PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH

A paragraph is a portion of the essay that discusses one idea in detail and supports the thesis or main idea of
the essay. Each paragraph in the body of the paper should include a topic sentence, supporting details to
support the topic sentence, and a concluding sentence. The paragraph's purpose and scope will determine its
length, but paragraphs must contain at least two complete sentences. For more information on this topic, see
the Basic Paragraph Format handout.
TOPIC SENTENCE
The main idea of each paragraph is stated in a topic sentence that shows how the idea relates to the thesis.
Generally, the topic sentence is placed at the beginning of a paragraph, but the location and placement may
vary with individual organization and audience expectation. Topic sentences often serve as transitions
between paragraphs.
SUPPORTING DETAILS
Supporting details elaborate upon and prove the topic sentences and thesis. Supporting details should be
drawn from a variety of sources including books, interviews, experiences, etc. plus the author's analysis.
CONCLUDING SENTENCE
Each paragraph should end with a final statement that brings together the ideas brought up in the paragraph
and emphasizes the main idea one last time.

Maintaining a healthy lifestyle requires eating a

nutritious diet and getting regular exercise. A nutritious diet includes
eating a variety of foods from each of the four food groups: meat, dairy,
fruits and vegetables, and grains. Regular exercise is also an essential
part of keeping a healthy lifestyle. Most experts recommend exercising
at least thirty minutes a day, six days a week. These two aspects, eating
a healthy diet and exercising on a regular basis, will maintain a healthy
lifestyle.

EXAMPLE PARAGRAPH
Topic Sentence
Supporting Detail #2
Supporting Detail #1

Supporting Detail #3
Concluding Sentence

UNITY AND COHERENCE

 Basic Essay Format
Proper essay and paragraph format helps to achieve unity and coherence and enhance the reader's
understanding. Using well-worded topic sentences and concluding sentences will help maintain unity and
coherence throughout the essay.
Unity is the continuity of a single idea (the thesis) throughout the essay. Each detail and example
should develop logically and refer back to the original focus.
< Coherence means that each point should be linked to the previous and following points to help the
essay flow and progress logically and clearly. An easy way to link paragraphs together is through
transitions in each paragraph's topic sentence.
A basic essay consists of three main parts: introduction, body, and conclusion. This basic essay format will
help you to write and organize an essay. However, flexibility is important. While keeping this basic essay
format in mind, let the topic and specific assignment guide the writing and organization.
PARTS OF AN ESSAY
INTRODUCTION
The introduction guides your reader into the paper by grabbing attention and
introducing the topic. It should begin with a hook that catches the reader's
interest. This could be a quote, an analogy, a question, etc. After getting the
reader's attention, the introduction should give some
background information Thesis Statement on the Main Idea Main Idea
topic. The ideas within the introduction should begin as
very general and gradually get more specific until it ends with the thesis statement. (See the
Introductions handout for further information.)
THESIS STATEMENT
The thesis statement states concisely the main idea of the essay, sets limits on the
topic, and indicates the organization of the essay. The thesis works as a road map Main Idea
for the entire essay, showing the readers what you have to say and how you will
support your ideas.
BODY
The body of the essay supports the main points of the thesis. Each point is
developed by one or more paragraphs and supported with specific details.
These details include support from books, articles, websites, personal experiences, etc. In addition to this
research or support, the author's own analysis and discussion of the topic is important. This is what ties
ideas together and draws conclusions that support the thesis. The body paragraphs should be organized
according to the order of ideas set forth in the thesis statement. Refer to "Parts of a Paragraph" below for
further information on writing effective body paragraphs.
TRANSITIONS
Transitions help paragraphs connect to each other and to the thesis. They are used both within and between
paragraphs to help the paper flow from one topic to the next. These transitions can be one or two words
(First, Next, In addition, etc.) or one or two sentences that bring the reader to the next main point. The topic
sentence of a paragraph often serves as a transition. (See the Transitions handout for further information.)
CONCLUSION
The conclusion brings together all the main points of the essay. It refers back to and restates the thesis
statement. The conclusion leaves readers with a final thought and sense of closure by resolving any ideas
brought up in the essay. In the conclusion, new topics or ideas that were not developed in the paper should
not be introduced. (See the Conclusions handout for further information.)
CITATIONS
If your paper incorporates research, be sure to give credit to each source. In-text citations and a Works
Cited/ References/ Bibliography page will help ensure that you do not plagiarize. Refer to the MLA Format,
APA Format, or Turabian Format handout for help with this.
THE DOCUMENTED ESSAY
General Guidelines

