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Design and Implementation of DC-DC Converters

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 Design and Implementation of DC-DC Converters
Noah Odion
Electrical & Electronics Department,
Middle East Technical University,
Northern Cyprus Campus.

Abstract

A buck converter is a switched mode power supply topology typically containing at least two semiconductors (a diode and a
transistor) and at least one energy storage element, a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. [1][7] Buck converter is used to
step down a higher voltage to a lower voltage which means output voltage (Vo) magnitude is less than the input voltage (Vs)
magnitude. The buck converter produces voltage from input voltage down to zero based on its design and such properties enhance its
industrial applications. However, the efficiency of a buck is reduced due to switching loss and some other factors. Therefore, there is
need for improvement in buck converter topology to enhance its reliability and efficiency. Zero Switch Current (ZSC) buck converter
has the capacity to improve the efficiency in buck converter operation. [11]
Index Terms—Duty cycle (D), Average output voltage(Vo), input voltage(Vin), ON-time switch(Ton), OFF-time(Toff), switch, Duty cycle (D), frequency (f), inductor
current(∆iL), p-to-p ripple in capacitor voltage(∆VC), Resonant condition, Switching loss, Soft Switching, Electromagnetic Interference(EMI).

I. Introduction

In DC-DC switched mode converters, buck converter is

the type where output voltage (Vo) is scaled down to a level
which is less than the input voltage (Vin). This attribute is why
the buck converter is called step down converter. The input
voltage source (Vs) is connected to controllable solid state
device which act as switch. [3] [4]. Also, the dc input voltage
of the converter is assumed to zero internal impedance and in
the output part of the converter, a small filter is treated as an
integral part of the converter. [7] The solid state device can be Fig. 1 DC DC Buck Converter
a power MOSFET or IGBT. Thyristors are not generally used
for the DC–DC converters because to turn off a thyristor in a
DC-DC circuit, another commutation is required which means range of frequencies. [10] On the other hand, the simplicity
another thyristor is needed whereas Power mosfet or the gate of the time based modulation makes it preferable for
and collector terminals of the IGBT go to zero. [6] application in DC-DC converters. [6]

The second switch used is a diode. The switch and the diode Table1 Design Parameters
are connected to a low-pass (LC) filter which is designed to
Parameters Values
principally reduce the current and voltage ripple. [6] Both
Duty Cycle(D) 0.504
input voltage and current through are constant and the load Ripple Voltage 0.01
can be taken as current source. The controlled switch is turned Ripple Current 0.1
on and off by using Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) which Load R 1K
Inductance(L) 2.518H
may be timed or frequency based. [3][4] Some of the Capacitance 12.5uf
disadvantages of frequency based modulation is that it has Input Voltage(V in) 100V
wide range of frequencies which affect the desired output and Output Voltage(V o) 50.5V
it requires a complicated design of Low-pass LC filter to
withstand such large

Table2 Design Specifications

 • During steady state operation, the inductor current rises from
Specifications Value
a values with a positive gradient to a maximum value during
Shottky Diode MBR10100MFST3G, 10A, 100V the ON mode

MOSFET
IHEXFET POWER, RSF20NS, • The current is continuous and this is made possible by
9.70A, 100V; 0.20 ohms selecting the appropriate value of L

Mode II: Switch is OFF, Diode is ON

II. Analysis of a Buck Converter

Mode 1: Switch is ON, Diode is OFF At this point, the energy stored in the inductor is ultimately
released and dissipated in the load resistance, and this helps to
maintain the flow of current through the load (R). Again,
using KVL for steady state analysis we have the equations
below:

