Syllabus

PAPER TITLE: Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

SUBJECT CODE : THEORY MARKS : 100

SEMESTER: II CREDITS: 4 NO. OF HOURS : 75

UNIT 1
The Computer system-their uses and components-CPU: control & logic unit -Generatio
n of
computers-Classification of Computers - PC-Laptop - Memory: Volatile, non-volat ile & virtual
memory-Types of Bus.
UNIT2
Input devices: Keyboard , mouse, joystick, scanner, light pen, and ruw·Jt f:( .l''::PH ..
Output devices: printers, dot-matrix printer, ink-jet printer, iaser pri nter w011it:J t.
Storage devices: Magnetic tape, Hard disks, CD-ROM , Speak~rs
UNIT3

Software concepts: Types of software -System software: Operation ~ ystem and its types,
Assembler, Compiler, Interpreter. - Application software: Word processin g, P1 esemallon
tools,
Electronic Spreadsheets Database system, DTP Packages, Graphic packages, Business system.
UNIT4

Principles and Techniques of Programming: Program definition-Program lifestyle. -Flow-Cha

rt:
Definition, Symbols, Benefits, Limitations and examples.- Characteristics, Benefits, Drawback
s and
Examples of Algorithms.
UNITS

Databases: Structure of a data table. -Internet features- E-mail

TEXTBOOKS:

I. C.S.V.Murthy, 2001, Fundamentals of Computers 1st Edition, Himala bl' h' H

, ya pu 1s mg ouse.
2. LPEditorial Board, Fundamentals of Computer, 1st Edition, Law Point Publishers.
REFERENCES

1. V.RAJARAMAN, 2002, Fundamentals of Computers 3rd Ed't•

' 1 ton, p renttce
• .
Hall of India.
2. Marilyn W. Meyer and Roberta L. Baber, Computers in your future 2nd Ed't• p . H II of
.
In dia , 1 ton renttce a
 UN IT I

CO MP UT ER
r can
is call ed it as com pute r. Com pute
(An electronic device that man ipul ates info rma tion or data like for
mul tipl y usa ge
e, retr ieve and proc ess data . The com pute r can be app lied lo
'a-hie to stor the web ~om pul ers can sup por t
play ing gam es and for bro wsi ng
typi ng doc ume nts, send ing ema ils, Comp-Gters can rece ive inpu t,
tion and edit ion of spre adsh eets , pres enta tion s, and vide os.
the crea format. We can
inpu t base d on inst ruct ions and prov ides output in des ired
proc ess or stores the
The foll owi ng figu re sho ws the
out bor ing and com mit ting erro rs.
acco mpl ish tasks repe ated ly with
wor kflo w of computer.

1..__{_ ln_pu_t ___,J•[.._Pro _ i:J I )

__ce_ss ___,):-~.__ou~
r
CO MP UT ER OR GA NIZ AT IO N
. The y are
tion s irre spe cti ve uf thei r lilt: size
Com pute r perf orm s 5 maj or func

• Acc epti ng data

• Stor ing data
• Pro cess ing data
• Pro duc ing result
• Con trol ling data )
opera1;ons
g figure shows the mgallizat;on of compute< wruch facmtales the above
r e follow;n
C.n1t1I Procnslng Unit (CPU)

I w.- r- I )
~ omponcnts of a Co mp ute r
w. Eac h com pon ent is
com put er are brie fly desc ribe d belo
TI1e five clas sic com pon ents of a cess or is best und erst ood in
usse d in mor e deta il in its own sect ion. The ope rati on of the pro
disc
term s of thes e com ponents.
vide s a sma ll amo unt of
- man ipul ates the data com ing thro ugh the pro cess or. It also pro
Dat apa th
,
tem pora ry data stor age.
Control - generates control signals that direct the operation of memory and the data path .

Memory - holds instructions and most of the data for currently executing programs.

Input - external devices such as keyboards, mice, disks, and networks that provide input to the
processor.

Output - external devices such as displays, printers, di sks, and networks that receive data from the
processor.

Hardware components

Computer hardware is a collection of several components working together. Some parts are
essential and others are added advantages. Computer hardware is made up of CPU and peripherals
as shown in the image below

- - - - t ~lor

CPU
Mouse l
I
RAM
1/P devlcei
HOO CO

flher 1/P devices!

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• Input devices - keyboard, mouse, etc.

• Output devices - printer, monitor, etc.
• Secondary storage devices - Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.
• Internal components - CPU, motherboard, RAM , etc.
htt ps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comp uter hardware