A research paper or documented essay is a piece of writing in which you incorporate

information—facts, arguments, opinions—taken from the writings of authorities in a particular
field. Sometimes a research paper is no more than a report of current thinking in a field, but more
often a research paper demonstrates a thesis of your own, relying on outside (secondary) sources
for development and support of the thesis.
In other words, you should not think of a research paper as merely a series of quotations from
several sources on a subject, or just a summary, in your words, of those sources—although you
will probably include both quotation and summary in your paper. Rather, the research paper is
your synthesis of information on a topic: the bringing together of information from various
sources to establish a new perspective and to create a new understanding of that material. It is
your contribution to the field you are studying; you have educated yourself on the topic and have
come to an original conclusion about it, original in the sense you have thought of it yourself from
the research you have done.

Writing a research paper involves moving through several stages and performing a number of
tasks. Although it is not a strictly orderly process (you will be involved in several activities
simultaneously), there is a sequence to follow with starting, developing, and finishing strategies.

Characteristically, the process entails narrowing a large, general subject to arrive at a carefully
focused thesis and collecting and incorporating evidence/information that explains, clarifies,
illustrates, argues, and otherwise supports your thesis. Because both research and writing involve
going back over things as much as going ahead, you will need to give yourself plenty of time for
exploring different directions (including some that you may abandon), for seeking more
information and discovering connections and relationships within it, for clarifying your
understanding of your topic in order to create a working thesis, for refining the thesis, and for
writing and revising the final paper.

GETTING STARTED

The first step in writing a research paper is to ask a meaningful question about a subject. A
meaningful question is one which deals with an important aspect of a subject and which can be
answered, at least tentatively, with available information. If your professor assigns a topic or a
question for you to write on, s/he has done some of your work for you. A professor's question is
based on knowledge of the important issues in her/his field. But if you are given only a broad
subject or if you have to choose your own subject, you must do some preliminary research to
find out what kinds of problems or issues are dealt with by people involved in the field. For this
preliminary investigation, you may consult encyclopedias, textbooks, or other general reference
works which offer summaries of general knowledge in the field. A look at indexes or periodicals
in the field will give you a sense of the topics that experts are writing about.

TECHNIQUES FOR GENERATING IDEAS

Brainstorming
• on paper
• into a recording device
• with a classmate
• with your instructor
• using lists or diagrams
• questioning through who, what, where, when, why, how?

Asking yourself questions

• What have I learned about the subject from class or from my notes?
• What have I learned from the text(s) in the course?
• What do I know about the subject from my own experience?
• What am I interested in finding out about the subject?
• Where can I find more background information on the subject that will stimulate
further thought or more questions?

As you do your preliminary reading, make notes on other questions that occur to you, on areas
that particularly interest you, on problems that suggest themselves. You must read actively,
probing the material for a perspective to which you can commit yourself. It is impossible to
predict how long this first step will take, but do not expect the process to yield immediate results.
Give yourself time to consider your preliminary reading and to play with the possibilities.

Consider the overall strategy for your paper:

Should it
• review sources? (arrangement by ideas—not authors)
• analyze and synthesize sources? (arrangement by arguments—not authors) •
persuade the reader? (argue for a thesis of your own)
• inform the reader?
• do a combination of the above?