Fig. 2 ON Mode

The voltage across the capacitance in steady state is equal to

the input voltage. The ON time is denoted as T on and the off Fig.3 OFF Mode
time as Toff. Period T is defined as T = Ton + Toff and the
switching frequency is defined as fsw = 1/T which means T =
1/fsw by the law of reciprocal. Mathematical Modelling of the proposed Buck Converter
Ton Circuit
Duty cycle (D)is defined as D = or (Ton × fsw)
T diL
VL + Vo = 0 But VL = L ∗ .
D dt
and Ton = DT or while Toff = T − Ton ⟹
f𝑠𝑤 L∗ diL L∗ diL
+ Vo = 0 and = − Vo ;
1−D dt dt
(1 − D)T or (1)
fsw diL ∆IL ∆iL −Vo
= = (1−D)T = . (4)
dt ∆t L

Like in closed switch mode, since the switch is open for a time
Now, by analysing this mode of operation using Kirchhoff’s
Toff = T – Ton = T – DT = (1-D) T, we can deduce that ∆t =
voltage law (KVL) we have:
(1-D) T.
diL ∆𝐈L ∆𝐢L − 𝐕𝐨
Vin = VL + Vo and VL = Vin − Vo. But VL = L ∗ ( ) = (𝟏−𝐃)𝐓 = ;
dt ∆𝐭 (𝐋)

diL T
Therefore, L ∗ ( ) = VL = Vin − Vo and (∆IL)open = −Vo (1 − D) ∗ ( ) (5)
dt L

diL Vin − Vo Now, since the net change of inductor current over any
= (2)
dt L complete cycle is zero, we can establish that:
Since the switch is closed for a time Ton = DT we can deduce (∆IL) open + (∆IL) closed = 0 ; (6)
that ∆t = DT.
− Vo (1−D) T ( Vin − Vo ) DT
+ = 0; (6.1)
Hence, (∆IL) closed ⟹ L L

(Vin − Vo)Ton ((Vin − Vo) (𝐃𝐓) Multiplying through by (L/T), we obtain:

𝐋
= 𝐋
(3)
−Vo (1 − D) + (Vin − Vo) D = 0;
While performing the analyses of a buck converter, we should
take note of the following points: By opening up the brackets and collecting like terms:

−Vo + Vo D = −Vin D + Vo D
Cancel out Vo D from both sides we have: By cross multiplication can cancelling out L, we get:

−Vo = −Vin D (7) ViTon – VSTon – VoTon = VoToff + VD Toff

Vo
So that Vo = D Vin; Duty cycle (D) = ( ) ; (8) Remember that Ton = DT & Toff = (1-D) T
Vin

Another way these equations can written is: Plugging in these values of Ton and Toff, we get;

By using the Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL), the voltage Vi D T – VS D T – Vo D T = Vo (1 − D)T + VD (1 − D)T
across the inductor when switch S is closed is-
(8j)
VL = Vi – Vs − Vo ; (8a)
Vi D T – VS D T – Vo D T = Vo T − Vo DT + VDT − VDDT
Where VL is the voltage across inductor; Vi is the input voltage
of buck converter circuit; Vs is the switching voltage across; Collecting like and making Vo to obtain the steady state
equation:
Vo is the output voltage of buck converter circuit.

Vi D T – VS D T – Vo D T = Vo T − Vo DT + VDT − VDDT
At the same time, the voltage VL across the inductor is related
(8k)
to the change in current flowing through it:

diL By cancelling out (– Vo D T) & T from both sides and

VL = L ( ) ; (8b) rearranging the equation, we get:
dt

Plugging in the value of VL in equation (9.0) will result in Vi D – VS D = Vo + VD − VDD; (8l)

diL
⟹ L ( ) = Vi – Vs − Vo ; (8c) Vo = ( Vi D – VS D ) − ( VD + VD D); (8m)
dt

So the amount of inductor current is: Vo = ( Vi – VS )D − VD( 1 − D); (8n)

diL Vi – Vs−Vo The steady state equation for the buck converter circuit is:
= ; (8d)
dt L
𝐕o = ( 𝐕i – 𝐕S )𝐃 − 𝐕D( 𝟏 − 𝐃)
The duty cycle of the buck converter is defined as:
This equation demonstrates the fact that output voltage Vo is
Ton T𝑜𝑛
Again D = (Ton = ; (8e) defined with the duty cycle, D for the converter. The bulk
+ Toff) T
converter input voltage is often less than the output voltage
When the switch S is open, the voltage across inductor is: because D is a number between 0 and 1. Since the values of
diode voltage (VD) and switch voltage (VS) are small then they
VL = Vo + VD; (8f) are negligible. Thus the simplified output voltage (Vo) is given
as:
Where VD is voltage across the diode.
𝐕o = ( 𝐕i – 𝟎 )𝐃 − 𝟎 ∗ ( 𝟏 − 𝐃) (8p)
diL
But VL = L ( ) from equation (9.1); we get
dt 𝐕o
𝐕o = 𝐕i 𝐃 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐃 = (8r)
𝐕i
diL
L ( ) = Vo + VD; (8g)
dt
Now you can see the equation correlates with the one
obtained above. Also in a steady state operation, inductor
From which we obtain the next equation:
current of buck converter circuit is given by:
diL Vo + VD
= ; (8h) IL = Ic + Io ; (8s)
dt L

Equating (9.3) & (9.7) to solve for output voltage (Vo) and Where Ic is the current across the capacitor.
obtain the continuous conduction mode buck converter
operation, we get; Since Ic = 0 in a steady state condition, we have:

diL Vi – Vs−Vo Vo + VD 𝐕𝐨
= = ; IL= Io but Ohm’s law states that Io = ; (8t)
dt L L RL

Vi – Vs−Vo Vo + VD So the average value of IL is:

diL = ( ) Ton = ( ) Toff (8i)
L L
𝐕o
IL = Io = ; From figure 4, we can write:
RL
 │∆IL│
ILmax = IL + (8u)  Derivation of the circuit equations for each equivalent
2
circuit.

 Using the duty cycle as a weighing factor, each set of

Now we can write in equation (8t) equations is averaged. The set of equations is combined
into one set of equation
Vo Vo
IL(max) = ( ) + ( ) (1 − D)T (8v)
RL 2L  The average equation is disturbed to produce DC and
small signal terms and nonlinear cross product terms are
For inductor current (IL) to flow uninterruptedly, eliminated.

IL(min) > 0; So we need

 The small signal terms obtained in step four is
Vo Vo
transformed into the complex frequency domain. Thus,
IL(min) = ( ) + ( ) (1 − D)T > 0 (8w) the state-space averaged model of DC-DC is obtained.
RL 2L

Vo
( ) >
Vo
(1 − D)T (8x) 𝑽𝒐(𝒔) 𝑽d
RL 2L =
𝑫(𝒔) 𝒔𝑳
𝟏 + ( ) + 𝒔2𝑳𝑪
𝑹
Remove (Vo) from both sides of eqn. (8x) we have:
This is a damped second order low pass filter response:
1 1
( ) > (1 − D)T
RL 2L
1
DC gain = 𝑉d; Natural frequency = (in Hz);
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
1
L > (1 − D)TRL (8z)
2
1 √𝐿
(1−D)RL Damped Ratio = ∗
L > 2R √𝐶
2𝑓

Where RL is the load resistance.

State Space Average Model for DC-DC Converters

Mathematical models are often used to design the linear

controllers for DC-DC converters. An accurate model is
needed to obtain certain performance objective. Existing
literatures have highlighted a number of AC equivalent circuit
modelling techniques including circuit average, averaged
switch modelling, the current injected approach and the state-
space averaging method. The state-space averaged modelling
is majorly used in modelling DC-DC converters. Fig.4 Duty Cycle of Buck Converter (click here for image
source)
Two independent variables used in the state-space averaged
model of DC-DC buck converters uses inductor current and
capacitor voltage. It is a canonical form of differential
equations to describe the operation and characteristic of DC- Equation (8r) shows that output voltage (𝐕o) is controlled
DC buck converters. The advantage of both state-space and by controlling the duty cycle (D).
averaging methods are combined in this method. It provides
an accurate small signal model at relatively lower frequencies. Applying the Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
One assumption here is that the output filter’s cut-off
frequency is much lower than the switching frequency. Q = it and Q = CV. Therefore it = CV (9)

Procedures for Obtaining a State-space Averaged Model By differentiating voltage and current with respect to time, we
have:
 The linear equivalent circuit is drawn for each state or
𝐝𝐕 𝐕𝐨
switch position of the converter. There are two states in 𝐂 = 𝐢 − ( ). (10)
𝐝𝐭 𝐑
the continuous conduction mode (CCM) while in the
discontinuous conduction mode (DCM), there are states. The left hand side of the equation reveals that the capacitor
discharges.
 Fig.6 Waveform for capacitive circuit of buck converter

It can be seen from the waveform of a buck converter that

capacitor is the product of area and slope of the linear part of
the waveform.
𝟏 𝐓 ∆𝐈L
𝐐 =( ) × ( )× ( ) &
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝐕𝐨 × (𝟏−𝐃) 𝐓
∆𝐈L = ; So that by substitution we obtain:
𝐋

Fig. 5 Typical Buck Converter waveforms 𝟏 𝐓 𝐕𝐨 × (𝟏−𝐃)× 𝐓

𝐐 = ( )× ( )× .
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝐋

III. Components and Specifications But recall that T = 1/f and Q = CV.

By equating the two charges (Qs), we have

a. Diode 𝟏 𝐓 𝐓
𝐂 × 𝐕 = ( ) ∗ ( ) ∗ 𝐕o ∗ (𝟏 − 𝐃) ∗ ( )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝐋
In this project, shottky diode is used for the discharging of (𝟏−𝐃)𝐕o
buck converter because of his fast recovery action. [4] Due to Therefore, 𝐂 =
(𝟖 𝐋 𝐟 𝟐 ∆𝐕)
the high frequency operation of the buck converters, shottky
diode was selected. Shottky diodes are unipolar components. By re-arranging the equation we have the formula for
Only one charge carriers are responsible for current minimum capacitance as shown below:
transmission. [4][9] During the ON state of the switch, excess 𝟏−𝐃
charge which normally appear during reverse polarity does not 𝐂 = 𝟖 𝐋 𝐟 𝟐 ∆𝐕
(11)
( )
𝐕o
build up as this can interfere with the operation of the
converter and affect the desired result. Also, shottky diode has 1 Vo (1−D)Ts
Recall that Ts = ; and ∆iL =
f L
minimum switching losses, highly suitable for high frequency
applications and dissipates very low heat. [4] However, ∆ iL
Thus, C = ( ) ∗ Ts (12)
shottky diodes has two major setbacks which are low reverse 8 × ∆V

breakdown voltage and high reverse leakage current at high

current. [4][9]
∆V = Ripple in output voltage (Vo) = 1% of 50.5

= 0.505V, Ts = 10−3 s, R = 1kΩ,

b. Capacitor Vo
Io = = 0.0505A,
The only steady state component of output current is that R
arising from the inductor current ripple. The inductor current ∆iL = 10% of Io
cannot be neglected when calculating the output voltage
10% × 0.0505
ripple. [2] The inductor contains both a DC and ripple current C =
8 × 1% × 50.5
component. The capacitor reduces the ripple in output voltage
across it by providing a path for the AC ripples of inductor. C = 12.5uf.
Effective series resistance (ESR) is used to dominate the
voltage ripple and when ESR requirement is met, the
capacitance of the capacitor is usually enough. [7] This is how c. Inductor
capacitor acts as a filter. In this project C = 12.50uf was
chosen to reduce the ripples in the output voltage. The reason This is used to control voltage spikes capable of damaging
for chosing this value of capacitance is to keep the output MOSFETs. Inductor stores energy when the transistor is on
voltage (VO) between (50-50.5) V. and releases this energy when it is off. Since the frequency is
very high, the value of inductance required for this purpose is
Minimum Capacitor according to Voltage low. The value of the inductance used in this project was
calculated as follows:
(Vs – Vo) D Ts
L = (2 ∆iL)
(12.1)
 Vo
∆iL = Ripple Current Value = 10% of
R(=Io)

I
Ts = = 10−3 𝑠,
fsw
Where fsw is the switching frequency

Vo = 50.5, R = 1kΩ,

D = 0.504 (Slightly higher than Dmax)

Thus L = 2.470H.

d. MOSFET

The functions of MOSFETs here include: Fig. 7 Simple Buck Converter Simulation
• To provide high speed switching of the voltage

• To provide high current with less dissipation of heat to IV. Transfer Functions of Buck Converter
reduce thermal loss. Other losses in Buck converter include
Gate drive loss, Reverse recovery loss, input and output During ON time of buck converter the inductor voltage and
capacitor ESR loss. [11] capacitor are given by:

• Reasonable efficiencies at switching frequencies reaching VL(t) = Vg(t) − Vc(t) (14)

1.5MHz, if need be, without incurring extra cost [11]
ic(t) = iL(t) − io(t) (15)
Some other criteria considered in selecting this transistor are
By expanding the above equations we will obtain:
current rating, junction to ambient temperature etc. The
demand for high efficiency in buck converters especially at For inductor current from eqn. (1)
high frequencies is the reason MOSFETs are connected in
diL
parallel with shottky diodes. [5][11] This allows current to L ( ) = Vg (t) − Vc (t) (16)
dt
flow through the diode before the low-side MOSFET turns on.
diL Vg (t) − Vc (t)
[4][11] So that = (17)
dt L

e. Duty Cycle (D) Similarly for the capacitor current, from eqn. (15)
In calculating the duty cycle, we will assume the steady
state operation of the converter, neglect the losses in the
inductive and capacitive elements and, treat the switch as ideal Recall that Q = it & Q = CVc So that it = CVc;
and consider the drop voltage from the diode from datasheet. C Vc
and i =
t
Vo + Vd
D = (13)
Vin + Vo Vc
C ( ) = iL(t) − io(t) (18)
dt
Vd = 0.7, Vo = 100V and Vin = 100.
dVc iL(t) Vc(t)
V o + Vd 50+0.7 = − (19)
D = = dt C RC
Vin + Vd 100+0.7
dVc 1 1
D = 0.5035 = 50.35% = iL ( ) − Vc ( ) (20)
dt C RC

D Now the above equations can be written in matrix form as,

Ton = DTs = and fsw = 1KHZ
fsw
1
T = = 10(−3) S = 1ms;
fsw

0.5035
Ton = = 0.504ms;
10−3
Toff = T- Ton;

Toff = Ims –0.504ms = 0.496ms

 V. Improved Buck Converter

Zero Current Switching (ZCS) Resonant Converter

In all the PWM DC DC converter topologies, the control

switches operate in a mode in which they turn whole load
current on and off during each switching cycle. This switch
Resonant buck converter circuits are classified into two types:
mode-mode operation subjects the control switches to high
switching power losses and stress [8] [9] [10] [12]. To a) L-type b) M-type.
increase the performance of switch-mode power electronic
conversion systems, the switching frequency must be In both types, the inductor L is connected in series to the
increased. However, this causes increased electromagnetic power switch S1 zero current switching actions. The inductor
interferences (EMI) and switching losses. [8][12] To avoid or also limits the di/dt of the switch current and both L and C
minimise this setback, two conventional soft switching constitute a series resonant circuit. [8][12] At zero switch
dVt
methods are adopted. These switching methods are zero current, a current of I = Cr ( ) flows through the internal
dt
voltage switching (ZVS) and zero current switching (ZCS) capacitance Cr because of the limited gradient of switch
techniques and they can help in achieving zero voltage or voltage at turn off. This current flow causes power dissipation
current during switching transition thereby reducing switching in the switch and limit high switching frequency. Practically,
losses, switching stress, Electromagnetic Interferences (EMI) this device do not turn off at zero current due to their
and increasing reliability factor of converters.[9][10] recovery time and such feature causes some amount of energy
to be trapped in inductor L of the M-type configuration and
a. Operations of the ZVS and ZCS Techniques
the voltage transient of the switch which makes it a major
The zero voltage switching technique eliminates drawback in the M-type and a preference for the L-
capacitive turn-on losses and decreases the turn-off switching type.[8][12]
losses by slowing down the voltage rise and the result is
decline in the overlap between the switch voltage and switch
current. [8][10][12] However, to decrease the turn-off VI. The L-type ZCS Resonant Converter
switching losses, an external resonant capacitor is required.
Mode of Operation
On the other hand, zero current switching eliminates the
voltage and current overlap by pushing the switch current to Fig. 9
zero before the rise of the switch voltage and this makes the
ZCS technique more effective in this task than the ZVS
technique. [12] These switching transitions at zero current and
zero voltage is called soft switching. [10] Variable frequency
control (VFC) can achieve output regulation of the resonant
converters in both ZCS and ZVS techniques. Traditional ZCS
converters operate with constant on-time control while the
traditional ZVS operate with constant off-time control. [8][12]