To execute any command or instruction the software directs the hardware to use it.
https://searchnetworking.techtarget .com/definition/hardware

~~~~;;; !1:~db:::1:;;~r~~si~~: r::~:t~g~~:!'onents of an analog or digital computer. Computer

• internal components

Thi s includes items such as moth bo d

mcrnory(RAM), hard dri . er a~ ' central _processing unit(CPU), random access
. ve, optical drive heat sink. pow 1 . .
graphics processmg unit(GPU) net k . ' ..£: er supp Y, transistors, chips,
' wor mleuace card(NIC) and universal serial bus(USB)
 instruc tions delivered by the
ports. These compo nents collec tively process or store the
program or operat ing system (OS).

• External compo nents

are connected to the compu ter
These compo nents also called peri pheral compo nents which
on input compo nents includ e a
in order to control either its input or output. TI1e most comm
k, scanne r, USB flash dri ve
mouse, keyboard, microp hone, camer a, touchp ad, stylus, j oystic
or memo ry card.
are are monitors, printer s,
The most comm on output compo nents of computer hardw
g diagra m typica ll y illustra tes
speake rs, headph ones and earpho nes/ea rbuds. The fo llowm like
ha rdware compo nents will look
how the compu ter
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llARnWARE T\'l'ES
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111
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t"~ lt"mnl periphernls cnn111'UI. This Is th o 11111 111 pl'l 111 1ld clrc11 l1 h1l111d l11 11 co111p111 cr uJ Ho call.cd
it ns mnin bo!lt\ l whc1\l 11II i111po1111111 l.'1\llll)lrn1.1 111 s Ilko <'Pl I, I< AM , powc, ,u,ppl y, J-1.1apl11cH
emu nnd s01md cord 111'\"l pt't}Sont.
• C'l'\J
This is respnnsihk for jll\ll'rssi11µ 11111s1 1·01111u1l t'1·s d111 11 1111d 111111 i11g 11,c;: i11p 11 1 i11i o ,,u1p 11 1
dntn.
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ust>d nre kc>pl so 1h11t the ,kvicl''s prn~css11r ,·n11 q1111·kly 11 ,u h 1lw111 I< /\ lvl 1<1 11111ch f11 •,l~r liJ
rt·nd frnm nnd write· tn th1111 othc:r slOl'IIHC 1yp1", 11u·l11d 11 ,, •II ,1 :1 ,r1 ,11d < plwal drives. 1

RAM is snid 10 be: v,1l111ilcl 111c:111,wy hc:rn usc 1t 111:-.t 11 " "'' r, , , ., .,,:,u tcr ,,, turned
nff. When the cnmp11tcr is 1'0h1H\t1·d tht· ()S rn.t ,,11 , 11 • • • •l I ,, 1</\M from
SDD 0r I!DD.
• Display screen
This is 1111 e.x temnl monitor whid1 is built int o lh, u1111put , 1
\ ,rnH Ii •1c1cc11 tli -.pl.Jy is
sensiti ve to press111~. Usc:r i11t c:111cts with tlw dl'VHl by 11 1111 l,1111~ 111t1 u 14,;s or word:, on the
screen.
• Hard disk (IIOD)
A nonvolntilc mcmmy whid1 stmcs OS lilcs, 11ppl1cul1011 p1 oblc111:,, mu li 11, and other
documents. This stores dntn pc11111111c:11tly cvc•11 i11 powcr liiil111 l'.
• Solid sti,tc drl"c (SDD)
Anothor non volntilc stomgc dcviccs thnt stores pcn11u11c11t d11t 11 011 solid slutc llush memory.
This consists nrII llnsh controller nnd NANI) llnsh 1111.:11,ory. Co111purcd to I IDO, SDD docs
not hnvc nny mov in.g ports, Flush bnsed 111c111ory nro sig11ificnntly foster than traditional
mech1111icnl hnrd disks. This co11sun1cs loss power.

• Graphks rnrd
This is responsible for rendering grnphics inn compulur nnd projecting i11fonu11tio11 onto the
screen. This removes the slmin of RAM nnd pl'Ocessor.
• Rcmo\lablc drh•t•s
These nrc ~ht· dri_vcs \~hich cnn b1J rcmuvod from tho co111pu1cr when ii is nmning. Eg. USB
CT1rds, opt1cul discs hkc cu111p11ct discs (CDs), lllu-rny discs nnd di gital versatile discs
(DVDs).
• Power supply
 This converts the power from the outlet into usable power for the inner computer
components. More power is needed in case of running complex systems.
h s://www.tutorials oint.com/com uter fundamentals/com uter software.htm

SOFTWARE

(A software is a set of programs which is designed to perfonn a well-defined function. A program is

a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem. Software is categorized into two
types namelj

"0tem softwar~

This is a collect1on of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing
capabilities of the computer itself. This is generally prepared by computer manufacturers.
This comprise of programs written in low-level languages which in tum interact with
hardware. This program act as interface between hardware and the end users. Eg. Operating
system, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE FEATURES
The prominent features of a system software are
► Close to the system
► Fast in speed

► Difficult to design

► Difficult to understand

► Less interactive

► Smaller in size
► Difficult to manipulate

► Written in low language .

./(Applicatio n softwarJ
,~~ftware is designJ to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software
applications come under the application software_ ~ategory. This consis!s of a single pro~
such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and ed1tmg a small text. Thi~ may als_o conta1~ a
program collection or software package which works togethder toftaccom~hsh a specific task liket
spreadsheet package. Eg. Payroll software, student recor so ware, inventory managemen
software etc .
. APPLICATION SOFTWARE FEATURES
The features of application software are as follows
► Close to the user

► Easy to design
 ~

► More interactive
► Slow in speed
-
► Written in high level lammaoe
' ~ ~

► Easy to understand
► Easy to manipulate and use
► Bigger in size and require large storage space
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pt.ban

HARDWARE VS SOITWARE

SOITWARE HARDWARE

Collection of programs to bring computer This includes physical components of

hardware system into operation computer system

This includes numbers, alphabets, This consists of electronic components like

alphanumeric symbols, identifiers, !Cs, diodes, registers, crystals, boards,
keywords, etc. insulators, etc.

This evolve adding new features to the This design is based on architectural
existing programs to support hardware decisions which works over various range of
environmental conditions and time.

This will vary as per computer, built in Mostly constructed for all types of computer
functions and programming language. systems

Designed and developed by experienced This understands only low-level language or

programmers in high level language machine language

lbis is represented in any high-level This works only on binary codes l ' s and O's
language such as BASIC, COBOL, C, C++,
JAVA. etc.

This lS categorized as operating system, This consists of input devices, output

utilities, language processor, application devices, memory etc.
software, etc.

https://www. javatpoinLcom/data

-
 or or
f:- central pro_cessing unit (CPU), also called a central processor, main process
ons compris ing a compute r program .
Just processor, is the electronic circuitry that executes instructi
ns specified
~e CPl! perfoi:zns b~ic arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output (I/0)
operatio
th nts such as main
Y e mstructlons m the program. This contrasts with external compone
ng units (GPUs).
memory and 1/0 circuitry,Pl and specialized processors such as graphics processi
their fundamental
The f~rm, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over time, but
l compone nts of a CPU include the arithmetic-logic
op~rahon remains almost unchanged. Principa
that perfonns arithmetic and logic operatio ns, processo r registers that
urut (ALU)
of ALU operatio ns, and a control unit that
supply operands to ~e ALU and store the results
and executio n of instructi ons by directing the
orche~trates the fetching (from memory), decoding
coordrnated operations of the ALU, registers and other compone nts.
with one or more
Most modem CPUs are implemented on integrated circuit (IC) microprocessors,
rs. The
~p~~ on a single IC chip. Microprocessor chips with multiple CPUs are multi-co processo re
addition al virtual or
mdiVIdua! physical CPUs, processor cores, can also be multithreaded to create
,logical CPUs.
other components
An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and
d devices are variously called microco ntrollers or systems on a
of a computer; such integrate
chip (SoC).
parallel, with no unit
Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in
on of dynamic al aggregat ed computational
considered central. Virtual CPUs are an abstracti
resources.
building smaller and
The design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated
with the advent of the transistor.
more reliable electronic devices. The first such improvement came
to be built out of bulky, unreliable
Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had 81
With this improve ment, more
and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and relaysY
circuit boards containin g discrete
complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed
(individual) components.
a series of
In 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System/360 computer architecture that was used in
nce. This .was
computers capable of running the same programs with different speed and performa
one another, even
significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with
used the concept of
those made by the same manufacturer. To facilitate this improvement, IBM
modem CPUs. The
a microprogram (often called "microcode"), which still sees widespread usage in
computer market for
System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe
computers like the
decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modem
nt Corpora tion (DEC) introduced another influential
IBM zSeries. In I 965, Digital Equipme 31
computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the PDP-8Y
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Transistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from
facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to
operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a
tube or relay. The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements
(which were almost exclusively transistors by this time); CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz
were easily obtained during this period. Additionally, while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in
heavy usage, new high-performance designs like single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) vector
processors began to appear. These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of
specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd.
Small-scale integration CPUs[ edit]
.......,,,. ,,,-,;~ .
., ~.~. - . ~·

CPU, core memory and external bus interface of a DEC PDP-8/1, made of medium-scale integrated circuits

During this period, ~ method of_ma~ufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space
was de~eloped. '!be integrated circ~it (IC) all?';,ed a large number of transistors to be manufactured
11
on a single seID1conductor-based die, or chip . At first, only very basic non-specializ ed d"ig1·taI
. . h NOR . . . d .
circmts sue as gates were mmiatunze into !Cs. CPUs based on these "buildin bl k" IC
are generally referred to as "small-scale integration" .s
(SSI) devices · SSI !Cs , such as thegonesocused m
. .
the Apollo Gmdance Computer, usually contained up to a few dozen transistors T b ·1d ·
CPU out of SSI IC s requrr · eel thousands of m . but still consumed m· oh l lll an. entired
· d"iv1·dual chips,
·
. d"1screte transistor ·
d es1gns. uc ess space an
power than earI1er
IBM 's System/370, follow-on to the Syste
m/360, used SSI !Cs rather than Solid
Tech nolo gy discrete-transistor modules. DEC Logic
's PDP-8/1 and KllO PDP-10 also switched
individual transistors used by the PDP- from the
8 and PDP-10 to SSI 1Cs,l4 1l and their
popu lar PDP-11 line was originally built with extremely
SSI !Cs but was eventually implemented with
components once these became practical. LSI
Large-scale integration CPUs[edit]

Le~ Boys el p_ublished influential articles, inclu

ding a 1967 "manifesto", which described how
?mld the eqmvalent of a 32-bit mainframe to
computer from a relatively small number of
mteg ratio n circuits (Lsn . The only way to build large-scale
LSI chips, which are chips with a hundred or
gates, was to build them using a metal-oxid(;)-s more
emiconductor (MOS) semiconductor manufactu
process (eith er PMOS logic, NMO S logic, or ring
CMOS logic). However, some companies conti
build proc essor s out of bipolar transistor- nued to
transistor logic (TTL) chips because bipolar
transistors were faster than MOS chips junct ion
up until the 1970s (a few companies
as Data poin t continued to build processors out such
of TTL chips until the early 1980s), l43 l In the
MOS !Cs were slower and initially cons 1960s,
44 idered useful only in applications that requi
power.l n45 l Follo wing the development of red low
silicon-gate MOS technology by Federico Fagg
Fairc hild Semiconductor in 1968, MOS !Cs in at
largely replaced bipolar TTL as the standard
techn olog y in the early 1970s. chip
As the microelectronic technology advanced
, an increasing number of transistors were place
!Cs, decre asing the number of individual d on
!Cs needed for a complete CPU. MS! and
incre ased transistor counts to hundreds, and LSI !Cs
then thousands. By 1968, the number ofIC s requi
build a comp lete CPU had been reduced to red to
24 !Cs of eight different types, with each IC
roug hly 1000 MOS FET s. In stark contrast containing
with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first
impl emen tatio n of the PDP-11 contained a CPU LSI
composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.
Microprocessors[ edit]
Main article: Microprocessor

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Die of an Intel 8048 6DX 2 microprocessor (actu

al size: 12 x 6.75 mm) in its packaging
 Intel Core iS CPU on a Vaio E series laptop motherboard (on the right, beneath the heat pipe)

Inside of laptop, with CPU removed from socket

Since the introduction of the first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004 in 1971,
and the first widely used microprocessor, the Intel 8080 in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost
completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods. Mainframe and
minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade
their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible
microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software. Combined
with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term CPU is now
applied almost exclusively"1to microprocessors. Several CPUs (denoted cores) can be combined in
a single processing chip.
Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as disqete components and numerous
small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards. 1501 Microprocessors, on the other hand,
are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU
size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of
physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance. This has allowed " synchronous
microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertzes.
Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased the
complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold. This widely observed trend is
described by Moore's law, which had proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU
(and other IC) complexity until 2016.
While the complexity, size, construction and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since
1950, the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today
can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines. As Moore's law no
longer holds, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology.
Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electro
migration and sub ~hreshold to becom~ muc~ more significant. These newer concerns are among the
many factors causmg researchers to mveshgate new methods of computing such as the quantum
'1:
I ·, computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the
i' usefulness of the classical von Neumann model.
I i Input unit
I ,
I This unit is responsible for accepting the data by entering data and programs into the computer
system.
I

I
Output unit

This unit is responsible for producing result for the processed data to get useful information.
Control unit(CU)

This unit is responsible for controlling the entire system of computer. This supervises all the units
from input, output, processing and storage. This takes care of all operations of computer in a step-
by-step process. This unit decides when to start receiving data, when to store data and when to stop
data transfer.

Memory unit

This unit is used to store data and the instructions related to it.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

This unit supports the arithmetic and logical operations performed on data like addition, subtraction,
multiplica tion, division, logic and comparison.

Central processing unit (CPU) is constructed based on the combination of ALU and CU. The
brain of the computer system is CPU.

GENERA TION OF COMPUTERS

The evolution of computer technology is described as follows

COMPUT ER TIMELINE HARDWA RE USAGE

GENERA TIONS
First generation 1940-1950 Vacuum tube
Second !!eneration 1950-1960 Transistor
Third generation 1960-1970 Integrated circuit(IC)
Fourth generation 1970- present Microprocessor
Fifth generation Present and Future Artificial Intelligence (Al)

FIRST GENERA TION COMPUTER

The characteris tics of first-gener ation computer are

Vacuwn
Ma etic drums and ma netic ta es
Machine Ian age
Power Lot of electricity which in turn produce more
heat
Speed and size Very slow and very large in size often taking
entire room
Punched card and a er
ENIAC, UNIVAC! , 1B
 SECOND GENERATI ON COMPUTE R

The characteristics of second-generation computer are

II Main electronic component transistor

Main memory Magnetic core, magnetic tape, or magnetic
I
disk
I Assembl Ian a e
langua e
Low power consumption, less heat
generation and smaller in size compared with
first eneration
Speed and size Speed and reliability is improved compared
to first generation com uters
Pun cards and ma etic ta e
1B 401, IBM 7090 and 7094, UNIVAC
I 107, etc

t°HIRD GENERATION COMPUTER

The charactenshcs of th"rrd generation computer are
Main electronic component Integrated circuits
Main memory Large ma1metic core, ma1metic tape/disk
Programming language High level language (FORTRAN, BASIC,