When you have narrowed your subject to a manageable topic, you can begin to focus your
research on materials that refer to your particular interest. (How large a topic you can handle
depends, to a large extent, on the length of the assigned paper and the amount of time you have.)
As you continue to focus your research on a limited area, you may formulate a preliminary,
tentative thesis—a main idea or proposition which your paper will discuss.

Having a preliminary thesis will help make you an active reader. As you examine sources, look
for quotes, illustrations, statistics, etc. that support your stated position. Be aware that your thesis
will evolve as you continue your research. Do not feel obligated to stay with a thesis that does
not accommodate your changing understanding of a topic.

LOCATING SOURCES

Writing an effective documented essay often depends on your ability to utilize the resources
available in the Hunter College library or a borough or local branch of the public library. You
must go beyond Google and Wikipedia searches. Finding and examining appropriate research
materials as quickly as possible will result in more effective research. If you have not used a
library for research before, begin by consulting librarians. They can let you know what kinds of
materials are available and help you use indexes, guides, and computer data bases to locate
sources of information. Second, use your sources efficiently. When you find a book you think
may be useful, scan the table of contents and the index and read the introduction to determine
whether or not the book has information you need. Check the author's bibliography to see what
sources s/he has consulted. When you identify a useful book or periodical, look for more work
by that author or check additional issues of the same magazine for related articles. Third, use
your professor as a resource. S/he should be able to guide you to promising material by helping
you to evaluate your sources and directing you to the important writers and works in a field.

ORGANIZING THE RESEARCH AND THE ESSAY

As you read, keep accurate notes. You may take notes in a notebook, but many writers find that
research is easier to organize and manipulate if it is on index cards. For each source you use,
make a bibliography card with all the information you will need for bibliography and footnote
citations: the author's or authors’ name(s), the title, the publisher, the city of publication, the date
of publication, and the medium. Then, on separate note cards, copy the quotation, fact, statistic,
or idea that you want to use from the source, one item to a card. Keep track of the source for
each card by noting the author's last name or a shortened version of the title on the card. Digital
note-taking options are available, but it is important to use a system that works efficiently for
you, no matter what the medium.

Since you want to avoid making your paper a string of quotations, and you want to incorporate
your research into the text of your paper effectively, try to paraphrase on your note cards
instead of transcribing long blocks of quotations. A paraphrase is not a sentence from the source
in which you have changed two or three words and then used the rest of the author's sentence. A
paraphrase is a brief account of the author's meaning in your own words. Typically, you will
paraphrase a passage of several paragraphs or pages (or even longer sections) in a few sentences.
The effort of paraphrasing is worth it because the process of paraphrasing will sharpen your
understanding of a source as you draw out the main ideas.

It is wise to stop every so often, perhaps after reading each source, to reconsider your thesis.
Should it be refined, qualified, expanded, abandoned? When you begin to write the paper, your
judgment may change, of course. The very act of trying to write the paper, to shape the material,
will prompt you to see your topic in new ways, clarifying what was hazy, perhaps even leading
you to revise your thesis.

Your thesis is the key to organizing your paper. It defines your purpose in the paper and so
suggests a shape which will convey that purpose to a reader. Different writers progress to a final
thesis in different ways. Some write a rough draft immediately, without worrying much about
defining a precise thesis. These writers clarify their intentions as they write, arriving at a thesis
by struggling with their material until a purpose and shape begin to emerge. Typically, this
approach involves rewriting repeatedly, perfecting the shape of the paper through a series of
drafts. Other writers first formulate a thesis and then outline a tentative structure before writing
their first draft. In this case too, rewriting will be necessary because ideas will emerge during the
composing process that may not fit into a predetermined outline structure. But the work of
perfecting an outline may accomplish the work of several drafts.

It is useful to review the notes from your reading and list important details from these notes
(those that recur or support your hypothesis, for example) as a first step to setting up categories
for an outline. Moving from notes to an outline involves connecting the information from
different note cards according to categories of important ideas. As with your tentative thesis,
your outline may move through more than one stage. You may see gaps that need to be filled,
information that needs to be added or deleted, or material that needs to be rearranged to produce
a logical sequence of ideas.

It may become clear to you that you need more information about some aspect of your topic, and
at this point you may return to the library for further research. You may even do this more than
once as you go through several drafts. When you have enough information to adequately support
your thesis or fulfill the paper's purpose while satisfying the required length of the assignment,
you may consider your research complete. The final outline will serve as a bridge between the
information you have gathered and the presentation of that information in the documented
essay/research paper.

WRITING AND REVISING

Preparation of a first draft involves understanding the nature and function of the three basic
sections of an essay: the introduction, which places the research question within a context and
presents the thesis; the main body paragraphs, each of which develops a separate but related
aspect of the topic; and the conclusion, which usually reviews the thesis and major supporting
points and may also suggest questions for further study. Include quotes and paraphrased material
where appropriate. In general, keep quotes as short as possible, so they serve your purpose and
do not dominate the essay.

Arriving at the final draft through a series of revisions involves shifting from the point of view of
a writer to that of a reader. As you write and revise, consider your audience. Would an intelligent
reader understand your argument and why you made it? Would your argument be likely to
persuade an independent thinker? To "see again" with the distance of a reader leads the writer to
analyze what s/he has written for clarity, organization, and unity. As in writing any essay, you
should not expect your paper to come out finished in one draft. Allow yourself time for
rewriting.

Reread each draft as you would any essay, checking for the following:

• Unity: Does everything in the paper relate to the thesis?

• Coherence: Do paragraphs and sections follow one another in a logical order?
• Development: Are your points fully explained?
• Style: Are ideas expressed clearly?
• Mechanics: Is the paper in correct, edited English?

CITING AND DOCUMENTING

Citations (parenthetical citation, footnotes, or endnotes) are not so mysterious as they sometimes
seem. They are included in a research paper in order to give credit to an author for information or
ideas taken from her/his work. Documentation also includes complete publication information so
that a reader can locate and review the source material to determine if you have used information
fairly and accurately or to find out more about the subject.

A citation—either parentheses including the last name of the author, a page number, and
sometimes the year or a raised number indicating a footnote or endnote—must appear after
each quote or paraphrase in your paper. You need not cite “common knowledge” in a field—
information that everyone who studies the subject knows or facts that are generally accepted in
all the sources you consult. Specific statistics, names, dates, places, findings, and interpretations
or ideas that are unique to an author must be cited.

Generally, you will have to include a Bibliography, Works Cited list, or References section,
arranged alphabetically, at the end of your paper. Information you will need to provide includes
the author’s (or authors’) full name(s), title of the work, editors (if any), publisher, city and state
of publication (and country if not published in the U.S.), the year of publication, page numbers
(if necessary), and medium. However, documentation styles vary. Whenever you are given an
assignment that includes research or documentation, be sure to ask your professor which style
you should use. The order of information as well as spacing and punctuation are different for
different styles. It is important to use a style guide or manual and to check your work very
carefully to be sure that it conforms exactly to the required style.

The most prominent documentation styles include the following: MLA (Modern Language
Association), commonly used in the liberal arts and the humanities, which incorporates
parenthetical documentation within the text and a list of works cited, including full bibliographic
information, at the end of the paper; APA (American Psychological Association), used primarily
in the social sciences, which utilizes an author-date citation system within the text and lists
references alphabetically in a reference list at the end of the paper; Chicago (from The Chicago
Manual of Style), used widely in the humanities as well as by many professional authors and
editors, which features two basic documentation systems: (1) notes and bibliography, and (2) an
author-date system. Other documentation styles include ASA (American Sociological
Association), AMA (American Medical Association), and Notes-Bibliography (Turabian).
Documented Essay Outline
A documented essay requires the writer to study the documents provided to
discover and communicate a significant point about history. It shows how
the topic under discussion relates to the time period of your focus. The
purpose of a documented essay is to conduct research methodically and
identify a trend or vital issue to report.

Documented Essay Outline

The following is a documented essay outline:
1. Introduction
Your documented essay introduction should include a thesis statement and
main argument for your essay. You should begin your essay by describing
the historical context of your topic. State what your topic is in space and
time and who the main players are in the document. Explain the context at
the beginning of your essay so that your readers can be ready for what you
will present in the rest of your essay.
2. Body paragraphs
Each body paragraph should include a topic or summary sentence and
transition sentences between paragraphs. Throughout the body of the
paper, be sure to give enough contexts to introduce each source you discuss,
and completely address the documents that you have been assigned.
You will have to quote primary and secondary sources, collect data from
books and publications or come up with experiments and conduct surveys to
get the necessary data when writing the body of your essay.
 3. Conclusion
Your conclusion should:
Summarize what has been proven in the documents as well as the
connection that the writer made.
Explain why the proof matters. State what people of that historical time
learned from it.
Satisfy the introduction. Ensure that the introduction and conclusion tie
together.
4. References
Cite all the sources that you have used for the documented essay in a
bibliography. You should list the sources in alphabetical order by the author's
last name. If there is no author listed, use the title of the source.
The bibliography lists will look as follows:

APA Citation Format MLA Citation Format

Heading of the page with the sources: Heading of the page with the sources:

References or Reference (if only one source Works Cited or Work Cited (if only one source is
is used) used)

• centered • centered
• not bold • not bold

General book format: General book format:

Last name, First initial. Middle initial. Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher,
(Year). Book title: Subtitle. Publisher. Publication Date.

Article in periodicals: Article in periodicals:

Last name, First initial. Middle initial. Author. “Title of an Article.” Title of Periodical,
(Year). Title of the article. Journal Title, Volume and/or Number, Date, Location (Page
volume(number), pages–pages. Numbers).
https://doi.org/xx.xxx/yyyy

Web sources reference: Web sources reference:

Last name, First initial. The middle initial of Editor, author, or compiler name. Name of Site.
an editor, author, or compiler. (Year, Month Version number, Name of institution/organization
Date). Website page title. Site Name. URL. affiliated with the site, date of resource creation (if
available), URL, DOI, or permalink. Date of access.

• Hanging intent: the one-half inch (1.27 cm) intent of all lines after the entry’s first line.
• Alphabetized (from A to Z) by the first letter of the entry.
• Font size 12, double-spaced.
PLAGIARISM

Plagiarism is the representation of another person's work as your own.

ORIGINAL CONTENT

While the Education Act of 1870 laid the groundwork for the provision of elementary or
primary education for all children in England and Wales, it was not until the
implementation of the 1944 Education Act that all girls and boys were entitled to a
secondary education. Indeed, the decades immediately following the Second World War
saw such a rapid increase in educational provision - in the USA, and many countries of
Western and Eastern Europe, as well as in Britain - that some writers refer to the
'educational explosion' of the 1950s and 1960s. The minimum school-leaving age was
extended from 14 to 15 years (in 1947) and raised to 16 (in 1971-2), but the proportion
of people choosing to pursue their studies beyond this age hurtled upward; by 1971, 30
per cent of 17- year-olds were in full-time education in schools or colleges, compared
with 2 per cent in 1902, 4 per cent in 1938, 18 per cent in 1961 and 22 per cent in 1966.
The Robbins Report (1963) undermined the view that there was a finite pool of ability -
a limited number of people who could benefit from advanced education - and provided
ammunition for the expansion of higher education. This expansion took place through the
establishment of new universities and growth of existing ones, as well as through the
conversion of colleges into polytechnics which could offer degree courses, and the
founding of the Open University. In 1970, 17.5 per cent of 18- year-olds entered further
or higher education on a full-time basis (compared with 1.2 per cent in 1900, 2.7 per cent
in 1938, 5.8 per cent in 1954, and 8.3 per cent in 1960); another three million people
enrolled for part-time day classes, evening classes or sandwich courses.

Bilton, