the power flow from the array.
Inverter Performance Parameters:

Square Modified Sine Pulse Width

Parameter Sine Wave
Wave Wave Modulated
Up to 100,000 Up
Output power range (watts) Up to 2,500 20,000 Up to
1,000,000 to
Surge capacity (multiple of rated
Up to 20x Up to 4x Up to 2.5x Up to 4x
output power)
Typical efficiency over output 70–98% >90% >90% >90%
range
Harmonic distortion Up to 40% >5% <5% <5%

Instruments
1. Oscilloscope 4. Resistors (10K, 100K)

2. Multi meter 5. Battery- Hamko HPD 75

3. Clamp on Meter 6. Inverter (12 Volt to 250 Volt

Procedure:
1. The battery and the variable AC resistive loads were connected with the inverter appropriately.
2. To observe the waveform, an oscilloscope was connected at the output.
3. Multimeter and clamp-on meter were used to measure the output current and voltage.
4. Input DC current was measured using a clamp on meter and DC input voltage using a multimeter.
5. The waveforms of the oscilloscope were observed.
6. The load was increased gradually.
7. Steps [3 to 6] were repeated at each load level

Data and Calculations

Considering all loads are resistive,
 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑨𝑪 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑨) × 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑨𝑪 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝑽)
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (%) = 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑫𝑪 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
(𝑨) × 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑫𝑪 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝑽) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Output Waveform

When Load= 100 W, T= 20 ms

When Load= 200 W, T= 20 ms

Discussion
The efficiency of the inverter varies as the load is varied. The inverter works at maximum efficiency when
load is 120 W. The resistive load we worked with could not provide more than 200 W. So, the experiment
was conducted up to 200 W. From the waveform of the oscilloscope, it is clear that the output is a true
sinewave.
All the equations, theories mentioned in this report are obtained from different books, papers, online
resources etc.
 EXPERIMENT 4
AIM: STUDY OF UPS SYSTEM
Why is power protection important?
No company can afford to leave its IT assets unprotected from power issues. Here are just a few of the
reasons why:
• Even short outages can be trouble. Losing power for as little as a quarter second can trigger
events that may keep IT equipment unavailable for anywhere from 15 minutes to many hours. And
downtime is costly. Some experts believe the U.S. economy loses between $200 billion and $570
billion a year due to power outages and other disturbances.
• Utility power isn't clean. By law, electrical power can vary widely enough to cause significant
problems for IT equipment. According to current U.S. standards, for example, voltage can legally
vary from 5.7 percent to 8.3 percent under absolute specifications. That means that what utility
services promising 208-phase voltage actually deliver can range from 191 to 220 volts.
• Utility power isn't 100 percent reliable. In the U.S., in fact, it's only 99.9 percent reliable, which
translates into a likely nine hours of utility outages every year.
• The problems and risks are intensifying. Today’s storage systems, servers and network devices
use components so miniaturized that they falter and fail under power conditions earlier-generation
equipment easily withstood.
• Generators and surge suppressors aren’t enough. Generators can keep systems operational
during a utility outage, but they take time to startup and provide no protection from power spikes
and other electrical disturbances. Surge suppressors help with power spikes but not with issues
like power loss, under-voltage and brownout conditions.
• Availability is everything these days. Once, IT played a supporting role in the enterprise. These
days it’s absolutely central to how most companies compete and win. When IT systems are down,
core business processes quickly come to a standstill.
• Availability is everything, but power costs must be managed. The cost of power and cooling
has spiraled out of control in recent years. Data center managers are typically held responsible for
achieving high availability while simultaneously reducing power costs. Highly-efficient UPS systems
can help with this goal, and products are available today that were not an option even a few years
ago.
What is a UPS?
Put simply, a UPS is a device that:
1. Provides backup power when utility power fails, either long enough for critical equipment to shut down
gracefully so that no data is lost, or long enough to keep required loads operational until a generator comes
online.
2. Conditions incoming power so that all-too-common sags and surges don’t damage sensitive electronic
gear.
What are the main types of UPS?
UPSs come in three major varieties, which are also known as topologies:

Single-conversion systems
In normal operation, these feed incoming utility AC power to IT equipment. If the AC input supply falls out of
predefined limits, the UPS utilizes its inverter to draw current from the battery, and also disconnects the AC
input supply to prevent backfeed from the inverter to the utility. The UPS stays on battery power until the
AC input returns to normal tolerances or the battery runs out of power, whichever happens first. Two of the
most popular single-conversion designs are standby and line-interactive:

• Standby UPSs allow IT equipment to run off utility power until the UPS detects a problem, at which
point it switches to battery power. Some standby UPS designs incorporate transformers or other
devices to provide limited power conditioning as well.
 • Line-interactive UPSs regulate input utility voltage up or down as necessary before allowing it to
pass through to protected equipment. However, like standby UPSs, they use their battery to guard
against frequency abnormalities.

Figure 1. Internal design of a line-interactive UPS.

Double-conversion systems
As the name suggests, these devices convert power twice. First, an input rectifier converts AC power into
DC and feeds it to an output inverter. The output inverter then processes the power back to AC before
sending it on to IT equipment. This double-conversion process isolates critical loads from raw utility power
completely, ensuring that IT equipment receives only clean, reliable electricity.
In normal operation, a double-conversion UPS continually processes power twice. If the AC input supply
falls out of predefined limits, however, the input rectifier shuts off and the output inverter begins drawing
power from the battery instead. The UPS continues to utilize battery power until the AC input returns to
normal tolerances or the battery runs out of power, whichever occurs sooner. In case of a severe overload
of the inverter, or a failure of the rectifier or inverter, the static switch bypass path is turned on quickly, to
support the output loads.

Static Switch

DC Link
AC SOURCE AC
Output

Rectifier/Charger Inverter
Battery

Normal power flow

Stored energy power

flow Recharge
energy flow
Emergency bypass power

Figure 2. Internal design of a double-conversion UPS.

Multi-mode systems
These combine features of both single- and double-conversion technologies while providing
substantial improvements in both efficiency and reliability:
• Under normal conditions, the system operates in line-interactive mode, saving
energy and money while also keeping voltage within safe tolerances and resolving
common anomalies found in utility power.
• If AC input power falls outside of preset tolerances for line-interactive mode, the
system automatically switches to double-conversion mode, completely isolating IT
equipment from the incoming AC source.
• If AC input power falls outside the tolerances of the double-conversion rectifier, or
goes out altogether, the UPS uses the battery to keep supported loads up and
running. When the generator comes online, the UPS switches to double-conversion
mode until input power stabilizes. Then it transitions back to high-efficiency
lineinteractive mode.
Multi-mode UPSs are designed to dynamically strike an ideal balance between efficiency
and protection. Under normal conditions, they provide maximum efficiency. When problems
occur, however, they automatically sacrifice some efficiency to deliver maximum levels of
protection. The end result is that data centers can save tens of thousands a year on energy
without compromising data center performance or reliability. For more information on
multimode UPSs, please see two additional white papers, “Which UPS is Right for the Job”
and “Maximizing UPS Availability” at www.eaton.com/pq/whitepapers.

Figure 3. Internal design of a multi-mode UPS.

 EXPERIMENT 5
AIM: PERFORM LOAD TEST ON SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR
 EXPERIMENT 6
AIM: DEMONSTRATION OF ELECTRIC WELDING,
HEATING AND ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEMS
Introduction
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) is one the earliest of the arc welding processes,
but has remained popular despite the introduction of newer and more sophisticated
processes. Indeed, this lack of sophistication is one of the major attractions of the
process.
In this chapter you will look at the following.
• The process
applications
advantages
limitations
• Equipment
• MMAW variables
amperage
angle of approach
angle of travel
• MMAW faults
• MMAW electrodes
functions of flux coating
types of coating
care of electrodes
electrode deterioration
storage of electrodes
redrying of electrodes
electrode classification.
At the end of the chapter, you will complete an activity.

The process
The MMAW process operates as follows.
A low voltage, high amperage current flows to create an arc between the tip of the
electrode and the workpiece. This generates the heat for welding and causes the work
piece and the tip of the electrode to melt.

Term Definition

amperage A measurement of the amount of electrical current

The flux coating on the electrode decomposes (burns) due to the intense heat of the
arc and generates a gaseous shield, which protects the weld pool and surrounding hot
metal from the atmosphere.
The electrode melts off and is transferred across the arc in the form of droplets. The
molten metal provided by the electrode adds to the molten parent metal and they
become the weld metal when solidified.
Molten electrode flux which is transferred across the arc acts as a scavenger, picking
up impurities from the surface of the parent metal. The slag which forms covers the
weld pool, solidifies, and protects the hot weld metal as it cools.
The flux ingredients provide arc ionization (the air gap between the tip of the electrode
becomes electrically conductive), enabling the use of alternating current.

Direction of Electrode flux

travel Electrode
Arc column
or
Arc plasma
Solidified slag Shielding gases

Weld metal

Parent metal

Fig4.1–Arcwelding
Applications of the process
Many welding operators have grown up using the MMAW process. This familiarity and
the fact that it is simple to set up and use, makes it first choice for selection in many
instances. The low cost of equipment makes the process accessible to most people,
and MMAW has no special requirements such as external gas shielding or high-
frequency arc initiation. Sound welds are easily produced and the process doesn’t tend
to result in weld defects such as lack of fusion which is common in GMAW.
MMAW is widely used for:
• structural work
• pressure vessels
• piping
• maintenance welding
• site construction
• general fabrication.

Advantages of the process

The advantages of the MMAW are its versatility and the availability of a wide range
of consumables. Set-up time is short, making the process ideal for small jobs, short
production runs, and where the welding is carried out on site. MMAW offers the
following advantages over other welding processes:
• low capital cost for equipment
• versatility across a wide range of applications
• simple, reliable equipment
• low maintenance of equipment
• ideal for site work
• wide operator appeal
• sound, reliable welds.

Limitations of the process

Although faster than some welding processes, MMAW has lower deposition rates than
many of the newer welding processes that use a higher current. The process has a low
operator duty cycle, with the operator spending a lot of time changing electrodes and
chipping slag. These two factors combine to limit the application of this process,
especially if high production rates are required.

Equipment
Equipment for manual metal arc welding consists of the following.
• Power source–usually a constant-current type output transformer or transformer
rectifier is used, although various other types of power sources, such as
generators or inverters can also be used. The function of the power source is to
supply welding current with sufficient amperage to provide the necessary heat, at
a voltage which is safe to use.
• Electrode hand piece and lead–to carry current to the arc via the electrode.
• Work return lead – connects the work piece to the power source thereby
completing the welding circuit (A closed circuit is necessary for current flow).

Transformer

Electrode Work Electrode

terminal terminal holder
Electrode
Work
return Arc

Electrode Work
lead

Fig4.2– Manual metal arcwelding equipment

MMAW variables
The major variables of the MMAW process are:
• amperage
• arc length
• travel speed • angle of approach
• angle of travel.
 Arc voltage is not considered to be a variable in the MMAW process as this is
essentially dependent on the electrode flux type and only varies from around 21–
25 volts.
Amperage
An increase in amperage will:
• increase the heat of the welding arc
• increase fusion and penetration
• give a higher deposition rate
• increase arc force
• enable easier arc starting
• give a more fluid weld pool
• increase spatter
• increase emission of ultraviolet radiation.

Correct current
 Current too low

Rounded
bead

Low penetration

Trapped
slag

Current too high

Flattened
bead

Excessive
Undercut spatter

Fig4.3–Effects of amperage

A decrease in amperage will have the opposite effect.

As the size and thickness of the metal to be welded increases, so the heat required for
fusion increases, necessitating higher amperages. Also, the higher the heat input, the
slower the cooling rate of the weld zone. Slow cooling rates are generally desirable
when welding most metals.
A simple equation is: VOLTAGE x AMPERAGE = HEAT

Angle of approach
Another simple rule for welders is that the metal goes were you point the electrode.
Following that rule, it can be seen in the fillet weld example below that to get an even
weld build up, the electrode must be pointed evenly at both plates, i.e., 45° and the
welding arc is ‘directional’, that is metal transfer is essentially along the line of the
electrode.

Fig4.4–Angle of approach
Unless attention is given to the angle of approach, defects such as slag inclusions, lack
of fusion and penetration, and unacceptable weld contours may result.

Angle of travel
The angle of travel is established essentially as a means of keeping the molten weld
pool behind the arc, and preventing the slag from catching up to the electrode and
causing slag inclusions. Although the angle of travel is commonly set at 60–70°many
factors such as amperage, electrode type, and travel speed will determine the actual
angle used. It should be noted however that the angle of travel used should be the
minimum required for slag control, as laying the electrode too flat causes problems
such as poor appearance, excessive spatter, reduced penetration, and a narrow,
convex bead shape.

Direction of travel

Fig4.5–Angle of travel

Term Definition

Imperfections of the weld metal or surface caused

Slag inclusions by slag (impurities in the molten mix)

Manual metal arc welding faults

The defects commonly encountered in MMAW are:
• weld cracking
• porosity
• slag inclusions
• lack of fusion
• insufficient or excessive penetration
• contour faults
• undercut • excessive spatter
• stray arcing.

Cracking
Cracking is considered to be a serious weld fault and rarely is any amount of cracking
tolerated.
Cracks may be described depending on how, when and where they occur, e.g.,
longitudinal, transverse, crater, center line, hot, cold, toe and under bead. Cracks may
occur in either the parent metal, usually as fusion or heat affected zone cracks, or in
the weld metal.

Hot cracking− Usually occurs in metals that are hot, short and /or have high rates of
thermal expansion. Hot cracking most commonly occurs in the weld metal with the
most common examples being longitudinal and crater cracks.
Cold cracking− Most commonly occurs in the base metal adjacent to the fusion zone.
The most common example of this is under bead cracking in hard enable steels.
Cratercracks−Thesecomefromhotshrinkage.Thecratersolidifiesaroundallsides toward
the center, leading to a high concentration of stress at the center of the crater. If the
metal lacks ductility, or the hollow crater cannot accommodate the shrinkage, cracking
may result. Crater cracks may, under stress, spread from the crater and lead to failure
of the weldment.
Cracking in MMAW welds on mild steel is generally not a major problem.
Porosity
Porosity in MMAW welds can be the result of welding on a parent metal that is
susceptible to this condition (such as steel that contains high amounts of dissolved
gases or Sulphur). Porosity may also be caused by welding on dirty material or material
contaminated with moisture, oil, paint or grease. The electrode may have been
contaminated, or too much current or too long an arc length used.

Slag inclusions
Slag inclusions in MMAW can occur at the weld root; between weld runs, or on the weld
surface. They generally occur in MMAW as a result of low amperage, poor electrode
manipulation, working on dirty or contaminated metal, or incorrect joint preparation.

Lack of fusion/lack of root penetration

With MMAW, lack of fusion or lack of root penetration is commonly caused by low
amperage, working on dirty or contaminated material or using the wrong joint
configuration, electrode angle or travel rate.

Excessive penetration
Excess weld metal protruding through the root of a butt weld may occur in MMAW
because of incorrect joint preparation, wrong electrode choice, excessive amperage or
incorrect variables.

Contour defects
Contour defects may be in the form of insufficient or excessive leg size, over roll or
overlap, excessive convexity or concavity of the bead, or simply a rough, uneven
appearance.
These are mainly caused by the operator but by using the correct electrode, amperage,
travel speed and electrode angle adjustments, many of these problems can be fixed.

Undercut
Undercut in MMAW is defined as a groove or channel in the parent metal, occurring
continuously or intermittently along the toes or edge of a weld.
Undercut is a common problem in MMAW and can be caused by excessive amperage,
too long an arc length, wrong electrode angles, or wrong travel rate.

Excessive spatter
Although some spatter is a normal part of MMAW, excessive spatter is ugly and difficult
to remove. Some electrode types produce more spatter than others, but generally
excessive spatter is caused by high amperage or too long an arc length.

Stray arcing
Defined as damage to the parent metal resulting from the accidental striking of an arc
away from the weld.

Even though stray arcing is not a major problem associated with the MMAW of mild
steel, it is good practice to take precautions against accidental arcing of the electrode
anywhere other than in the weld zone.
Stray arcing can lead to serious weld failure in a material that is crack sensitive, or is
going to be put in a stressed situation.

Manual metal arc welding (MMAW)electrodes

Wire
O

Core wire

Electrode
coating
(flux)

Fig4.6–Electrode construction

The manual metal arc welding electrode consists of a core of wire surrounded by a flux
coating. The wire is generally of similar composition to the metal to be welded. The flux
 is applied to the wire by the process of extrusion. For welding carbon and low alloy
steels (the metals most commonly fabricated using the MMAW process) electrodes will
have one of four flux types, either:
• cellulose type coating
• rutile type coating
• hydrogen controlled coating (low hydrogen)
• iron powder type coating.
The flux coatings (from which the electrode type stake their name) account for the
major differences between electrode types.
The ingredients of the flux coating are carefully controlled so as to give desirable
running characteristics and weld metal properties.
Among these desirable running characteristics are:

arc stability
• ease of striking
• elimination of porosity
• minimum spatter
• elimination of noxious fumes and odors
• a tough durable coating
• control of penetration
• high deposition rates
• desirable physical and mechanical weld metal properties.
The afore mentioned list is by no means exhaustive and many
characteristics are incompatible, e.g., deep penetration and minimum
spatter. Therefore, when choosing an electrode for use, compromises
must be made. The choice of an electrode for a particular application
depends upon:
• the composition of the parent metal
• the size and thickness of the parent metal
• the mechanical properties required of the weld metal
• the physical properties required of the weld metal
• the welding positions
• the amount of penetration required
• the amount of spatter allowable
• available welding current
• deposition rate required
• appearance
• cost
• slag detachability
• weld contour and size
• fluidity of the slag operator appeal.
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC IGNITION

We know that in case of Internal Combustion (IC) engines, combustion of air and fuel takes place
inside the engine cylinder and the products of combustion expand to produce reciprocating motion of
the piston. This reciprocating motion of the piston is in turn converted into rotary motion of the crank
shaft through connecting rod and crank. This rotary motion of the crank shaft is in turn used to drive
the generators for generating power. We also know that there are 4-cycles of operations viz.: suction;
compression; power generation and exhaust. These operations are performed either during the 2-
strokes of piston or during 4-strokes of the piston and accordingly they are called as 2-stroke cycle
engines and 4-stroke cycle engines. In case of petrol engines during suction operation, charge of air
and petrol fuel will be taken in. During compression this charge is compressed by the upward moving
piston. And just before the end of compression, the charge of air and petrol fuel will be ignited by
means of the spark produced by means of for spark plug. And the ignition system does the function
of producing the spark in case of spark ignition engines.

Figure shows a typical spark plug used with petrol engines. It mainly consists of a central electrode
and metal tongue. Central electrode is covered by means of porcelain insulating material. Through
the metal screw the spark plug is fitted in the cylinder head plug. When the high-tension voltage of the
order of 30000 volts is applied across the spark electrodes, current jumps from one electrode to
another producing a spark. Whereas in case of diesel (Compression Ignition-CI) engines only air is
taken in during suction operation and in compressed during compression operation and just before
the end of compression, when diesel fuel is injected, it gets ignited due to heat of compression of air
Once the charge is ignited, combustion starts and products of combustion expand, i.e., they force the
piston to move downwards i.e., they produce power and after producing the power the gases are
exhausted during exhaust operation
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• explain the different types of ignition systems,
• differentiate between battery and magneto ignition system
• know the drawbacks of conventional ignition system, and
• appreciate the importance of ignition timing and ignition advance.
•

IGNITION SYSTEM TYPES

Basically, Convectional Ignition systems are of 2 types:

(a) Battery or Coil Ignition System, and

(b) Magneto Ignition System.

Both these conventional, ignition systems work on mutual electromagnetic induction principle.
Battery ignition system was generally used in 4- wheelers, but now-a-days it is more commonly
used in 2-wheelers also (i.e., Button start, 2- wheelers like Pulsar, Kinetic, Honda; Honda-
Active, Scooty, Fiero, etc.). In this case 6 V or 12 V batteries will supply necessary current in the
primary winding. Magnetoignitionsystemismainlyusedin2- wheelers, kick start engines.
(Example, Bajaj Scooters, Boxer, Victor, Splendor, Passion, etc.).
In this case magneto will produce and supply current to the primary winding. So, in magneto ignition
system magneto replaces the battery.

Battery or Coil Ignition System

Figure shows line diagram of battery ignition system for a 4-cylinder petrol engine. It mainly consists
of a 6- or 12-volt battery, ammeter, ignition switch, auto- transformer (step up transformer), contact
breaker, capacitor, distributor rotor, distributor contact points, spark plugs, etc.
Note that the Figure shows the ignition system for 4- cylinder petrol engine, here there are 4-spark
plugs and contact breaker cam has 4-corners. (If it is for 6- cylinder engine it will have6-spark plugs
and contact breaker cam will be a perfect hexagon). The ignition system is divided into 2-circuits:
(i) Primary Circuit: It consists of 6 or 12 V battery, ammeter, ignition switch, primary winding it has
200-300 turns of 20 SWG (Sharps Wire Gauge) gauge wire, contact breaker, capacitor.
(ii) Secondary Circuit: It consists of secondary winding. Secondary Ignition Systems winding consists
of about 21000 turns of 40 (S WG) gauge wire. Bottom end of which is connected to bottom end of primary
and top end of secondary winding is connected to center of distributor rotor. Distributor rotors rotate and
make contacts with contact points and are connected to spark plugs which are fitted in cylinder heads
(engine earth).
(iii) Working: When the ignition switch is closed and engine in cranked, as soon as the contact breaker
closes, a low voltage current will flow through the primary winding. It is also to be noted that the contact
beaker cam opens and closes the circuit 4- times (for 4 cylinders) in one revolution. When the contact
breaker opens the contact, the
magnetic field begins to collapse. Because of this collapsing magnetic field, current will be induced
in the secondary winding. And because of more turns (@ 21000 turns) of secondary, voltage goes
unto 28000-30000 volts.
 Figure: Schematic Diagram of Coil/Battery Ignition
System
This high voltage current is brought to center of the distributor rotor. Distributor rotor rotates and
supplies this high voltage current to proper stark plug depending upon the engine firing order. When
the high voltage current jumps the spark plug gap, it produces the spark and the charge is ignited-
combustion starts-products of combustion expand and produce power.
*(a) The Function of the capacitor is to reduce arcing at the contact breaker (CB) points. Also, when
the CB opens the magnetic field in the primary winding begins to collapse. When the magnetic field is
collapsing capacitor gets fully charged and then it starts discharging and helps in building up of voltage
in secondary winding.
(b) Contact breaker cam and distributor rotor are mounted on the same shaft.
In 2-stroke cycle engines these are motored at the same engine speed. And in 4-stroke cycle engines
they are motored at half the engine speed.

Magneto Ignition System

In this case magneto will produce and supply the required current to the primary winding. In this case
as shown, we can have rotating magneto with fixed coil or rotating coil with fixed magneto for
producing and supplying current to primary, remaining arrangement is same as that of a battery
ignition system.

DRAWBACKS (DISADVANTAGES) OF CONVENTIONALIGNITIONSYSTEMS

Following are the drawbacks of conventional ignition systems:
(a) Because of arcing, pitting of contact breaker point and which will lead to regular maintenance
problems.
(b) Poor starting: After few thousands of kilometers of running, the timing becomes inaccurate, which
results into poor starting (Starting trouble).
(c) At very high engine speed, performance is poor because of inertia effects of the moving parts in the
system.
(d) Sometimes it is not possible to produce spark properly in fouled spark Ignition Systems plugs. In
order to overcome these drawbacks Electronic Ignition system is used.

ADVANTAGESOFELECTRONICIGNITION SYSTEM
Following are the advantages of electronic ignition system:
(a) Moving parts are absent-so no maintenance
(b) Contact breaker points are absent-so no arcing.
(a) Spark plug life increases by 50% and they can be used for about 60000 km without any problem.
(b) Better combustion in combustion chamber, about 90-95%ofairfuelmixtureisburntcomparedwith 70-75% with
conventional ignition system.
(c) More power output.
(d) More fuel efficiency.

TYPESOFELECTRONICIGNITIONSYSTEM
Electronic Ignition System is as follow:
(a) Capacitance Discharge Ignition system
(b) Transistorized system
(c) Piezo-electric Ignition system
(d) The Texaco Ignition system
Capacitance Discharge Ignition System

It mainly consists of 6-12 V battery, ignition switch, DC to DC convertor, charging resistance, tank
capacitor, Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), SCR- triggering device, step up transformer, sparkplugs.
A 6–12-volt battery is connected to DC-to-DC converter
i.e., power circuit through the ignition switch, which is designed to give or increase the voltage to 250-
350 volts. This high voltage is used to charge the tank capacitor (or condenser) to this voltage through
the charging resistance. The charging resistance is also so designed that it controls the required
current in the SCR.

Depending upon the engine firing order, whenever the SCR triggering device, sends a pulse, then the
current flowing through the primary winding is stopped. And the magnetic field begins to collapse. This
collapsing magnetic field will induce or step-up high voltage current in the secondary, which while
jumping the spark plug gap produces the spark, and the charge of air fuel mixture is ignited.
 Transistorized Assisted Contact (TAC) Ignition
System
Figure 4.5 shows the TAC system. Advantages
(a) The low breaker-current ensures longer life.
(b) The smaller gap and lighter point assembly increase dwell time minimize contact bouncing and improve
repeatability of secondary voltage.
(c) The low primary inductance reduces primary inductance reduces primary current drop-off at high speeds.
Disadvantages
(a) As in the conventional system, mechanical breaker points are necessary for timing the spark.
(b) The cost of the ignition system is increased.
(c) The voltage rise-time at the spark plug is about the same as before.

FIRINGORDER
• The order or sequence in which the firing takes place, indifferent cylinders of a multicylinder engine is
called
Firing Order.
• In case of SI engines, the distributor connects the spark plugs of different cylinders according to Engine
Firing Order.

Advantages
(a) A proper firing order reduces engine vibrations.
(b) Maintains engine balancing.
(c) Secures an even flow of power.
Cylinder 1 is taken from front of inline and front right side in V engines.
IMPORTANCEOFIGNITIONTIMINGAND IGNITION ADVANCE
Ignition timing is very important, since the charge is to be ignited just before (few degrees before TDC)
the end of compression, since when the charge is ignited, it will take some time to come to the required
rate of burning. Ignition Advance

The purpose of spark advance mechanism is to assure that under every condition of engine operation,
ignition takes place at the most favorable instant in time i.e., most favorable from a standpoint of
engine power, fuel economy and minimum exhaust dilution. By means of these mechanisms the
advance angle is accurately set so that ignition occurs before TDC point of the piston. The engine
speed and the engine load are the control quantities required for the automatic adjustment of the
ignition timing. Most of the engines are fitted with mechanisms which are integral with the distributor
and automatically regulate the optimum spark advance to account for change of speed and load. i.e.,
Centrifugal advance mechanism.
 Centrifugal Advance Mechanism
The centrifugal advance mechanism controls the ignition timing for full- load operation. The
adjustment mechanism is designed so that its operation results in the desired advance of the
spark. The cam is mounted, movably, on the distributor shaft so that as the speed increases, the
flyweights which are swung farther and farther outward, shaft the cam in the direction of shaft
rotation. As a result, the cam lobes make contact with the breaker lever rubbing block somewhat
earlier, thus shifting the ignition point in the early or advance direction. Depending on the speed
of the engine, and therefore of the shaft, the weights are swung outward a greater or a lesser
distance from the center. They are then held in the extended position, in a state of equilibrium
corresponding to the shifted timing angle, by a retaining spring which exactly balances the
centrifugal force. The weights shift the cam either or a rolling contact or sliding contact basis; for
these reasons we distinguish between the rolling contact type and the sliding contact type of
centrifugal advance mechanism. The beginning of the timing adjustment in the range of low engine
speeds and the continues adjustment based on the full load curve are determined by the size of
the weights by the shape of the contact mechanisms (rolling or sliding contact type), and by the
retaining springs, all of which can be widely differing designs. The centrifugal force-controlled cam
is fitted with a lower limit stop for purposes of setting the beginning of the adjustment, and also
with an upper limit stop to restrict the greatest possible full load adjustment. A typical sliding
contact type centrifugal advance mechanisms shown in Figures 4.6(a) and (b)

.
 EXPERIMENT 7
AIM: STUDY OF SMOKE, TEMPERATURE,
PRESSURE, VIBRATIONS, FLOW, LEVEL
DETECTORS
 EXPERIMENT 8
AIM: STUDY OF PLC
 INTRODUCTION OF PLC
A PLC is a user-friendly, microprocessor based specialized computer that carries out control
functions of many types and level of complexity. Its purpose is to monitor crucial process
parameters and adjust process operations accordingly. It can be programmed, controlled and
operated by a person. Essentially a PLC operator draws the lines and devices of ladder diagram
and functional block diagram with a keyboard onto the display screen. The resulting drawing is
converted into computer machine language and run as a user program.

1.1 Programmable Logic Controller

A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a special form of microprocessor-based controller that
uses programmable memory to store instructions and to implement functions such as logic,
sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic in order to control machines and processes. It is
designed to be operated by engineers with perhaps a limited knowledge of computers and
computing languages. They are not designed so that only computer programmers can set up or
change the programs. Thus, the designers of the PLC have pre programmed it so that the control
program can be entered using a simple, rather intuitive form of language. The term logic is used
because programming is primarily concerned with implementing logic and switching operations;
for example, if A or B occurs, switch on C; if A and B occurs, switch on D. Input devices (that is,
sensors such as switches) and output devices (motors, valves, etc.) in the system being controlled
are connected to the PLC. The operator then enters a sequence of instructions, a program, into the
memory of the PLC. The controller then monitors the inputs and outputs according to this program
and carries out the control rules for which it has been programmed. PLCs have the great advantage
that the same basic controller can be used with a wide range of control systems..

Fig 1. A Programmable Logic Controller

To modify a control system and the rules that are to be used, all that is necessary is for an operator
to key in a different set of instructions. There is no need to rewire. The result is a flexible,
costeffective system that can be used with control systems, which vary quite widely in their nature
and complexity. PLCs are similar to computers, but whereas computers are optimized for
calculation and display tasks, PLCs are optimized for control tasks and the industrial environment.
Thus PLCs:
• Are rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity, and noise
• Have interfacing for inputs and outputs already inside the controller
• Are easily programmed and have an easily understood programming language that is primarily
concerned with logic and switching operations
The first PLC was developed in 1969. PLCs are now widely used and extend from small, self-
contained units for use with perhaps 20 digital inputs/outputs to modular systems that can be used
for large numbers of inputs/outputs, handle digital or analog inputs/outputs, and carry out
proportional-integral-derivative control modes.
Application Areas
Programmable Logic Controllers are suitable for a variety of automation tasks. They provide a
simple and economic solution to many automation tasks such as
1. Logic/Sequence control
2. PID control and computing
3. Coordination and communication
4. Operator control and monitoring
5. Plant start-up, shut-down
Any manufacturing application that involves controlling repetitive, discrete operations is a
potential candidate for PLC usage, e.g. machine tools, automatic assembly equipment, molding
and extrusion machinery, textile machinery and automatic test equipment. Some typical industrial
areas that widely deploy PLC controls are as follows.
1. Chemical/ Petrochemical Metals
a) Batch process
b) Pipeline Control
c) Weighing, Mixing
d) Finished Product Handling
 2. Metal

a) Blast Furnace
b) Continuous Casting
c) Rolling Mills
d) Soaking Pit
e) Steel Melting Shop

3. Manufacturing/Machining
a) Material Conveyors, Cranes
b) Assembly
c) Milling, Grinding, Boring
d) Plating, Welding, Painting
e) Molding/ casting/forming

Hardware
Typically a PLC system has the basic functional components of processor unit, memory, power
supply unit, input/output interface section, communications interface, and the programming device
in the basic arrangement.
• The processor unit or central processing unit (CPU) is the unit containing the microprocessor.
This unit interprets the input signals and carries out the control actions according to the program
stored in its memory, communicating the decisions as action signals to the outputs.

Fig 2. The PLC System

• The power supply unit is needed to convert the mains AC voltage to the low DC voltage (5V)
necessary for the processor and the circuits in the input and output interface modules.
• The programming device is used to enter the required program into the memory of the processor.
The program is developed in the device and then transferred to the memory unit of the PLC.

Fig 3. Types of signals: Discrete, Digital and Analog.

• The memory unit is where the program containing the control actions to be exercised by the
microprocessor is stored and where the data is stored from the input for processing and for the
output.
• The input and output sections are where the processor receives information from external devices
and communicates information to external devices. The inputs might thus be from switches, as
illustrated in Figure with the automatic drill, or other sensors such as photoelectric cells, as in
the counter mechanism in Figure, temperature sensors, flow sensors, or the like. The outputs
might be to motor starter coils, solenoid valves, or similar things. Input and output devices can
be classified as giving signals that are discrete, digital or analog. Devices giving discrete or
digital signals are ones where the signals are either off or on. Thus a switch is a device giving a
discrete signal, either no voltage or a voltage. Digital devices can be considered essentially as
discrete devices that give a sequence of on/off signals. Analog devices give signals of which the
size is proportional to the size of the variable being monitored. For example, a temperature sensor
may give a voltage proportional to the temperature.
• The communications interface is used to receive and transmit data on communication networks
from or to other remote PLCs. It is concerned with such actions as device verification, data
acquisition, synchronization between user applications, and connection management.
Internal Architecture
Figure shows the basic internal architecture of a PLC. It consists of a central processing unit (CPU)
containing the system microprocessor, memory, and input/output circuitry. The CPU controls and
processes all the operations within the PLC. It is supplied with a clock.

Fig 4. Basic Communication Model

that has a frequency of typically between 1 and 8 MHz. This frequency determines the operating
speed of the PLC and provides the timing and synchronization for all elements in the system. The
information within the PLC is carried by means of digital signals. The internal paths along which
digital signals flow are called buses. In the physical sense, a bus is just a number of conductors
along which electrical signals can flow. It might be tracks on a printed circuit board or wires in a
ribbon cable.
The CPU uses the data bus for sending data between the constituent elements, the address bus to
send the addresses of locations for accessing stored data, and the control bus for signals relating to
internal control actions. The system bus is used for communications between the input/output ports
and the input/output unit.
Fig 5. Architecture of PLC