PASCAL, COBOL, C, etc)
Power Smaller, cheaper and more efficient than
second generation computers (called as
minicomputers)
Speed and size Improvement of speed and reliability
compared with second generation computers
Input/output devices Magnetic tape, keyboard, monitor, printer,
etc. / /
Examples IBM 360,IBM 370, PDP-11, UNN AC 1108,
etc.
,FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTER

The characteristics of fourth generation computer are

Main electronic component Very large scale integration(VLSI) and

micro rocessor
Main memory Semiconductor memory(such as RAM,
ROM, etc.)
Programming language High level language like PYTifON, C#,
JAVA, JAVASCRIPT, RUST, KOTLIN, etc.
size Smaller, cheaper and more efficient than
third eneration com uters
Speed Improvement of speed, accuracy, and
reliability in comparison with third
eneration com uters
Input/output devices Keyboard, pointing devices, optical scanning,
monitor, rinter etc.
Network Group of two or more computer systems
linked to ether / .,,.,,,;y-
Examples IBM PC, STAR I 000, APPLE II, APPLE
MACINTOSH etc.

FIFfH GENERATION COMPUTER

The characteristics of fifth generation computer are
Main electronic component Based on AI and ultra large scale
inte ration LSI) technolo
Understand natural language(human
Programming language
language)
size Portab le and s_mall in size, and h~ve a huge
stora e ca acit
Speed Remar kable improvement of speed, accuracy
and reliability in comparison with the fourth
eneration com uters
Input/output devices Keyboard, monitor, mouse, trackpad,
touchscreen, pen, speech input( recognize
voice/ · · ter, etc.
Exam Jes deskto hones, etc.
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TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power. They are

• Personal computer
• Workstation
• Mini computer
• Main frame
• Super computer
• Micro computer

PERSONAL COMPUTER
( A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.)
PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU'Ofi
one chip.

WORKSTATION
This is like a personal computer which includes powerful roicoop~cessor and high-guality monitgr
than a microcomputer.. This is a powerful single user computer. These are generally used for
specialized applications such as desktop publishing, software development and engineering designs.

MINI COMPUTER

/This is also known as "Midrange computer~'- It is not designed for a single user. It is a multi-user
'computer which support~ IO to hundreds of users simultaneously. These computers are used by
small businesses and finny;)rhey use these computers for specific purposes. Eg. The admission
department of university can use a Mini-computer for monitoring the admission process.
 MAINFR AME

This is also a multi-user computer which can support many hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously. Government organizations and large finns run their business operations based on
this computer. Eg. Banks, universities, insurance companies etc.

SUPER COMPUT ER

/rhis ~s an extremely fast computer which supports hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
G:ms1s the most expensive computers among all types of computers. This contains h~e storage
capacities and computing speeds and thus can perform millions of instructions per secon . These
computers are task-specific thus it is used for specialized applications like large seal numerical
problems in scientific and engineering disciplines including applications in electronics, petroleum
engineering, weather forecasting, medicine, space research and more. Eg. NASA uses these
computers for launching space satellites and monitoring and controlling them for space exploration.

MICRO COMPUT ER

lThi~ is a single-user comP.uter which has less speed and storage capacity than other types. This uses
IT'Iicroprocessor as a CPU) These systems are generally designed and developed for general usage
like browsing, interne~u rfing, information searching, MS office, social media etc. Common
examples include laptops, desktop computers, Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) and smartphones.

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HARDWARE

fhe tenn "hardware " abbreviated as HW, which refers to all physical components of a computer
;ystem including the devices connected to it. The tangible components of a co~puter which can_be
;een and touched. This is a mechanical device that makes up the computer. This hardware consists
)f interconnected electronic devices that can be used to control computers operation, input, and
)Utput. Eg. CPU, keyboard, mouse, hard disk, etc.
 ~ CD-DVD

ii RAM,
Y&feoOJr

Volatile and Non-Volatile Computer Memory

Computer Memory

In computing, memory refers to the devices used to store information for use in a computer. The
term primary memory is used for storage systems which function at high-speed (i.e. RAM), as a
distinction from secondary memory, which provides program and data storage that is slow to access
but offer higher memory capacity. If needed, primary memory can be stored in secondary memory,
through a memory management technique called "virtual memory." An archaic synonym for
memory 1s ·
store.(If

Volatile Memory

DDR-SD-RAM, SD-RAM, and two older forms of RAM

Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. Most
modem semiconduct?r ~olatile memory is either Static RAM (see SRAM) or dynamic RAM (see
DRAM). SRAM retams its contents as long as the power is connected and is easy to interface
to bur
 uses six transistors per bit. Dynainic
. RAM is· more complicated
· •
to interface to and contro l and ne eds
regular refr~h cycle~ to prevent its contents being lost. However, DRAM uses only one transistor
an? a capacitor per bit, allo~ing it to reach much higher densities and, with more bits on a memory
chip: be much c~eaper per bit. S ~ is not worthwhile for desktop system memory, where DRAM
dommates, b~t 1s ~sed for their cache memories. SRAM is commonplace in small embedded
systems, _which might only need tens of kilobytes or less. Forthcoming volatile memory
technologies that hope to replace or compete with SRAM and DRAM include z-RAM, TIRAM, A-
RAM and ETA RAM.

Non-Volatile Memory

Solid-state drives are one of the latest forms of non-volatile memory

Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not
powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory (see ROM), flash memory,
most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy discs and magnetic tape),
optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punched cards.
Forthcoming non-volatile memory technologies include FeRAM, CBRAM,PRAM, SONOS,
RRAM, Racetrack memory, NRAM and Millipede.

Volatile Memory. Non-volatile memory has a huge impact on a system ' s storage capacity.
Below are the differences between volatile and non-volatile memory:

S.NO Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory

Volatile memory is the type of Non-volatile memory is the type of

memory in which data is lost as it is memory in which data remains
powered-off. stored even if it is powered-off.

Contents of Volatile memory is Contents of Non-volatile memory is

V stored temporarily. stored permanently.

It is faster than non-volatile

memory. It is slower than volatile memory.

RAM(Random Access Memory) is ROM(Read Only Memory) is an

an example of volatile memory. example of non-volatile memory.
 S.NO Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory

In volatile memory, data can be In non-volatile memory, data can

easily transferred in comparison to not be easily transferred in
5. non-volatile memory. comparison to volatile memory.

In Volatile memory, process can In Non-volatile memory, process

Y read and write. can only read.

Non-volatile memory generally has

Volatile memory generally has less more storage capacity than volatile
r." storage capacity. memory.

Jn volatile memory, the program 's In non-volatile memory, any kind

data are stored which are currently of data which has to be saved
8. in process by the CPU. permanently are stored.

Volatile memory is more costly per Non-volatile memory is less costly

✓ unit size. per unit size.

Non-volatile memory has a huge

Volatile memory has a huge impact impact on a system's storage
10. on the system 's pe1formance. capacity.

In volatile memory, processor has In non-volatile memory, processor

✓. direct access to data. has no direct access to data.

Volatile memory chips are Non-volatile memory chips are

12. generally kept on the memory slot. embedded on the motherboard.

The main advantage of virtual memory is that an OS can load programs larger than its physical
memory. It makes an impression to the users that the computer has unlimited memory. It also
provides memory protection. In order to realize the mapping operations, virtual memory needs to
use page tables and translations

Virtual memory (also known as a page file) is essentially a block of space on your hard drive or
solid state drive allocated by the OS to pretend to be RAM when your physical RAM runs
short for actively running programs.
Types of virtual memory: Paging
and Segmentation
Virtual Memory Paging.
Virtual Memory Segmentation.
Advantages of Virtual Memory.
Disadvantages of Virtual Memory
A computer can address more mem
ory than the amount physically inst
extra memory is actually called virt alled on the system. Thi s
ual memory and it is a section
emulate the computer's RAM. of a hard disk that's set up to
The mai n visible advantage of this
scheme is that programs can be larg
Virtual memory serves two purpos er than physical mem ory.
es. First, it allows us to extend the
using disk. Second, it allows us use of physical mem ory by
to have memory protection, bec
translated to a physical address . ause each virtual address is
Following are the situations, whe
n entire program is not required
memory. to be loaded fully in mai n
• Use r written error handling rou
tines are used only when an erro
computation. r occurred in the data or
• Certain options and features of
aprogram may be used rarely.
• Ma ny tables are assigned a fixe
d amount of address space even tho
of the table is actually used. ugh only a small amount
• The ability to execute a pro
gram that is only partially in mem
benefits. ory would counter man y
• Less number of 1/0 would be
nee ded to load or swap each user pro
gram into memory.
• A program wou ld no longer
be constrained by the amount of
available. physical memory that is
• Eac h user pro gra m could take
less physical memory , more program
time, wit h a corresponding increase s could be run the same
in CPU utilization and throughput.
Mo dem microprocessors intende
d for general-purpose use, a mem
is built into the hardware. The MM ory management unit, or MM U,
U's job is to translate virtual add
A basic exa mp le is given below resses into physical addresses.
-

0
 be implemented in a
ory is com mon ly implem ented by demand paging. It can also
Virtual mem virtual memory.
entation can also be used to provide
segmentation system. Demand segm
Three types of bus are used.
r components such as primary
resses from the processor to othe
Address bus - carries memory add
storage and input/output devices . .
the processor and other components
Data bus - carries the data between ents.
from the processor to other compon
Control bus - carries control signals
place to another place, same
in dail y life is used for transportation from one
The mea ning of bus from one place to another
r term s Bus is also useful for transportation of data
like that in com pute but a set of wires which are
de a com pute r. So what is Bus : Bus is nothing
plac e whi ch is insi of the computer. System bus
to connect internal components
present inside the cabinet used e function.
separate lines and each line has som
contains about fifty to hundreds of
rt the data(bits of
ow arro w whi ch repr esen ts the bus which is used to transpo
Let us conside r a hall Input unit, output unit,
to righ t or righ t to left. We have five functional units:
information ) from left ted tasks of a computer
unit , AL U and con trol unit . These all combine to form all rela
memory
all communicated with each other.
system with the help of bus they are
from bus, memory
data is pas sed to bus and output unit will receive the data
From input unit , the two directions, and
from mem ory to bus the data is bidirectional, which means
unit that is RA M, ional way. So this
or, from pro cess or to bus the data is transported in bidirect
frnally we hav e pro cess with each other using
wn as sing le Bus . All these five units will communicated
type of bus is kno ons will happen in
put unit will disp lay the info rmation for us. All these operati
single bus . Out
seconds.
only two units can communicate
le bus, the drawback is at a time
But there is a problem with sing unit can communicate wit h each
exa mpl e at a time only Input unit and memory
with each othe r, for r. Happens the sam e wit h other
unit and pro cess or cant communicate with each othe
othe r, outp ut
d of the computer will reduce so
to overcome this problem
ents , so bec aus e of this the spee '
compon
can use one mor e stru ctur e that is multiple structure,
we

What is multiple bus structure?

input unit to
?ne mor e bus, by ~sin g one bus we can transmit the data from
We will ha~e more than
transport data from mem ory to
ther bus sunultaneously we can
memory urut and by usmg ano tp t ·t Th speed
ther bus, we• can pro ce.ss the data from processor to Ou u um . e
processor, and from·11ano· b . ctur e. The dra wba ck f thi · · ·II be
~d perfco~a nce w1 rn~rease y usmg this multiple bus stru 0 s IS It wi
ent this stru ctur e.
difficult to imp lem

of buses:
So there are three different types

1. Data bus
2. Address bus
3. Control bus
 Data bus is used to hold the data what th
processor is going to send that data 'to me ever e data that a proc~ssor has to work on, and the
or even so on more separate lines. mory and Input/output devices. It consists of 8,32,64, 128

The number of lines are called as width of d b . . .

data bus is 1 byte that is 8bits. , a ata us. Here each lme cames only bit, so the width of

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Address
data bus
It has indicates ffrom
collect. . where we h ave to send the data and from where we have to get the
the CPU it is 10; o ~ires_ these are used to identify the particular location in main memory by
instructi;n from :se. v to iden!ify the .s~urce or destination of data. The CPU needs to read an
so that will b .-~ gi edenbloc~t_ion that is m memory, so first it has to know where the data is present
e liuorm Y this address bus. '

The width of a bus deteimines the "maximum memo1y capacity of a system".

Ex: 8080 microprocessor, it has 16 bits address bus, it gives 64 k address space.

Control bus is. u~~d to monitor the data and address buses. It always monitors the system. It
regulates the activ1ties of bus, at what time the data has to be put on the data bus all these operations
are performed by control bus.

It always control and timing information related to the buses, It holds signals that reports the st~tus
of various devices, whether the device is sending any data, whether the device is ready or not. So
different control signals will be there in control bus like memory read, memory write, I/0 read and
I/0 write. Memory read means It causes data from address location to be placed on the data bus.

Memory write causes data in the bus to be written on an address location executed by the CPU.
I/0 read means data from I/0 ports to be placed on the bus
I/0 write is data on the bus to be output to the address of I/0 ports.
A data bus is bidirectional, the data is sent from CPU to another devices and another devices to
CPU. Address bus is uni-directional. Whereas control bus is bi-directional.
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Traditional bus architecture:
A processor is there, it is connected with some local bus which is called cache, cache is a memory
unit that is present in the processor, so whatever the data the proc~ssor wants to execute, that data
will be stored in the cache memory cache is the fastest storage device, local bus is there in between
processor and cache device which connects both of them and there is local I/0 controller connected
with local bus, and the main memory and cache is connected by using system bus. The system bus
is connected with some expansion bus interface.
 · a1so connected. A network urut. 1s
on bus slot Is . also connected and modem 1s . also there
Expansi
C h .
devices are no~
d _a c ~ is connecte d to the system bus. All the devices like I/O devices and memory
data that is stored in the cache and the cache
. rrect Y connecte d to processo r, the processor sends the
is connecte d to system bus, which consists of data lines, control lines and address lines.
also having all
Local bus i~ also having data bus, control bus and address bus. Expansion bus is
th ese data lmes and control lines and address lines. The main memory is connected to system bus
the data to
an~ the cache. All these devices will interact with system bus.The system bus will send
has to interact with the cache and the
mam memory and from main memory to processor first it
cache will send the data to processo r. '
Address Bus
has to write to
The ~ction of an address bus is to specify a physical address. Whenever a processor
specified by the address bus .
a particula r memory location, that memory location has to be
the data
Whateve r t~e value is to be written or read to the memory location, it has to be sent through
to th~ amount of addressab le memory of the
bus. The width of the address bus is directly linked
system.
I I Address Multiplexing
I, width
Now we know that physical wires were used by the old processors. Each bit of the address
of old buses which were not very wide or
I had a wire. This arrangem ent worked fairly well in case
lengthy. ·

of
For instance, there were sixteen wires to constitute a 16-bit address bus. But with the evolution
compute r buses became lengthier and the usage of physical wires started
compute r systems, the
becomin g expensiv e and complex.
l' This is when the concept of address multiplexing gained popularity. Under this arrangem
ent, the
address will make it easier to
address is transferr ed in two halves. A simple example of a 32-bit
16 lines will be used to send the first half of
understa nd the concept of address multiplexing wherein
the memory address.
immediately.
This will be followed by the second half of the memory address along the same lines

Bus Error system that

When an address is invalid for the address bus, a fault is raised to notify the operating
can be caused in case of a
the CPU cannot physical ly address that memory location. Such an error
non-exis ting address, unaligne d address or paging errors.

Memory Bus a comput~r

The compute r bus that connects the memory c_ontroller to the main memory within
by clup
system is called the memory bus. Modem vers10ns of these memory buses are designed
standard s bodies in such a way so as to connect to DRAM chips directly.

Control Bus the comp~ter

The part of the system bus used by CPUs to commun icate to other compone nts within
are carried to the respectiv e devices
system is called control bus. The comman ds given by the CPU
also sent back to the CPU
through the control bus and the status signals from those devices are
through the control bus.
ii
 UNIT II
Introduction The unit 2 presents the infonnation of input and output devices
.
A number of input/output devices are used with many types of microc
omputers. Many of these are
less complex versions of 1/0 devices that have been available for larger
computer systems. The
principal difference is that because they are intended for use with
microcomputers, they are
significantly slower and substantially cheaper. Few of these devices are
discussed in this unit.
Input Devices

1.1
Keybo ards

Th~ most common of all input devices is the keyboard. Several version
s of keyboards are
available. The best and most expensive of these is the full-stroke keyboa
rd. This is ideal for
wo~d proce~sing and other volume data and program entry activities. This
type of keyboard is
available w1thmost mainframe computer terminals or the expensive microc
omputersystems.
Some popula r microcomputers offer enhanced keyboard for easy entry
of numbers. This is
accomplished with a smaller group of keys known as a numeric keypad
at the right of the
keyboard. These keys generally consist of the digits, a decimal point,
a negative sign, and
an ENfER key. This type of keyboard is ideal for accounting operatio
large volume of numbers to be entered. ns, which require a

Keybo ards generally utilize integrated circuits to perform essentia

l function~, such as
determining the combination of ls and Os, or binary code, to send to
the CPU, corresponding
to each key depressed, switching between shifted and nonshifted keys,
repeating a key code
if a key is held down for a prolonged period of time, and temporarily storing
input when keys are typed too fast. or "buffering"

The keyboa rd arrangement provided as standard on most keyboa

rds is the QWERTY
arrangement, named for the six letters beginning the row at the
top left of the keyboard
(Figure 4.1 ). This arrangement was chosen intentionally to slow expert
typists, since those
who typed too fast would cause the keys on a mechanical typewriter
to jam. Slowing down
the typist was accomplished by scattering the most used around
the keyboard, making
frequently used combinations of letters awkward and slower to
type. This QWERTY
keyboa rd arrange ment has been used for nearly a century.

The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard (DSK) arrangement, designed in

1932 by August Dvorak,
is the result of extensi ve ergonomic studies. Dvorak noted that with
the QWERTY keyboard
arrangement, typists used the weakest fourth and fifth fingers of
their left hand a large
propor tion of the time. Thus, Dvorak rearranged the keyboard
so that the five more
frequently used vowels (a, o, e, u, and i) and the five most frequently
used conson ~ts (d, h,
t, n, and s) were positio ned on the home rowwh ere the fingers
of the left and nght hands
rest, respect ively (Figure 4.2). Thus, 70 percent of the typing is done
on the home row . He
then placed the next most frequently used characters in the row abo~e
the horn~ row and ~he
least frequently used charact ers in the row below the home row. 1?-is
resul~ed m a r~~ctto n
of finger movem ent of approx imately 80 percent and overall, an mcreas
e m product1V1ty of
nearly 40 percen t.
 Expert typists and word processors generally agree that using the Dvorak arrangement
increases productivity while simultaneously decreasing fatigue. The world's fastest typing
speed, nearly 200 words per minute, was achieved on a Dvorak keyboard. Despite these
improvements the QWERTY keyboard arrangements is still the most common because of the
difficulty of overcoming inertia and retraining.

In the meanwhile, microcomputer manufacturers and software vendors are producing

software that will convert your keyboard from QWERTY to Dvorak. and back again at will.
To date, larger computer systems employ the traditional QWERTY arrangement only.

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Dvorak Keyboard.

1.2 Other Input

DevicesPunch ed Card

The punched card has served as an input medium to automated

 .
Computational devices. It has undergone little or no cban~e since . that time,. d. and moSt
Among
companies have phased out and replaced it with the more efficient data entry . me1;' . hed
the punched card devices still in use is the punched card reader. The readm! 0 pu;\ve
cards takes place at speeds ranging from hundred fifty to more than two ousan
hundred cards per minute.

Key-to-Tape Jnd Key-to-Disk Systems

I
In a key-to-tape system, data entered at a keyboard are recorded direct]~ on magnetic tape.
The magnetic tape used is similar to the tape cartridge or cassette used w~th home rec?rders.
Accuracy is verified by placing therecording tape into a magnetic tape venfier and ha~g the
original data retyped. Magnetic tape encoders and verifiers are generally housed m the
same' physical unit. Errors detected are corrected simply by erasing the mistakes and
substituting the correct character(s).

Character Readers

A character reader is capable of accepting printed or typed characters from source documents
and converting these data into a computer- acceptable code. Currently available high-speed
character readers are capable of reading source documents at rates of up to several thousand
documents per minute and are costly. The three basic types of character readers are
magnetic-ink, optical mark, and optical character readers.

Magnetic-ink Character Readers

Ma~etic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR) was developed by the Stanford Research

Institute for use by the world's largest bank, the Bank of America. This system can read data
prereco~ded on checks and deposit slips with a special ferrite-impregnated ink. The
magnet12ed characters can be read and interpreted by MICR equipment.

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Portion of a special-purpose optical mark form.

Optical Mark Readers

Optical mark readers (OMR) optically read marks on carefully printed forms. Optical mark
fonns are relatively expensive, as they must be printed with exact tolerances so that the
marks will up under the optical sensing devices when read (Figure 4.3). The most popular
al
use of such devices is optical character readers for scoring examinations in education
institutions.

Optical Character Readers (OCR)

a
Optical character recognition (OCR) devices can convert data from source documents to
machine-recognizable fonn. Current applications of optical scanning include billing,
insurance premium notices, and charge sales invoices. At present, on OCR device can
reliably read and interpret script or handwriting. However, some can read handwriting
y,
provided that certain general guidelines are observed when the data are written. Generall
optical character readers are limited with respect to hand-written characters and can only read
of
handwritten digits and some symbols. Many OCR devices are available for the reading
typed characters, including digits, letters and some special character s. Not all printed
characters can be read reliably on OCR readers. Generally, each reader is capable of reading
only selected character styles.

Even if the character style and spacing are acceptable, errors can result from reading
a
character that is not written perfectly. To reduce such errors, OCR devices generally compare
the pattern read with the patterns to all acceptable character. The read characte r is assumed
to be the

character whose stored pattern most closely matches the read pattern.This process is
shown in

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character against a stored set

Charac ter reads compa re the digitized matrix of anunknown
of templates.
unless a substantial numbe r
Because of the high cost of OCR devices, they are uneconomic
of documents are to be processed each day.

scanner canall be used as input

CD, Web camera, disk drive, ATM, Scanner and bar code
devices.

Pointing System s

on ascree n or at an item of
Computer users frequently find it easier to point to something
compu ter, A number of devices are
text or graphical material they are entering into the
available to assist in fulfillingthis need.

Various pointing input devices.

Light Pen

. . . . . .
The earliest pointing device is the hght pen. This device is p 1aced. c 1ose. to a scree n or moni tor
and tumed on. A photo sensor inside the light pen detec . back and
ts the scanning b~m _s we:m gositio n of
forth across the screen. Accompanying circuitry con~e
the pen on the screen . Light pens are used to select
rts the pen's_ readmg :t~s
items from a hSt or men P Y
~t
ed on the
. d to
screen. Light pens are used to select items from a list
or menu displayed on the scree n an
draw graphic displays on the video screen.

Digitizer Pad

A digitized pad looks like a graph pad with a pointer.

It functions like a light pen on a displ ay
screen except that the pad is mounted horizontally.
As t~e-~ointer is ~ove d o~ the pad, !he
corresponding point on the screen is illuminated .
The d1git1zed pad 1s useful ~ conv erting
graphic input , such as charts, graphs, and blueprints
into patterns that can be marupulated and
stored by the computer.

Mou se

A mouse is a hand-movable device that controls

the pos1tlon of thecu rsor on a screen. It
has a box with buttons on the top and a ball on the
botto m. The box is placed on a flat surfa ce,
with the user's hand over it. The ball's movement on
the surface causes the curso r to move.
Joys tick and Trac kbal l

Joysticks are used with video games for user input.

Thes e devic es may also be used to move the
cursor around a screen to facilitate input to a graphical
display. A trackball is simil ar in opera tion
to the joystick. It uses a billiard-sized ball to posit ion
the cursor. Sever al keyb oard manufacturers
have integrated them directly into their keyboards.

Touc hscre en

Touchscreen detects the touch of a huma n finger. One

popu lar techn ique used to detec t the touch
of a finger utilizes infrared light beams. In this techn
ique, infrared light beam s shine horizontally
and vertically on the face of the screen. A point ing
finger interrupts both horiz ontal and vertical
beams, pointing its exact location.

Pen drive

A pen drive is anoth er name for a USB flash drive

. Othe r name s arefla sh drive. USB flash
drive, Thum b drive, etc. They are devices that allow
stora ge of comp uter files that you can
remove and take fromc ompu ter to comp uter. The price
of the driver is deter mine d by the size of
its mem ory measured in megabytes or gigabytes.
Whil e 128 mega byte drivers used to be
considered large, curre nt pen drivers sizes can reach
1,2,4 or more gigabytes. The drivers
 inserted in the computers USB ports and are a~tomati~ally reco_gnized on PC_operating systetns
beyond Windows 98 (which needs a separate mstallatton of dnvers). Pen dri:es can also hav
full blown application on them which are written in whatis called U3 compatible software. c

A Pen Drive.

Scanner

In computing an image scanner often abbreviated to just scanner is a device that optically scans
images, printed text, handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image. Common
examples found in offices are variations of the desktop (or flatbed) scanner where the document
is placed on a glass window for scanning. Hand-held scanners, Where the device is moved by
hand , have evolved from text scanning "wands" to 3D scanners used for industrial design,
reverse engineering, test and measurement, orthotics, gaming and other applications
Mechanically driven scanner that move the document are typically used for large-format
documents, where a flatbed design would be impractical.

Scanner.
,;;e~

CD-ROM

Pronounced see-dee-rom. Short for Compact Disc-Read-only Memory, a type of optical disk
capable of shorting large amounts of data up to I GB, although the most common size is 650 MB
(megabyte). A single CD- ROM has the storage capacity to 700 floppy disks, enough memory to
store about 300,000 text pages. CD-ROMs are stamped by the vendor, and once stamped, they
cannot be erased and filled with new data. To read a CD, you need a CD-ROM player. All CD-
ROMs comform to a standard size and format, so you can load any type of CD-ROM into any
CD-ROM player. In addition, CD-ROM players are capable of playing audio CDs, which share
·the same technology. CD-ROMs are particularlywell-suited to information that requires large
storage capacity. This includes large software applications that support color, graphics, sound,
and especially video and are well suitable for tutoring,
 ACD.

alumi1Y.Jm rai-er

poly<:~
la,er (claw l"•sti 0 l

motion
+--
00000000001000000000010000000
~==~=~- -\
LAPID

Composition of a CD.

Output Devices

2.1 Monitors

It is the most commonly used display device. The monitor, utilizes a cathode ray tube (CRT).
CRT monitors generally produce images by the raster-scan method. In this method, an electron
beam varying in intensity, is moved back and forth horizontally across the face of the monitor.
As the beam is directed to each spot on the phosphor-coated screen, it illuminates the spot in
proportion to the voltage applied to the beam. Each spot represents a picture element or pixel.
When the electron beam has scanned the entire screen and illuminated each pixel, one can see a
complete image. The image that can be seen is the one traced on the retinas of eyes by the
light beam. However, this image will fade unless it is refreshed. Thus, the electron beam must
scan the screen very rapidly (a minimum of 60 times per second), so that the intensity of the
image remains approximately the same and the screen does not appear to flicker.

The screen resolution of a particular monitor is determined by the number of pixels that make
up the screen. Monitors are currently available with 64,000 to more than 2 million pixels per
screen. The greater the resolution of a monitor the greater the storage demand on the computer.
This is because the image must be stored in memory before it can be displayed. Two techniques
used to store computer images are: bit-mapped and character-addressable.

In a bit-mapped display, each pixel is uniquely addressable. Information must be stored for each
I

pixel on the screen. This technique needs quite a large computer memory nnd provides the most
detailed display. forgraphical applications, such as CAD/CAM, this detail is essential. However
for applications such as word processing. a cbnractcr- addressable display is appropriate. In ~
character addressable display, the screen is divided into character positions. Only the characters
to bcdisplayed arc stored in memory. As each character is retrieved from memory, it is converted
into a pattcm of dots or pixels by a special character generator module.
Monochrome or colour: Some monitors display images in only one colour while others arc
capable or producing images in colours. Monochrome monitors use a single electron beam nnd
display one colour, generally green, amber, or white, on a black background. The phosphor
composition of the screen dctcnnines the colour. Colour monitors produce multi-colour images
by combining the red, blue, and green colours in varying intensities . Each pixel is made up of
threecolour dots: red, blue, and green. It will appear to glow in different colours depending on
tl1e intensity of each individual dot in the pixel. Colour monitors arc commonJy referred to as
RGB monitors since they employ three election beams, one for each colour. Colour mo11itors arc
categorized as CGA, EGA, VGA and SVGA depending on the resolution. CGA monitors
provide the least resolution (approximately 300 x 200 Pixels) and SYGA monitors provide the
greatest resolution ( 1000 x 800 pixels and greater).

Monitor interface: A monitor requires an appropriate iJ1tcrfacc to communicate with a computer.

For example, a colour graphics interface board is needed for a colour monitor. Th.is interface will
generally not work with a monochrome monitor and migbt even damage it. Dozens of 111onito1
to
interface boards are available for use with microcomputers. A caution must be exercised
match the interface to both the monitor and the computer.

.
Using a television : Some smaller microcomputer systems can be used with a standard television
The basic difference between a monitor and a television set is tbat the resolution of a television
is substantially less than that with a monitor. Also the television requires the use of a modulator
to interface the computer output with the television. The modulator combines the separate audio
a
and visuaJ signals sent by the microcomputer into a single modulated signal as required by
television. Most inexpensive computer systems designed for use with a television set generally
have a built-in modulator.

Flat-Panel Displays

For laptop computers more compact, low-power, durable monitors are used. A number of flat-
panel display technologies are available for this. The most common are the plasma and liquid
crystal displays.

Plasma displays: A plasma display consists of an ionized neon or argon gas (plasma)
sealed
h0 ' " '" ' ' " 'Jlates. One plate encases a set of fine horizontal wires and the other a set of
'"'" nJ,, ....
Is are fonned by the intersections of the horizontal and vertical wires. A
single pixel cru1 be turned on by sending a current through its horizontal and vertical wires. This
causes the gas between the wires to produce an
amber glow. The images produced by plasma displays are generally very clear, and not subject
to the flicker. Plasma displays are generally more expensive than the CRT displays.
Liquid crysta l displays: Liquid crystal displays (LCD
s) have been used for several years in
cnlculators and digital watches. A thin layer of a liquid
crystal subsiance is suspended between
two thin sheets of polarized glnss and separated by
a wire grid into tiny squares. /\s current is
applied to the wires the liquid crystal substance withi
n the square changes from clear to opaq ue
or black. The thousands of clear and blnck squares
produce patterns of characters.
The disndvantagc of LCD displays is lack of brigh
tness and resolution as compared to CRT and
plasma displa ys. The quality of the LCD display
depends on the surro undin g light and the
viewing angle. It is sharpestand clearest when viewe
d in brightness from the front.

2.2 Prin ters

The printer is the most common output device. It

produces pennancnt visua l record of the data
output from a computer. It is capable of producing
business reports and document s currentl y
available. Printe rs arc capable of printing from 150
to over 20,000 li.ncs per minute. with eac h
line having up to 150 characters. Thus, a maxim
um printing speeds of approx.imatcly 50.000
characters per second is possible.

Printers print on plain paper or on specially prepa

red si.ngle-or multiple
copy fom1s, such as invoices, stationery, labels, check
1
c specia l-purpose fom1s used in business and indus s, bills and other
try. They can print botht exl and graphics in
black and white or in colour.

Printers can be subdivided into two broad categ

ories, i.mpact and non- impact. 171e impact
printers arc the most common.

2.3 Impa ct Prin ters

In impact printers, printi.og occurs as a result of

a hammer striking a character fonn and the
character fonn in tum striking an inked ribbon,
causing the ribbon to press an image of the
character on paper.

Character printer devices print one character at a

tin1e at speeds of about l 0 to 500 characicrs
per second: The fastest of these printers is the
wire or dot-matrix printer. It prints characters
m~de up ~ta ~~ttem of dots fom1ed by the ends of
small wires Figure 4.6 shows the letter "A" as
pnnted with different densities. By extending certa
in wires beyond the
others, a clot pnltem can be created that gives the
appearance ofnumbers, letters or special
characters.

A •
 •
•
Dotmatrix printers fom1 characters with nn array of <lots. Here the
letter A is shown printed by
(a) a 9-pin printer, (b) a 24-pin printer. (c) a 9-pin letter-quality
dot-matrix printer capable of
overlapped dot printing.

TI1csc extended wires are pressed agninst an inked nbbon to print

lhecharacters on the
paper. Some slower and less expensive matrix printers
print a character as a series of columns each one dot wide. It
can be used to print special
character shapes that can be used with graphics.

For a typewriter-quality output, a special dot-matrix or daisy

metal print element, similar in
appearance to the arrangement of petoJs on a daisy flower. This
element is rotated until the
correct character is in position, and then pressed against an
inked ribbon. Toe process is
repeated forcach character to be printed on a line. Typical for such
printers range from 25 to 100
characters per second.

Impact cbarncter printers are the common output devices used with
personal and small business
microcomputer systems. They arc significantly cheaper than the line
printers.
impact line printers, capable of printing a whole line at a time, emplo
y print wheels or a moving
chain or drum. The print-wheel printer consists of print wheel
s, each contoining a foll
co_m~lemeot o_f digits and alphabetic characters in addition to
o set of special characters. For
pnntmg, all pnot wheels rate positloned to represent the data to
beprinted on one line. They then
 impact simultnncously al a speed of about 150 lines per minute.

Impact line printers and the chain and drum printers arc common ly used.
As the print chain or
drum revives, each characte r is printed as It comes into position . Up to 150
characte rs per line
can bo printed nl speeds of up to 2,500 lines per minute. Impact line printers
arc used almost
exclusively to support larger compute r systems.

2.4 Nonimp nct Printer s

Nonimpacl line printers, using laser, xerographic, electrostatic , or ink jct methods
are the fostest
printers. Before the development of the ink jct and laser printers, nonimpa
cts were not heavily
used, for several reasons:

Special and more expensiv e paper was required .

Printed output was not as sharp or as clear as with impact
printers.
Only a single-part fonn can be printed at a time.
Output could not be easily or satisfactorily copied on o ffice
copiers.

Elcctroslat.ic and xcrogra phk printers place a pattern of the desired characte
r o n sensitize d paper
by means of an electric current or beam of light. The paper then passes through
a powdery black
substanc e called toner, which contains dry ink particles. The ink particles
are attracted to
the exposed paper and lhe characte r become s visible. These printers can print
at speeds of from
3500 to 20,000 lines per minute.

The loser printer fonn characte rs by projecti ng a laser beam of dot- matrix
pattern on a drum
surface. Toner is then attracted to the area exposed by the laser and transfer
red to the paper. The
paper is thenpassed over a heating clement which melts the toner to fonn a
pennane ntcharac ter.

Mru1y types of ink jct printers are availabl e. The simples t of these contains
a series of ink jet
nozzles in lhe form of a matrix. Vibratin g crystals force ink droplets . roughly
the diamete r of a
human hair, from selected nozzles to form an image in the same mnnner
as an image is fonned
by a matrix printer. Differen t coloured inks may be used and combine d to
form addition al colors.

Several hundred nozzles are employe d in the more sophisticated ink jet
printers to direct a
continuo us stream of droplets .icross the page to fonn an image. These
charged ink droplets
travel at speeds of up to 40 miles per hour as they move between a set of
plates that deflect the
droplets. Droplets not needed are electros tatically attracted away from
lhc paper.for reuse. A
stream of more tl1an 100,000 droplets can fonn approxim ately 200 characte
rs per second.

2.5 Plotters

An inexpen sive ponable plotter capable of generati ng multicol or plots

from data is sto red on
magneti c tape or d.isk. Plotters with multico lor capabili ties generall y use
a writing mechani sm
containi ng several pens, each capable of produci ng a differen t color.
Some devices for
automat ed drafting are equippe d with plotting surfaces larger tJ1nn 10
square fectand cost as
 much as a minicomputer system.
_schematics) or
(such as designing, mapping, or plotting
Whether an application is a general one tural analysis, contouring,
al data presentation, struc
more specialized (such as three-dimension
do the tricks.
or business charts}, there are plotters to

2.6 Microfilm Devices

eadable fonn
ces convert computer output to a human-r
Computer output microfilm (COM) devi . At speeds
m frames stored on cards called microfilm
stored on rolls of microfilm or as microfil com puter outp ut
minute, COM is one of the fastest
of 10,000 to over 30,000 lines per of
the fastest impact printer. A single roll
techniques- more than ten times faster than to print the same
frames and costs less than half the cost
microfilm can store approximately 2000
amount of data on paper.
larger businesses
pment, it is generally only practical for
Because of the high cost of COM equi COM devices are
several thousand docwnents per day.
or industries generating approximately ent agen cies, and
concerns, defense installations, governm
commonly usedin libraries, ma.ii-order
similar, large operations.

device for a computer enables its user to store and safely acce,
CComputer Storage Devices A storage
r device. Knowing and learning about
these computer storar
the data and applications on a compute /
of the core components of the sy ste
devices is necessary as it works as one
ous parts, but th:
of Com puter Stor age The com pute r storage devices can be classified into vari
Types t the three types~.
three parts. Given below are details abou
computer storage unit is also divided into
comyuter storage: tral Processing Uni
nma ry Storage: Th.is is the direct
memory which is accessible to the Cen
yP
(CPU).
and is volatile.
o This is also known as tJ1e main memory ed o It is small(
is tem porary. As soon as the device turns off or is rebooted, the memory is eras
o This
in size age include RAM
ary storage com prises only of Internal memory o Examples of primary stor
o Prim
cache memory, etc.

storage does not have direct acce ssibility to the Central ProcessiII!
~n da ry Storage: Th.is type of to the computer, as the!
are used to connect such storage devices
Unit. o The input and output channels primary storage ;
nly exte rnal o It is non -volatile and larger storage capacity in comparison to
are mai prises of both inteml
removed by an extemal factor o It com
This type of storage is permanent until s, etc.
ndary storage are USB drives, floppy disk
and external memory o Examples of seco

ral!
age is generaUy not considered 10 be important and is gene
/4r tia ry Memory: This type of stor

_J
 ot a part of personal com
n puters. o It involves mo .
mo un tin g an d un mo un tm g f sto rag e da ta wh ich is
re vable from a computer device o Th is .
typ e of sto rag e hol ds ro b · f
o ma ss d
uir e hu ma ot1 c un
f1 s o It oe s no t a 1,vays
on
req n int erv ent ion an d can function aut . . fC c . Th
fou r types of devices in omat1cally Lis t o om pu ter Sto rag e De vic es ere are
which com pu ter da ta can · . d .
.,,..Maonetic Storage Devic be sto red . Di scu ss ed b \ re the sam e m eta i 1·
e ow
<> es TI,e mo st com mo nly . . t d 8 ay's um . .
...,,.orage devices. Th ese
'" are affordable an d eas ily •
use d sto
•
rag d
e ev ,ce s in
accessible. A 1arg e am
° e arc ma
t r da ta can be sto red .
gn eti c
these through magnetised ou n o m
m ed iu m ~ ma gn eti.c .
computer an d wi th the fie ld 1s cre ate d wh en the d · · u be d to the
hel p of the two ma gn ev1ce 1s a ac .
language an d sto re the inf eti c polarities, the de vic
ormation . Gi ve n be low e i~ ab le to rea ~ the bin ary
• Floppy Disk _ Also kn arc the ex am ple s of magne
ow n as a floppy disket t.Jc sto ra~ e de vic es. .
te, it is a rem ov abl e sto .
shape of a square and com rag e de vic e wh ich is
prises ma gn eti c elements 111 the
device, it spi ns around . Wh en pla ced in the dis
an d can store informati k rea de r of the co mp u~
on . Lately, the se flo pp er
CDs, DV Ds an d USB dri y dis ks ha ve be en rep lac ed
ves wi th
• Hard Drive - This prima
ry storage dev ice is direct
is an integral storage spa ly attached to the mo the
ce as ii is required to ins rbo ard 's dis k co ntr oll er.
tall an y new pro gra m It
Software programs, image or ap pli cat ion to the de
s, videos, etc. ca n all be vic e.
sav ed in a ha rd dri ve an
space in terabytes are als d ha rd dri ve s wi th sto
o eas ily ava ila ble now rag e
• Zip Disk - Introduce d
by Iom ega, is a remov ab
storage spa ce of 100 MB le sto rag e de vic e wh ich
which was lat er increased wa s ini tia lly rel eas ed wi
to 25 0 an d the n fin all y th a
• Magnetic Strip - A 75 0 MB
ma gn eti c strip is att ach
suitable exa mp le for thi ed in the de vic e co mp
s is a debit car d wh ich ris ing dig ita l da ta. Th
ha s a str ip pla ced on on e e mo st
digital data Optical Storag of its sid es wh ich sto res
e De vic es Su ch de vic es the
are che ape r in compar use d las ers an d lig hts to
ison to US B dri ve s an de tec t an d sto re da ta. Th
d ca n sto re mo re da ta. ey
commonly used optical Di scu sse d be low are
storage devices. a few
• CD-ROM - Th is stand
s for Co mp act Di sc - Re
store an d read da ta in the ad -O nly Me mo ry an d is
form of au dio or sof tw are an ex ter na l devic e wh ich
da ta can
• Blu -R ay Di sc - Introd
uced in 20 06 , Bl u-r ay
companies. It ca n store dis k wa s ba ck up up
up to 25 GB da ta in a sin by ma jor lT an d co mp
gle -la ye r dis c an d SO GB da ta ute r
• DVD - Di git al Versatile in a du al- lay
Di sc is an oth er typ e of er dis c
and rew rita ble. Recordin op tic al sto rag e de vic e.
gs can be do ne in suc h It ca n be rea da ble , rec ord
de vic es an d the n ca n be ab le,
• CD-R - It is a readable att ach ed to the sy ste m
Co mp act Di sc wh ich u
it. Th ey are a low -cost ses ph oto sen sit ive org an
rep lac em ent for sto rin g ic dy e to rec ord da ta an
sof tw are an d ap pli cat ion d sto re
Co mp on ent s of Co mp s Re lat ed Lin ks W
ute r Ba sic s of MS Ex eb Br ow ser s
Be tw een Firewall and cel Di ffe rence Be tw een
An tiv iru s Ha rdw are an RA M an d RO M Di ffe
d So ftw are Qu est ion s ren ce
storage dev ice s ha ve no Fla sh Me mo ry De vic
w rep lac ed bo th ma gn es Th ese
portable an d easily ava eti c an d op tic al sto rag
ila ble an d acc ess ibl e. Th e de vic es. Th ey are eas
ey ha ve be co me a ch eap y to use ,
to sto re dat a. Discu ssed er an d mo re conv en ien
be low are the ma jor fla t op tio n
everyone. sh me mo ry de vic es wh
ich are be ing co mm on
ly us ed by
• USB Drive - Al so, kn
ow n as a pe n dri ve, thi
ran ges be tw een sto rag e s sto rag e de vic e is sm
spa ce of 2 GB to l TB all in siz e an d is po rta
. It co mp ris es an int eg ble an d
sto re da ta an d als o rep lac rat ed cir cu it wh ich all
e it ow s it to
 ----------

• Memory Card U . ed devices like mobile

- sually attached with smaller electronic and computenz • d ·
phones or dig·t1 I 'd and audios an is
• a camera, a memory card can be used to store images, VJ eos
compatible and small in size
• ~cmory Stick - Originally launched by Sony, a memory stick can store more data and is eak? and
quick lo trans~ d l . . 0 f memory stoc were
' er a a using this storage device. Later on, various other versions
also released
• SD Card Kn . . . to store data and is
- own as Secure Digital Card it is used in various electronic devices
available in mini · · an d micro
· • '
sizes. Generally computers have a separate slot to msert an SD card. In
·
case th cy do not have one, separate USBs ar~ available in which these cards can be inserted and_ then
connected to thc computer TI1ere are various other flash memory drives which are also easily available
in the market and are easily accessible and easy to use. Online Cloud Storage The term Cloud
computing· is · used to descnbe• the data centres available for users over the Internet where they can save
their databases and files . This data can easily be accessed over the internet anytime and anywhere. This
has become a common mode to store data. TI1e largest or the smallest computerised devices can use the
online cloud storage to save their data files. This option is also available in mobile phones where a
backup of our files and data is being managed. To learn in detail about the Basics of Cloud Computing,
candidates can visit the linked article. Characteristics of Computer Storage Devices Over the years, the
usage of computer and electronic devices have massively increased and so has the dependency on them.
Personally or professionally a lot of data is entered into the computer and storing it becomes a must for
future use. Thus, these internal and external storage devices have come in as a saviour for the users. In
case of less memory space in the device, the various computer storage devices can be used to save the
data securely without losing it. Given below are a few characteristics of these storage devices:
• Because of volati le memory, the data stored can be saved and also replaced whenever needed
• These devices arc readable, writable and rewritable which ensures that the data saved if not necessary
can be removed or replaced accordingly
• Accessibi lity to these has become very easy and convenient. The devices are easily available online
and offline and need no expertise for usage
• The capacity and size of these drives and devices has become an added advantage
• Even in tenns of perfom1ance, using these storage devices the data can be saved easily but can also
be transferred easily from one device to another Related Links Web Browsers Components of
Computer Basics of MS Excel Difference Between RAM and ROM Difference Between Firewall and
Antivirus Hardware and Software Questions
 UNIT III
"Software Concepts."

Software Concepts

Computer being an electronic device understands only electric pulses i.e. whether
the electricity is
Oow~g thr0 ugh a circuit or not. We denote these two states of pulses (electric
ity flowing & not
flowmg) by 1 and 0, and thus computer understands a language that consists
of only two 'characters'
na~lely_1 ~nd 0. This special language is popularly known as Binary language
or Machine langu~~e,
which is directly understood by the computer. 0 and 1, the digits of binary language
or Binary Digits
are also kn~wn as Bits (Binary Digits).Binary language consists of ones and zeros,
typically in groups
of 8 or 16 bits, used for storing characters and numbers.

Reads da~a and instructions through the input devices;

So~ware is a set of programs that governs the operation of a computer system and
its related
devices.Reads data and instructions through the input devices;Translates all data
and instruction into
computer understandable fonn and vice versa;Controls all devices attached to the
computer
system;Processes and generates the result on the output devices;

Concep t of Booting: Process of loading OS files into main memory.

-POST-Bootstrap Loader

Types of Softwar e Software can be broadly arc categorized as:

qJ System Softwarelf' Application Software1P Utility Software

BIOS Device Drivers Language Processors Operating system

(A) System Softwar e :BIOSDevice DriversLanguage ProcessorsOperating system

1. BIOS-T he basic input/output system is the built-in software that contains the
code required to control
the keyboard, monitor, disk drives, communicationsports, and other functions
like loading OS files into
main memory ,independently of the computer operating system.

A device driver is system software that acts like an interface between the Device
and the user or the
Operating System. All computer accessories like Printer, Scanner, Web Camera,
etc. come with their
own driver software. This driver software help the operating system and other
application software to
commun icate with those devices for optimal use.

Language Process or Assembler Compiler Interpreter

lOperating system is set of system pr_ograms ~hat control and coordinate the
operations of a computer
system. It is the interface that acts hke a bndge between a user and the hardwar
e components of a
compute r. Som\,r the most popular operating systems are MicrosoftWindo
ws, Linux, Mac OS,
Solaris, BOSS, e)
Major Functio ns of an Operating System .
Operatin g system provides a software platfonn, on top of wluch, other program
s, called application
programs are run. The functions of an operating s~stem c~ be broadly outlined
as follows : Processor,
storage, informa tion and device managerCommumcate with hardware and the
attached devices [Device
Manager]Manage diffe ]Provide a user interface [Interface
Manager]Pr .d rent types of memories [Memory Manager ]
ovi e a structure for accessing an application [Program Manager
Enable users to manipul t kM ager)
Manage the files fold acted-rograms and data [Tas an[F.le Manager]Provide basic networkin
structure for L , ers an !rectory systems on a compute r J ovides a minimal security to t g
AN and Internet [Networ k Manager ]A smart OS also pr d) [S ·t he
· (passwor
. ations ecun y manager]
computer syst em through authorization (user name) and authentic

SOFTWARE CONCEPTS.

t~d With
Softwa re is a general term used to describe all the fonns of program mes associa
a like a car without petrol. Precise ly, a
the comp_uter. Withou t softwar e, a comput er
tell the comput er what to do and When
softwa re is nothing but a set of instructions that
to do.

Softwa res may be classifi ed as:

1. System s software
2. Applica tion software
3. Langua ges

SYSTE MS SOFTW ARE

the
{ System s softwar e is a set of one or more programs, designe d to control
to assist
operati on of a comput er system. These programs are general program s written
support the
leiman s in the use of the comput er system. In general, system softwar es
(printer s, card
running of other softwar e, commu nicate with peripheral devices
of software
readers , disk and tape drives etc.) support the development of other types
etc) Thus
the monito r the use of various hardwa re resources (memor y, periphe rals, CPU
effectiv e and
system s softwar e makes . the operati on of the comput er system more
progra m_)
efficien t. Thepro grarns include d in a systems softwar e are called system s

application
System s softwar es offer several advanta ges and conven iences to
of systems
program mers and comput er users in general. Howev er, the produc tion
ter science.
softwar e is a comple x task that require s extensi ve knowle dge in compu
ped in-hous e.
Becaus e of its technic al comple xity, system s softwar e is rarely develo
.
They are normal ly develop ed and distribu ted by the comput er manufa cturers
I

(OS). This is a
An especia lly importa nt type of system s softwar e is an operati ng system
 hig hly com plic ated
so ftwar e that man age s the reso
urc es of a com pu ter, i·e ., sys tem
boa rd, Dis k stor age , Prin ter, Key
boa rd, VDU etc. It read s com man
ds from inpu t dev ices
like key boa rd and the mou se, disp
lays information on the scre en and
The prin ts ont o a prin ter.
ope rati· ng syst em acts as an inte
rface betw een the use r and the
har dwa re) with out a com put er (.1.e.,
·
n ope rati ng syst em, the com pute .
r 1s dead.

~x am ple s of OS : MS -DO S
dev elop ed by Mic roso ft cor por
atio n, UN IX,
Wl ND OW S 95 etc .\
Som e oth er cxamplJs of system
softwares arc:
Tra nsla tor (As sem bler s, Com pile
rs, Inte rpre ters ), Lin k edit ors, Sys
AP PL ICA TIO N SO FT WA RE tem libr arie s etc.

r~p plic atio n soft war e, also kno

wn as app lica tion pac kag e, is
pro gra ms des ign ed to carr y out a set of one or mo re
ope rati ons for a spe cifi ed app lica
pre wri tten pro gram s are available tion . A large vari ety of
to solv e specific tasks. Use rs nee
for suc h task s. The y sho uld sim d not pre par e pro gra ms
ply kno w how to use suc h prew
pre wri tten pro gra ms for spe cifi ritte n pro gra ms. The se
c task s are call ed app lica tion sof
twa res .)
C Exa mp les: wor dsta r for text man
ipul atio n, Lot us 1-2- 3 for pre par
atio n of spre ads hee ts,
dBa se, Fox bas e, Ora cle etc. for
han dlin g data bas e, soft war es dev
elop ed for spe cifi c
purposes (Le., fo, hospital adminis
tmtion, insumnce, publishing etc
j
Types of OS: Single user OS: Sing
le task & multi tasking
Multi User Os:Time Sharing OS:Rea
l Time OS:Multiprocessing OS:
(B) Utility Software Compression
utility software
Backup utility softwareDisk De-frag
mentation Utility softwareAntivirus dete
sof\wareText Editor ction and protection

(C)Application Software
is a set of programs to carry out a. spec
ific task like word processor,spreadsheet
library management software, railw , presenta tion tools,
ay reservation,antivirus software, etc.
~or d Processor: Word Processor
i~ general pw:i'ose application softwar
~f text documents with extensive
formattmg.e.g. Wordstar, word,
e that facilitates the creation
etc$preadsheet Tools: Spreadsheet wordperfect, softword
T.ool is general purpose application soft
oYtabular fonns where some text war e that facilitates creation
and numerical values can be stored.
A spre adsheet tool not only
11 a one to create a document and add data into it but also allows crea
:n~wgsraphs based upon the numeric tion of different types of charts
al data stored in a worksheet.e.g. exce
l, calc,Lotus 1-2-3,iWorks
Numbers
 . ftware that facilitates the
/4resentation
·
Tools: Presentation Tool is general purpose aPp
. . .
licauon so
t e g Microso
f Internet e c. · ·
ft p p .
ower omt and
creation of presentations on any particular topic hke Uses 0
Impress (open office). .
. general purpose application
Dat ab ase Management System: Database Management Systemh 1screation, mamtenance, .
and the
software that facilitates creation of computer programs that control t e les of Database Management
use of database for anorganization and its end users.e.g. Popular examP
System are Base (Open Office) and Microsoft Access .
. .. rogram to develop software for any
Developer ~ool:"'hen a pro~er sta~s the process ofwntm~ a ~ools like code editor, debugger and
type of application, he/she requires a senes of software developmg dl d into a package is known as
compiler. A platform where all these software developing tools are bun e
Integrated Development Environment (IDE).
D b
e uggmg
• .
1s the process of
.
removmg a
u errors from ath t program.
•
An Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a platform or an a~pli~ation pro~ a constS ts of
all required software developing toolsrequired for developing an apphcation at one P ace.

Def: Information security commonly refers to as CIA (short form of Confidenti~lit~, Integrity and
Authentication), protects our computer from any unauthorized access and mamtams the system
resources.Components of Computer Security or Information Security:Confidentiality ensures protection
of the computer system from any unauthorized access.Integrity ensures that information stored in the
computer is protectedAuthentication ensures the authenticity of the authorized userNew Concepts or
components added:Access Control- Users access only those resources and services that they are entitled
to access.Nonrepudiation- Ensures that originators of messages cannot deny that they have sent the
messages.Availability- no loss of operational and functional system. Loss of availability-DOSPrivacy-
right to control the ifo. Collected about the individual.

Threats to computer Security:

A threat is a potential violation of security.When threat is actually executed it becomes attack.

a. Viruses: Worms, Trojans b. Spyware c. Adware d. Spamming

Threats to Computer SecuritySome common threats the average computer user f: d
b · · b l · .
emg given e ow:a. Viruses: Wonns, TroJansb. Spywarec. Adwared. SpamminacesPC every ay are
In · .
Denial of service, Sweeping, Password Guessingf. Phishing ge. truSion.

Malware is a general tenn used to refer to viruses wonns spyw d

unwanted software that someone else wants to run' ' are, a ware etc. In other words, it is
on your computer Malw . fi
making it behave in a way, which you do not approve of. · are m ects your computer,

l. Computer Viruses :- Computer viruses are malicious c des/

and files on a system. Viruses can attack any part of comp i° ,programs that cause damage to data
system areas, files and application-program-macros Two uther s ~uc.h as boot block, operating system,
0
effiects. These are:(a) Worms. A wonn is a self-replicating
· er similar. programs
also cause virus like
or memory. A wonn keeps on creating its copies until all J r o h which eats up the entire disk space
Horses. A Trojan horse is a program that appears hannl ~ is space or memory is filled.(b) Trojan
but actually perfonns malicious functions such as deletiness damasuch a~ a text editor or a utility pro!!ram)
g or gmg files. 0
J)AMAGE CAUSED BY VIRUSES
• Damage or delete files * SI
· ow down your computer.* Invade your program.
Common types of viruses
Some of the common t • ·
h dd. ypes mclude these:(a) Boot sector viruses: These infect the master boot recordd of
your ar nve and are loaded into memory each time your system starts.(b
) File viroses. Also ca11e
program orhparasitic viruses, these attack themselves to executable programs
and are loaded into ed b
111eml_ory_ w en such programs are run.(c) Macro viruses· These are written in
app icahons such as Mi macro languages us y
r . croso ft word and typically infect· systems by . Smee
.
macro ·
vlnlses use
app ~callous, they can be multi-platform infecting computers running differen
th t operating syStems but
sharmg e same applications.(d) Multip,artite viruses· These are viroses that
sector are a combination of boot
. and fil ·
i e viruses.(e) Polymorphic viruses: These· might be any· of the precedm · g types O f ·
b~t mclude the_ capability of mutating their own code to make them more difficul v1nises
t for signature-based
viruses protection software to detect and remove.
2· Spyw_are:-Spyware is a software which
is installed on your computer to spy on your activities and
~ort this ~ata to people willing to pay for it.DAMAGE CAUSED BY SPYWARESp
yware can ~ct
like_ a peepmg tom or, at worse, a geeky thief. For example, it:* Compromises
your data, computing
habits, and identity.* Alters PC settings.* Slow down your PC.

3. Adware:-These are the programs that deliver unwanted ads to your comput
er (generally in Pop--
Ups form). They consume your network bandwidth.DAMAGE CAUSE
D BY ADWAREAdware
comes with the following disadvantages:* Adware tracks information just
like spyware.* Displays
arrays of annoying advertising.* Slows down your PC.

4. Spamming:-Spamming refers to the sending of bulk-mail by an identified

or unidentified source. In
non-malicious form, buck-advertising mail is sent to many accounts. In malicio
us form (e.g., bombing),
the attacker keeps on sending buck mail until the mail-server runs out of disk
space.There are two more
terms related to SPAM. These are:(i) SPIM. It is SP AM sent via instant
messaging systems such as
Yahoo! Messseagenes, MSN Messenger and ICQ.(ii) It is SPAM over Interne
t Telephony. These are
unwanted, automatically-dialed, prerecorded phone calls over VoIP tools such
as skype etc.DAMAGE
CAUSED BY SPAMMING* Spam reduces productivity.* Spam eats up your
time.* Spam can lead to
worse things.

PC IntrusionEvery PC (personal computer) connected to the Internet is a

potential target tor hackers.
Computers are under constant attack from cyber vandals. PC Intrusio
n can occur in any of the
following form.(i) Sweeper attack. This is methods used by hackers. It sweeps
i.e., detects & deletes all
the data from the system.(ii) Denial of services. This type of attack eats up
all the resources of a system
and the system or applications come to a halt. Example of such an attack is
flooding a system with junk
mail.(iii) Password Guessing. Most hackers crack or guess passwords of system
accounts and gain entry
into remote computer systems. And then they use it for causing damages in
one or another form.
Phishing and Phanninglt is the criminally fr~udulen~ proces~ of attempt
ing to acquire sensitive
information such as usernames, passwords, credit card mformahon, accoun
t data etc. in phishing, an
imposter uses an authentic looking ~~ we~-si!~ ~o trick reci~ients _into giving
out sensitive personal
infonnation.Pharrning:- (pronounced fam:1mg ) 1s an attack_ 1s which a hacker
attempts to redirect a
•t 's traffic to another, bogus website. Through farming attack, the attacke
webs1 e
malicious and illegitimate website by red.rrect~g · th I · · · thers URL
e egitrrnate uRL. Even if
point you to a
is entered
correctly, it can still be redirecting to a fake website.
 · · II y access a computer
r
A'thcomputer enl11 · who uses his computer programming skills· to intenllona
. usiast,
w1 out authorization is known as hacking. The computer enthusiast involved in HACKING is known
y
~: a ?acker. A hacker accesses the computer without the intentio_n of de~troying d?la or malicio_usl
nrung the computer.Another tenn commonly used with hacking 1s cracking. Cracking can be defined
as a. method by which a person who gains unauthorized access to a computer with the intention of
causing damage.

Cookies:-A cookies, also known as a web cookie or a browser cookie, is a small piece of data sent from
a we~site and stored in a user's web browser (in a text file) while a user is browsing a website.Some
cookies disappear after user closes his browser while others, known as tracking cookies, remain save
and load the next time user visits the same websites.Security and Privacy concems:-(i) Session data.(ii)
Tracking lnfonnation.(iii) Public computers.

SOLUTIONS TO COMPUTER SECURITY THREATS

(a) Active Protection.(b) Preventive Measures.Solutions to Viruses, Adware and Spyware:-(a) Active
Protection• Use Anti-virus and Anti-Spyware software.• Download updates regularly.• Run frequent
full-system scans.(b) Preventive Measures• Keep your system up-to-date.• Use caution when
downloading files on the Internet.• Be careful with.• Disable cookies if possible through tools
-+Internet options-+ Privacy command .

Solutions to Spam:- (i) Active Protection * Use Anti-Spam software

(a) Sender filtering.(b) Keyword filtering

Digital Certificates, specially formatted digital information issued lo website, are used to verify the
identity of the message sender to the recipient by generating a digital signature that can be use lo sign
of
the message.• Digital Signatures are a way of authenticating the identity of creators or producers
digital information.

SOLUTION TO PC INTRUSION
Various techniques used for network security are given below:(i) Active Protection• Authorization• I

Authentication• Firewall:- A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private

network is called Firewall.(ii) Preventive Measures• Use proper File access permissions when sharing
files on the Intemet.(rwx,rw-,r--)+ Disconnect from the Internet when away.

Firewall - An important solution for Computer Security

An Internet firewall is a device or software that is designed lo protect your computer from
data and
viruses that you do not want.A firewall is so called because of the real firewalls used to secure
buildings. A physical firewall is a set of doors that closes in a building so as to contain a fire to one
off
area, preventing the entire building from destroyed .Likewise an Internet firewall is designed to shut
access to your operating system or to other computer s that are connected to your network.

Firewall can be implemented in two forms:

(a) Software Firewall(b) Hardware FirewallDef.:-A firewall forms a barrier through which the traffic
pass
going in each direction must pass. A firewall security policy dictates which traffic is authorized to
in each direction.

Software Concepts

• Operating system: User applications Operating system

 Hardware

Virtual machine interface Ph - 1 . .

ysica machine mterface
System Software

• System software is com puter so ftware designed to operate the computer hardware to provr·de basic
. 1-
funct 1ona 1ty and to pro ·d
V1 e a P1atfom1 for running application software.

• Refers to the operarmg system and all utility programs that manage computer resources at a Iow Ievel

System Software

· ·mpu tJoutput system) gets the computer system started after you tum ·rt on and
• The BIOS (b asrc
th
manages e data flow between the operating system and attached devices such as the hard disk, video
adapter, keyboard, mouse, and printer.

• The boot program loads the operating system into the computer's main memory or random access
memory (RAM).

• System software also includes system utilities, such as the disk defragmenter and System Restore.
System Software

Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) Program

Disk Defragmenter

Disk Cleanup

Disk Partition Tool

Programming Software

• Programming software include tools in the form of programs or applications that software developers
use to create, debug, maintain, or otherwise support other programs and applications.

• The tenn usually refers to relatively simple programs such as compilers, debuggers, interpreters,
linkers, and text editors,
DATA
(Data is a distinct piece of infonnation ~at is gather~ and tr'.1118lated for some purpose. If data is not
\fonnatted in a specific way it does not give valuable mfonnation to computers or humans. Data can be
available in various formats like, bits, bytes, numbers, text, or facts. The following are the different
kinds of data available in the computer. They are

• Sound
• Video
• Single character
• Number (integer or floating poinv
 • Picture

• Boolean (true or false)

• Text (string)
Dataeg;_

1. Ol 43 0157 0155 0160 0165 0164 0145 0162 0040 0150 01 57 0160
2. Joe,Smith, 1234 Circle,SLC,UT,8404,8015553211
3. 01100011011011110110110101110000011101010111
 UNIT IV

COMPUTER LANGUAGES
T0 wn·te a program (tells what to do) for a computer, we must use a computer language.

Over the years computer languages have evolved from machine languages to natural languages.
The following is the summary of computer languages
l 940's Machine Languages
l 950's Symbolic Languages
1960's High Level Languages
Machine Language

In the earliest days of computers, the only programming languages available were machine
languages. Each computer has its own machine language which is made of streams of O's and 1's.
The instructions in machine language must be in streams of O's and l's. This is alsoreferred as
binary digits. These are so named as the machine can directly understood the programs
Advantages:
1) High speed execution
2) The computer can understood instructions immediately
3) No translation is needed.
Disadvantages:
1) Machine dependent
2) Programming is very difficult
3) Difficult to understand
4) Difficult to write bug free programs
5) Difficult to isolate an error
Example Addi ton of two numbers
2 DO O 1 0
+ 3 □ 0011

5 □ 0 101

Symbolic Languages (or) Assembly Language

 officer, developed the
. ·an and nava1
In the early I950's Admiral Grace Hopper, a malbemat1ci . chine language. These
grams into ma
concept of a special computer program that would convert pro . symbols or mnemonics
. 1 nguages using
early programming languages simply mirrored the machine a symbolic languages.
es were known as
to represent the various language instructions. These languag slated into the machine
. e it must be traD
Because a computer does not understand symbolic Janguag . code into the machine
!ates symbo1JC
language. A special program called an Assembler trans
language. Hence they are called as Assembly language.
Advantages:
1) Easy to understand and use
2) Easy to modify and isolate error
3) High efficiency
4) More control on hardware
Disadvantages:
1) Machine Dependent Language
2) Requires translator
3) Difficult to learn and write programs
4) Slow development time
5) Less efficient
Example:
PUSH2,A
2
PUSH3,B
3
ADDA,B
+
pRJNTC
5
High-Level Languages

The symbo 1·tc Ianguages greatly improved prograrrumng

. effi1c1ency
• they still required

programmers to concentrate on the hardware that they were using working with symbolic languages
was also very tedious because each machine instruction had to be individually coded. The desire to
improve programmer efficiency and to change the focus from the computer to the problems being
solved led to the development of high-level languages.
High-level languages are portable to many different computer allowing the programmerto
concentrate on the application problem at hand rather than the intricacies of the computer.
C
A systems implementation Language

C++ C with object oriented

.. ..
~
enhancements

Advantages:

I) Easy to write and understand

2) Easy to isolate an error
3) Machine independent language
4) Easy to maintain
5) Better readability
6) Low Development cost
7) Easier to document
8) Portable
Disadvantages:
1) Needs translator
2) Requires high execution time
3) Poor control on hardware
4) Less efficient
 Example: C language
#include<stdio.h>

void main()

int a,b,c:
scanf("%d%d%",&a, &b);
c=atb;
printf("%d",c);

Level Languages
Difference between Machine, Assembly, High High Level
Machine Assembly
Feature
Mnemonic codes Normal English
0's and 1's
Form
Dependent Independent
Dependent
Machine
Not
Needed(Assembler) Needed(Compiler)
Dependent High
Needed Less
Translator

Executien Time
Less
Different Different Languages
ManufactgurersDifficult Easy
Hangtages Only one

Language Translators
one language into
These are the programs which are used for converting the programs in
machine language instructions, so that they can be excuted by the computer.

1) Compiler: a program which is used to convert the high level language

programs into machine languages
2) Assembler: It is aprogram which is used to convert the assembly level
language programs into machine language
3) Interpreter: It is a program, it takes one statement of a high level language
program, translates it into machine language instruction and then immediately
executes the resulting machine language instruction and so on.
Comparison between aCompiler and Interpreter
 COMPILER INTERPRETER

A interpreter is used to-translate each ine of

Compiler is used to compile an the program code immediately as it is entered
entireprogram and an executable
program is generated through the object
program

The executable program is

stored
in a disk forfuture use or
to run it in
The executable program is generated in RAM
another computer and the interpreter is required for each run of
The compiled programs run the program
faster Most of the Languages use The Interpreted programs run slower
compiler Avery few languages use interpreters.

CREATING AND RUNNING PROGRAMS

The procedure for turning a program written in C
into machine Language. The process is presented
in a straightforward, linear fashion but you
shuld recognize that these steps arerepeated many times
during development to correct errors and make
improvements to the code.
The following are the four steps in this
process
1) Writing and Editing the program
2) Compiling the program
3) Linking the program with the required modules
4) Executing the program
 TEXT EDITOR

COMPILER

Library LINKER

RUNNER

OUTPUT

SI. No. Phase Name of Code Tools File Extension

1 TextEditor Source Code CCompilers C

Edit,

NotepatEtt.., .0BJ
2 Compiler Object Code
Executable Tcompiler .EXE
3 Linker
Code
Runner C Compiler .EXE
Executable

Writing and Editing Programs

editor helpsus
The software used to write programs is known as a text editor. A text
editor we save itusing
enter, change and store character data. Once we write the program in the text
a filename stored with an extension of.C. This file is referred as source code file.
Compiling Programs
The code in a source file stored on the disk must be translated into machine language. This is
the job of the compiler. The Compiler is a computer program that translates the source code written
in a high-level language into the corresponding object code of the low-level language. This
Iranslation process is called compilation. The entire high level program is converted into the
executable machine code file. The Compiler which executes C programs is called as C Compiler.
Example Turbo C, Borland C, GC etc.
The C Compiler is actually two separate programs:
The Preprocessor
The Translator

The Preprocessor reads the source code and prepares it for the translator. While preparing the code,
it scans for special instructions known as preprocessor commands. These commands tell the
preprocessor to look for special code libraries. The result of preprocessing is called the translation
unit.

Afler the preprocessor has prepared the code for compilation, the translator does the actual
work of converting the program into machine language. The translator reads the translation unit and
writes the resulting object module to a file that can then be combined with other precompiled units
to form the final program. An object module is the code in the machine language.

Linking Programs
The Linker assembles all functions, the programs functions and system's functions into one
executable program.

Executing Programs
To execute a program we use an operating system command, such as run, to load the
program into primary memory and execute it. Getting the program into memory is the function of
an operating system program known as the loader. It locates the executable program and reads it
into memory. When everything is loaded the program takes control and it beginexecution.

ALGORITHM
(Algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions, cach of which has a clear meaning and can be
perfomed with a finite amount of effort in a finite length of time. No matter what the input
values may be, an algorithm terminates after executing a finite number of instructions.
 psent an algorithm usine a nseudo languaoe that is a combination of the conslructs of a
programming language together with informal English statements.
he ordered set of instructions required to solve a problem is known as an algorithm.
The characteristics of a good
algorithm are:
"Precision - the steps are precisely stated (defined).
"Uniqueness results of cach step are uniquely defincd and only depend on the input
and the result of the preceding steps.
"Finiteness - the algorithm stops after a finite number of instructions are executed.
" Input- the algorithm receives input.
"Output - the algorithm produces output.
"Generality - the algorithm applies to a set ofinputs.
Example
Q. Write a algorithem to find out number is odd or even?
Ans.

step 1: start
step 2 : input number
step 3: rem=number mod 2
step 4 : if rem-0 then
print "number even"
else
print "number odd"
endif
step 5: stop

FLOWCHÁRT
Flowchart is a diagrammatic representation of an algorithm. Flowchart is very helpful in writing
program and explaining program to others.
Symbols Used In Flowchart
Different symbols are used for different states in flowchart, For example: Input/Output and decision
making has different symbols. The table below describes all the symbols that are used inmaking
flowchart
 Symbol Purpos Description

Used to indicate the flow of logic by

Flow line connecting
svmbols.

Terminal(Stop/Start) Used to represent start and end of

Input/Outpu Used for input and output

Used for airthmetic operations and

Processing data

Desicion Used to represent the operation in which there

are

On-page Connector Used to join different flowline

Off-page Connector Used to connect flowchart portion on

different

Predefined Used to represent a group of

statements
Process/ Functio performing
Examples of flowcharts in programming
Draw a flowchart to add two numbers entered by user.
 Start

Declare variables num1, num2 and sum

Read num1 and

num2

sum-a+b

Display sum

Stop

Draw flowchart to find the largest among three different numbers entered by user.
Start

Declare variables a,b and c

Read a,b and c

False Truc
Is a>b?

True is b>c? False False Jru

is a>c?

Print c
Print b Print a

Stop

Advantages of Flowcharts
Process flowcharts have a variety of advantages that can bring tremendous value to your
operation. These advantages include the following:
Communication - Process flowcharts are commonly utilized by industrial engineers and
individuals involved with process improvement. This tool allows you to communicate
processes and potential problems on the floor in a way that management can understand, thus
pushing them to potentially change up the process or implement new cquipment.
Communication is key when it comes to process flow charts. because it can turn a
complicated procedure into a simplistic visual that allows management to understand the
overall scope of the process and issues associated with it.
Analysis With the help of flowcharts, issues on the floor are able to be analyzed in a mucn
more eflective manner that showcases potential areas of cost reduction and time
allocation.
This is benelicial in the scnse that you can take a look at steps that may be able to be
combined or rearranged, leading to reduced waste and more output per hour. Process
lowcharts are an advantageous method in bcing able to analyze the process and ultimately
looking for areas of improvement.
Adequate Documentation Flowcharts are an advantageous method of document
on the floor that everyone is able to understand and ultimately can be utilized inprocesses
various
departments. As everyone is able to understand these flowcharts, there is more of an incentive
to clean processes up through process step elimination and efficiency enhancement. Being
able to document the process, explain why the process is the way that it is, and have it on
hand is a substantial advantage to your facility.
The advantageous pertaining to flowcharts seem to be endless. Unfortunately, with every pro
there is a con, in which there are disadvantages associated with flowcharts.
Disadvantages of Flowcharts
A few of the disadvantages pertaining to flowcharts include the following:
Alterations - Alterations can become a hassle when using flowcharts. This is due to the fact
that when there are alterations to the process or whenever a process needs to be changed, you
will more than likely have to redraw the entire flowchart, which results in wasted time and
money. By far, this is the most substantial drawback pertaining to process flowcharts.
Logic Complexity - When a process is relatively complex, this can make a process
flowchart look messy and clumsy. This will make it difficult for management to understand
and could be a waste of time as you attempt to pinpoint arcas of waste within a certain
process or area. This is why it is important to take a look at the process and see if there are
any steps that can be included together or simplified.
Reproduction of a Flowchart - The last major drawback pertaining to flowcharts is that
flowchart symbols cannot be typed. You will have to use Word, Excel, or some other
software that allows you to create shapes and plug words into them. This makes recreating
flowcharts rather difficult, considering that they require shapes.
Process flow charts are an incredibly advantageous tool to utilize within manufacturing
facilities, warehouses, or any other area of supply chain. A software that can aid with
adequate scheduling and process enhancement is PlanetTogether's Advanced Planning and
Scheduling (APS) Software. Advanced Planning and Scheduling (APS) Software is a must
for manufacturing facilities that are seeking to take their production to the next level, reduce
costs, and ultimately incrcase profitability within the operation
 Characteristics of an Algorithm
Unambiguous - Algorithm should be clear and unambiguous.
Input - An algorithm should have Oor more well-defined inpuls.
Output - An algorithm should bave Ior more well-defined outputs, and should match the
desired output.
Characteristics of an Algorithm

Well-Defined Woll-Doflned
Inputs Outputs

Clear and Characteristics of Finlto-noss

Unambiguous an Algorithm

Languago Foasiblo
Independont

An algorithm is an effective step-by-step procedure for solving a problem in a finite number

of steps. In other words, it is a finite set of well-defined instructions or step-by-step
description of the procedure written in human readable language for solving a given problem.
An algorithm itself is division of a problem into small steps which are ordered in sequence

and easily understandable. Algorithms are very important to the way computers process
information, because a computer program is basically an algorithm that tells computer what
specific tasks to perform in what specific order to accomplish a specific task. The same
problem can be solved with different methods. So, for solving the same problem, different
algorithms can be designed. In these algorithms, number of steps, time and efforts may vary
more or less.
 Characleristics of an Algorithm

An algorithm must possess

ollowing characteristics :
1. Finiteness: An algorithm should have finite number of steps and it should end after a
finite time.
2. Input: An algorithm may have many inputs or no
3. Output: It should result at least one output. inputs at al.
4. Definiteness: Each step must be clear. well-defined and precise. There should be no
any ambiguity.
S. Effectiveness: Each step must be simple and should take a finite amount of
tme.

Guidelines for Developing an Algorithm

Following guidelines must be followed while

developing an algorithm :
1. An algorithm will be enclosed by
2. To accept data from user, generallySTART (or BEGIN) and STOP (or END).
used statements are INPUT, READ,
OBTAIN. GET or
3. To display result or any message,
WRITE. generally used statements are PRINT, DISPLAY, or
4. Generally,COMPUTE or CALCULATE is used while describing
expressions and based on situation relevant operators can be used. mathematical

Example of an Algorithm

Algorithm: Calculation of Simple Interest

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read principle (P), time (T) and rate (R)
Step 3: Calculate I = p*T*R/I00
Step 4: Print I as Interest
Step 5: Stop
 Advantages of an Algorithm

Designing an algorithm has following advantages :

1. Eftective Communication: Since algorithm is written in English like language, it is
simple to understand step-by-step solution of the problems.
Z. Easy Debugging: Well-designed algorithm makes debugging casy so that wc can
identify logical error in the program.
3. Easy ann Efficient Coding: An algorithm acts as a blueprint of a program and helps
during program development.
4. Independent of Programming Language: An algorithm is independentof
programming languages and can be easily coded using any high level language.

Disadvantages of an Algorithm

An algorithm has following disadvantages :

and difficult
1. Developing algorithm for complex problems would be time consuming
to understand.
2. Understanding complex logic through algorithms can be very difficult.
 UNIT V
DATABASE

This is a collection of inter-related data which is used to insert. delete, or retrieve the data
cflicicntly. This can be used to organize the data in the form of a table, schema, views,
reports etc.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)

A software which manages the database is called it as DBMS. This provides an
interface to
perform various operations like database creation. storing data int it, updating the data,
creating a table database etc. This provides protection and security to the database. Data
consistency 1s also supported when multiple users are present. Popular DBMS softwares
available are
MySQL
Microsoft Access
Oracle

PostgreSQL
dBase
Foxpro
SQLite
IBM DB2

Libreo ffice base

MariaDB

Microsoft SQL server

DBMS OPERATIONS
The following are the list of tasks that the users can able to
perfom using DBMS. They are
Data definition
This supports the user to create, modify, and removal of definition which
data organization in the database defines the
Data updation
This allows the user to perform insert, modify, and delete the actual
database data in the
Data retrieval
This allows the user to retrieve data from the database which can be
used by
applications or various purposes.
User administration
 monitoring the users, maintain data integrity
Inis is used for registering and concurrency control, monitorinp
enlorcing the data sccunty. dealing with unexpected failure.
performance, and recovering information corrupted by
DBMS CHARACTERISTICS
uhe
established on a server to storc and manage
I is uses a d1gital reDositorv
information
process that man1pulates data
Ihis can provide a clear and logical view of the
This contains automatic backup and recovery proceduresS
a healthy state in case of
This contains ACID properties which maintain data in
failure
This can reduce the complex relationship between data
This is used to support manipulation and processing of data
This is used to provide security of data
according to the user
This can allow to view the database from different viewpoints
requirement
DBMS ADVANTAGES

Controls database redundancy

Datasharing
Easy maintenance due to centralized nature
Reduce development time and maintenance
Support backup
Support multi user interface
DBMS DISADVANTAGES

Requires high speed data processor and large memory

Requires more space of disks and large memory to run efiiciently
Creates additional complexity and requirements
to electric failure or in
Produces higher impact of failure if database is damaged due
case of database corruption
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DBMS VS FILE SYSTEM

DBMS
FILE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
This supports multi-user access
This does not support multi-user access
Designcd to fulfill the need for small and This is only limited to smaller DBMS system
large businesses

This removes redundancy and integrity This has redundancy and integrity issues
This is expensive but in long term, total cost
of ownership is cheap This is cheap compared to DBMS

Complicated transactions can be easily doneComplicated transactions are not

here
here
supported

ALGORITHM
httpalgorithm
An s:/ www.geeksforgeeks.
refers org/rules/
to a set of
introductinstructions
ion-to-algthatorithdefine
ms/ step
by step of how a work is to
be executed upon in order to get the expected results. The
independent which helps to do a task in programming to getalgorithm
the
designed are language
expected output.
ALGORITHM CHARACTERISITICS
Well defined inputs
Well defined outputs
Clear and unambiguous
Language independent
Feasible
Finiteness
ALGORITHM ADVANTAGES
It is easy to understand
It is a step wise representation of a solution to the given problem
The problem is broken down into smaller pieces hence it is casier for
convert it into an actual program programmer to
ALGORITHM DISADVANTAGES

Writing an algorithm takes a long time so it is time consuming

Branching and looping statements are difficult to show in algorithms
DESIGN OF AN ALGORITHM
lowrite an algorithm the following things arc necded. They are
Problem that is to be solved by this algorithm
Constraints of the problem must be considered wh1le solving the problem
Input to be taken for solving the problem
Expected output of the problem is considered
Solution to the problem based on given constraints
ALGORITHM EXAMPLE
Algorithm to add3 numbers and print their sum
1. START
2. Declare 3 integer variables numl, num2 and num3.
3. Take the three numbers, to be added, as inputs in variables numl, num2, and
num3 respectively.
4. Declare an integer variable sum to store the resultant sum of the 3 numbers.
5. Add the 3 numbers and store the result in the variable sum.
6. Print the value of variable sum
7. END
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FLOWCHART

This is a graphical representation of steps. This is a tool for representing algorithms and
programming logic and for other kinds of processes. This plays an important role in
displaying information and assisting reasoning. This help us visualize complex processes, or
make explicit the structure of problems and tasks.
FLOWCHART SYMBOLS

represents starting or ending point of the

system
Terminator

indicates some operation

Process
represents printout or report

Document
 branching point. Different possible s1tuations
leading to different sub processes

Decision

Represents information entering or leaving

the system
Data

Indicates that the flow continues a matching

symbol containing the same letter
somewhere else on the same page
on page reference
Indicates that the flow continues a matching
symbol containing the same letter
somewhere else on a different page
off page reference
Identifies delay or a bottleneck

Delay or bottleneck
flow Represent the flow of sequence and direction
of a process

FLOWCHART BENEFITS
This helps to clarify complex processes
This identifies steps that do not add value to the internal or external customer,
including delays, necdless storage and transportation, unnecessary work, duplication,
and added expense
This helps team members gain a shared understanding of the process and use this
knowledge to collect data, identify problems, focus d1scussions, and identify
resources

This serves as a basis for designing new processes.

FLOWCHART EXAMPLE
 E l n tho surm of 522 u c 256
aart star

529

s-254

Sunn - 7 6 5

End End

PROGRAMMING
https://hackr. joblog/what-is-programming
programming is a way to "instruct the computer to perform various tasks". "nstruct the
computer means youprovide the computer a set of instructions that are written in alanguage
that the computer can understand, Computers understand instructions that are written in a
specific syntactical form called programming language.
"Perform various tasks" means computer can perform tasks which could be simple or
complex ones which may involve a sequence of multiple instructions.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
A programming language provides a way for a programmer to express a task so that it could
be understood and executed by acomputer. Popular programming languages are Python, C,
C++, Java etc.

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC) /PROCESS MODEL

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https://www.javatpoint.com/software-engineering-softwar-development-life-cycle

representation of the software

A software life cycle model is a pictorial and diagrammatic product from its
a software
life cycle. This model maps the various activities performed on industry to design, develop
inception to retirement. SDLC process is used by the software
and test high quality software. This aims to produce a
high-quality software that meets or
times and cost estimates. This is
exceeds customer expectations, reaches completion within process.
a framework defining tasks performed at cach step in the software development
SDLC STAGES
 Planning

Deployment Defining

SDLC
Testing
Designing

Building

Maintenance

Deployment

SDLC
RAneaqluysiriemnt
6uns (Software Development
life Cycle)
Designing

Coding

A typical software development life

cycle consists of the following stages
Planning and requirement analysis
Requirement analysis is the most important and fundamental stage in SDLC. This is
performed by the senior members of the team with inputs from the
customer, sales
department, market surveys and domain experts. This information is used
basic project approach and to conduct product to plan the
operational, and technical areas. feasibility study in the economical,
Planning stage performs the planning for quality assurance
identification associated with the project requirements and risk
Defining requirements
After finishing requirement analysis, the next step is to
the product requirements and get them approved from clearly define and document
customer or
SRS (Software requirement specification) document consists of market analysts.
all the product
requirements to be designed and developed during the project life cycle.
 Designing the product architecture
along withits
1us design clearly defines all thearchitectural modules of the productand thira-parly
the external
communication and data flow renresentation with
specificd in SRS , usually more than one design
nodules. Based on the requirements proposed and documented in a DDS(Design
approach for the product architecture is
document specification)
Building or developing the product
The programming Code is
Here the actual development starts and theproduct is built.performed in a detailed and
design is
generated as per DDS during this stage. If the accomplished without much effort.
Organized manner code generation can be defined by their organization and
Developers must follow the coding guidelines
programming tools are used to generate code.

Testing the product

the product where product defects are
This stage refers to the testing only stage of reaches the quality standards
reported, tracked, fixed, and retested, until the product
defined in the SRS.
Deployment in the market and maintenance
be deployed it is released formally in the
Once the product is tested and ready to deployment happens in stages as per the
appropriate market. Sometimes product product may first be released in a limited
business strategy of that organization. The (UAT- User acceptance testing).
segment and tested in the real business environmentreleased as it is or with suggested
Then based on the feedback, the product may beAfter the product is released in the
enhancements in the targeting market segment.
market, its maintenance is done for the existing customer base.
SDLC MODELS
models followed in the industry -
Following are the most important and popular SDLC
Waterfall Model
Iterative Model
Spiral Model
V-Model
Big Bang Model
Agile Model
RAD Model
Prototyping Model
 SDLC (Models)

Watertall Model
RAD Model

Spiral Model

V.Model
Incremental Model
Agle Modet
lterative Model
Bigbang Model

WATERFALL MODEL ILINERAR SEOUENTIAL LIFE CYCLE

The Waterfall model is the earliest SDLC approach that was used for MODEL
This model ilustrates the software software development.
development
means that any phase in the development process process in a linear sequential flow. This
complete. In this waterfall model, the phases do not begins only if the previous phase is
typically, the outcome of one phase acts as the input foroverlap. In the Waterfall model,
the next phase sequentially. The
following illustration is a representation of the different phases of the Waterfall Model.

Requrement
Analysis
Waterdall Model
System
Design

Implementatlon

Testins
Deployment

Maintenarnce

The sequential phases in Waterfall model are -

Requirenment Gathering and analysis - All
be developed are captured in this phase possible requirements of the system to
and documented in a requirement
specification document.
System Design - The requirenment specifications from first phase are studied in this
phase and the system design is prepared. This system design helps in
hardware and system requirements and helps in defining the overallspecifyingsystem
architecture.
 nplementation - With inputs from the system design, the system is first developed
Each unit is
Sal programs called units. wbich are iniegrated in the next phase.
developed and tested for its functionality, wbich is referred to as Unit Testing
Integration and Testing -Althe units developed in the implementation phase arc
ntegrated into a system after testing of each unit. Post integration the enture syStem
is tested for any faults and failures.
Deployment of system - Once the functional and non-functional testing is done; the
product is deployed in the customer environnment or released into the market.
Maintenance -There are some issues which come up in the client environment. T'o
product some better
x those issues, patches are released. Also, to enhance the
versions are released. Maintenance is done to deliver these changes in the customer
environment.
steadily
All these phases are cascaded to each other in which progress is seen as flowing
only after the
downwards (like a waterfall) through the phases. The next pbase is started
so the name
delined set of goals are achieved for previous phase and it is signed off,
"Waterfall Model". In this model, phases do not overlap.

WATERFALL M0DEL APPLCIATIONS

Waterfall model is most appropriate for

Requirements are very well documented, clear and fixed.
Product definition is stable.
Technology is understood and is not dynamic.
There are no ambiguous requirements.
to support the product.
Ample resources with required expertise are available
The project is short.
WATERFALL MODEL ADVANTAGES

Simple and casy to understand and use

Each phase has specific deliverables
Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model.
and a review process.
Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
well understood.
Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very
Clearly defined stages.
Well understood milestones.
Easy to arrange tasks.
Process and results are well documented.
WATERFALL M0DEL DISADVANTAGES
" No working software is produced until late during the life
High amounts of risk and cycle.
uncertainty.
Not a good model for complex and
Poor model for long and object-oriented projects.
ongoing projects.
Not suitable for the projects where
changing. So, risk and uncertainty is requirements are at a moderate to high risk ot
high with this process model.
It isdificult to measure progress with1n
stages.
Cannot accommodate changing
requirements.
Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a
project.
Integration is done as a "big-bang, at the very end, which doesn't
any technological or business allow identifying
bottleneck or challenges early.

https:/ www.simplilearn.com/top-technology-trends-and-jobs-article
RECENT TRENDS AND
TECHNOLOGIES
Technology today is
causing an accelerationevolving at such a rapid pace,
of the rate of change, until enabling faster change and progress,
An IT professional will eventually, it will become
constantly be learning, unlearning, and relearning. exponential.
Here is the list of the top 9 new and
trending technologies:
1. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine
Learning
2. Robotic Process Automation (RPA)
3. Edge Computing
4. Quantum Computing
5. Virtual Reality and
Augmented Reality
6. Blockchain
7. Intermet of Things (IoT)
8. 5G

9. Cyber Security
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning
Aruicial Intelligence, or Al. has already received a lot of buzz in the past decade, but it
continues to be one of the new technology trends because its notable effects on how we Iive,
and play are only in the early stages. AI is already known for its superiority in image
and specch recognition, navjgation anns. smartohone personal assistants, ride-sharing apps
and so much more.

Other than that AI will be used further to analyze interactions to determine undernyng
connections and insights, to help predict demand for services like hospitals enabling
authorities to make better decisions about resource utilization, and to detect he cnanging
pattems of customer behavior by analyzing data in near real-time, driving revenues and
ennancing personalized experiences., Machine Learning the subset of Al, is also being
epioyead in all kinds of industries, creating a huge demand for skilled professionals.jobs
specialists, and content
neluaing robot monitoring professionals, data scientists, automation
curators,

Mastering AI and machine learning will help your secure jobs like:

AIResearch Scientist
AI Engineer
Machine Learning Engineer
AI Architect

ROBOTIC PROCESS AUTOMATION (RPA)

intepreting applications,
RPA is the use of software to automate business processes such as emails. RPA automates
even replying to
processing transactions, dealing with data, and
repetitive tasks that people used to do.
Mastering RPA willhelp you secure high paying jobs like:

RPA Developer
RPA Analyst
RPA Architect

VIRTUAL REALITY AND AUGMENTED REALITY

(VR) and Augmented Reality (AR),

The next exceptional technology trend - Virtual Reality an environment while AR enhances
and Extended Reality (ER). VR immerses the user in
for gaming thus
their environment. Alhough this technology trend has primarily been used
simnulation software used to train
far, it has also been used for training, as with Virtual Ship, a
U.S. Navy, Amy and Coast Guard ship captains.

BLOCKCHAIN
Blockchain can be described as data you can
Hence the term "chain" because you're making only add to, not take away from or change.
a chain of data. Not being able to
previous blocks is what makes it so secure. In addition, change the
no one entity can take control of the data. blockchains are consensus-driven, sO
party to oversee or validate transactions. ToWith blockchain, you don't need a trusted third
get into Blockchain, you need to have
Cxperience of programming languages, the fundamentals of hands-on
databases, data structures, web app development, and OOPS, flat and relational
networking.
Mastering blockchain can help you scale up in a variety of
fields and
industries:
Risk Analyst
Tech Architect
Crypto Community Manager
Front End Engineer
INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)
The Intenet of Things is the future, and has
and much more to be connected to and already enabled devices, home appliances, cars
exchange
already using and benefitting from loT. We can lockdata over the Internet. As
consumers, we're
we leave for work and preheat our our doors remotely if we forget to when
fitness on our Fitbits. However, ovens on our way home from work, all while tracking our
can enable better safety, businesses also have much to gain now and soon. The IoT
efficiency,
and analyzed. It can enable predictiveand decision-making for businesses as data is collected
maintenance, speed up medical care, improve customer
service, and offer benefits we haven't even
imagined yet.
5G

The next technology trend that follows the

enabled us to browse the internet, use data IoT is 5G. Where 3G and 4G
streaming on Spotify or YouTube and so much driven services, increasedtechnologies have
bandwidths for
revolutionize our lives. by enabling services that rely onmore, 5G services are expected to
VR, alongside cloud based gaming advanced technologies like AR and
much more. It is expected to be usedservices
in
like Google Stadia, NVidia GeForce Now and
traffic management, smart grid control factories; HD cameras that help improve
safety and
Verizon, Tmobile, Apple, Nokia Corp,and smart retailaretoo. Every telecom company like
QualComm, now working on creating 5G
applications. 5G services are expected to launch worldwide in 2021.