b. Zero Current Switching Resonant Buck Converters

The ON and OFF switching actions of this resonant

converter takes place at zero current. The resonant circuit
consist of switch S1, inductor L and capacitor C as shown
below:

Fig 8a

Fig 8b
VII. Modes of Operation for ZCS Mode #4:

The equivalent circuits above represent the five (5) various This mode works within the time range of 0 ≤ t ≤ t4. The
modes of the L-type resonant buck converter. We shall define capacitor supplies the load current Io and the capacitor voltage
t = 0 at beginning of each mode. is given by
Io
Vc = Vc3 – ( ) t ;
C

This mode ends at t = t4 when Vc = 0.

Mode #1: C
Thus t4 = Vc3 ∗ ( );
Io
Switch S1 is turned on and Dm conducts, Vc = 0. This mode is
valid as long as 0 ≤ t ≤ 1. The inductor rises linearly by the Mode #5:
Vs
equation IL = ( ) t. This mode works within the time range of
L

Io L
This modes ends at t = t1 when i1 = Io. That means t1 = ( ) 0 ≤ t ≤ t5. When the capacitor voltage is negative, the diode Dm
V
conducts. The load current Io flows through the diode Dm. This
mode ends when time t = t5 until switch S1 is turned on again
and the entire cycle is repeated. T-(t1 + t2 + t3 + t4) = t5.
Mode #2:
The figure below is a waveform for It and Vc. The supply dc
This mode works for 0 ≤ t ≤ t2. Switch S1 remains on but
voltage equals the peak switch voltage because at turn on and
diode Dm is off. The inductor current is given as
off, the switch current is zero. The switching loss (defined as
IL = Im sin(ωot) + Io ; V× I) is negligible.

Where Im is the maximum current of the inductor defined as:

C 1
Im = Vs √( ) and ωo = ;
L √LC

. The capacitor voltage Vc is given by

Vc = Vs (1 − cos(ωot));

The peak current is Ip = Im + Io

The peak capacitor voltage is given by

Vc(peak) = 2Vs

This particular mode ends when t = t2, IL = Io ,

Vc = 2Vs. Hence, t2 = π √ LC.

Mode #3:
Fig.10 Waveforms for ZCS
The range of time t which satisfy this mode is

0 ≤ t ≤ t3

The discharge of the inductor current from Io to zero is given

by Fig 11 L-type ZCS resonant buck converter simulation circuit

IL = Io − Im Sin(ωot)

The capacitor voltage is given Vc = 2VsCos(ωot)

This mode ends at t = t3 when IL= 0 and VC = VC3.

1
Thus t3 = √LCsin(ωot) − ( ).
x

Im Vs C
Where x = = ∗√
Io Io L
 Fig 13 Input current for conventional buck converter

Table 3 ZCS Circuit Parameters

Fig.14 Input current for conventional buck converter
Input Voltage(Vin) 5V
Resonant Inductor, Lr 2mH
Resonant Capacitor, Cr 0.304uF
Switching Frequency, Fs 4KHZ
Output Voltage, Vo 3.39V
Output Current, Io 22.7mA

Transients Analysis for both Simple Buck Converter and Zero

Current Switching Resonant Converter (ZCS)

Fig. 15 Intput current for conventional buck converter

Fig. 12 Output current for conventional buck converter

 Fig.16 Output voltage for conventional buck converter
Fig.19 Output Current for ZCS Buck Converter

Fig. 17 Output voltage for conventional buck converter

Fig20 Output current for conventional buck converter

Fig18 Output voltage for ZCS Buck Converter Fig21 Input Current for ZCS Buck Converter

Comparing Results with LTSpice Simulation

Comparing the results from multisim with LTSpice model

shows that the resistance (load) in the project is too big for
buck converter. Hence the reason for low power output and
efficiency. To obtain a reasonable amount of output voltage
and power, buck converter’s topology is improved to increase
its efficiency. Also, Silicon carbide (SiC) MOSFETs with
higher switching frequency up to 10KHZ, power rating, high
reliability and low switching losses can go a long way in
improving the efficiency of the converter.
 Table4

Comparison between Conventional Buck converters and Zero Current Switching(ZCS) Resonant converters

Conventional Buck Converters L-type ZCS Resonant Converter

Functions with two switch modes which are Functions with five(5) different modes valid within a range of time t in
ON and OFF modes only. repeated cycles and in sequence.
Aside from the inductor(L) and capacitor(C) filter circuit at the output, there is
There is just one inductor(L) and capacitor(C) another inductor(L) and capacitor(C) connected to the switch and these
circuit as filter circuit constitute the resonant L-C circuit. Series and parallel connection of L and C
creates a resonant condition.
Losses during switching transition are comparatively
Switching
morelosses are comparatively less

It requires relatively less space for design. More space is required due to the inclusion of more components

High frequency operation create drawbacks of

high switch losses, Switching stress and It operates with soft switching principle. This soft switching occurs at zero
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). Hence, current in resonant condition and it effectively reduce switching losses,
the reason for design with relatively low. switching stress and Electromagnetic Interference (EMI).
frequency(F)

VIII. Applications of DC-DC Buck Converters • Point-Of-load Converter (POL)

There are many industrial applications of the dc dc buck This is non-isolated buck converter capable of delivering
converters but in this paper we shall consider just few of them. power to high current loads particularly in PC and laptop
motherboards. [3]
• USB on-the-go
Other applications include mppt charge controller, regulated
This allows keyboards, mice, and other peripherals to be
power supply etc.
connected to a smartphone. By this connection, power can be
drawn from the USB port phone. The power regulation is IX. Reliability and Efficiency
achieved using a synchronous buck converter which is able to
Although a buck converter steps higher voltages down and
transfer power in both directions. The buck converter charge
less complicated in design compared to the boost converter.
the lithium battery in the phone when the phone is connected
Unless it is improved, its efficiency can be low due to many
to a charger and when peripheral is plugged in, the buck
losses as stated above. From the waveform we calculate
converter changes mode of operation by boosting voltage of
efficiency of zero current switching (zcs) resonant converter
5V generated from the lithium battery. This is a bidirectional
as follows:
property of synchronous buck converter. [3]

• Solar chargers
𝐎𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫
One of the strengths of buck converter is converting high 𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 (𝜼)(%) = ⟹
𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫
voltage to a low one efficiently. A solar charger is often a
𝐕o ∗ 𝐈o (𝟑.𝟑𝟗) ∗(𝟐𝟐.𝟕)
buck converter with microcontroller control. The buck = ⟹ 72%
𝐕in ∗ 𝐈in (𝟓.𝟎) ∗(𝟐𝟏.𝟒)
converter receives signal from the microcontroller to draw the
maximum amount of power by varying the load current to
charge the battery in the shortest possible time. [3][10]
Similarly, the efficiency of conventional Buck Converter is
• Brushed Motor Controllers calculated as shown:
(𝟓𝟎.𝟓)∗ ( 𝟓𝟎.𝟓)
When a synchronous buck converter is without output
(𝟏𝟎𝟎)∗ (𝟓𝟎.𝟓)
⟹ 50.5%
capacitor it is called brushed motor controllers. This device
can be driven using a configuration called high side motor Calculated efficiency for the conventional buck converter (𝜂)
control. [3] is 50.5%.
 You can see clearly that there is an improvement of 21.5%. [7]. Smruthi M Krishnan “Digital Control DC- DC Buck
Converter” International Journal of Engineering Research &
X. Advantages of Buck Converter
Technology (IJERT). ISSN: 2278-0181, Vol. 1 Issue 7,
 It needs just one switch (transistor) September-2012
 It enjoys high efficiency but the efficiency is most times
https://www.ijert.org/research/digital-control-of-dc-dc-buck-
reduced due to losses.
converter-IJERTV1IS7038.pdf
 It limits change in load current; however, self-current is
not continuous so it needs filter. [8] Irfan Jamil et al “Analysis, Design and Implementation of
 Low cost and small size Zero-Current-Switching Resonant Converter DC-DC Buck
Converter” International Journal of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering (IJEEE) ISSN 2278-9944 Vol. 2,
Issue 2, May 2013, 1-12© IASET
file:///C:/Users/Noah/AppData/Local/Temp/Analysis_Design_
XI. Disadvantages of Buck Converter
and_Implementation_of_Ze.pdf
 High output ripples. Input current is always pulsating
hence the need for filter circuit at the output.
 Slow transient response. [9]. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia “Schottky Diodes-
Working, Characteristics, Applications”.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schottky_diode
Conclusion

Losses in conventional buck converter declines when high

frequency MOSFETs with wide bandgap are used. In addition, [10]. A. Suresh Kumar “Design & Implementation of Zero
the reliability of buck converter increases with improvement Voltage Switching Buck Converter” International Journal of
in topology for high voltage applications. Engineering Research and Applications. ISSN: 2248-9622,
Vol. 4, Issue 9 (Version 5), September 2014, pp.193-198
https://www.ijera.com/papers/Vol4_issue9/Version%205/AG4
905193198.pdf

XII. References
[11] Chris Cooper, “Fundamentals of Buck Converter
[1]. Debolina Majumder, Muska Mehta, Sayani Mukherjee,
Efficiency”
Shovondev Mondal “Buck converter” (Dc to Dc Step down
https://cdn.baseplatform.io/files/base/ebm/electronicdesign/do
Converter)
cument/2019/03/electronicdesign_10546_fundamentalsofbuck
https://rcciit.org/students_projects/projects/ee/2019/GR13.pdf
converterefficiency.pdf
[2]. “Buck Converter: Circuit, Design, Operation and
[12] Gyana Ranjan Sahu(10602019) Bimal Prasad
Examples”https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2020/09/buck Behera(10602044) Rohit Dash ( 10602043) “Design and
-converter.html Implementation of ZCS Buck Converter”
[3]. David Knight, “Buck Converters and Their Cool
Applications”. November 24, 2015.
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/buck-
converters-and-their-cool-applications/

[4]. Ankit Negid “DC-DC Buck Converter Circuit: How to

Step down DC Voltage”
https://circuitdigest.com/microcontroller-projects/arduino-dc-
dc-buck-converter-circuit

[5]. V i s h a y S i l i c o n i x “Power ICs and Power

MOSFETs” Selection of MOSFETs for DC/DC Synchronous
Buck Controllers:
SiP12201 Single 10 A Controller and SiP12203 Triple Step
Down
Controller IC for 2 Synchronous and 1 Linear Power Rail
https://www.vishay.com/docs/68952/an836.pdf

[6]. “Buck Converter: Step down Chopper”

https://www.electrical4u.com/buck-converter-step-down-
chopper/
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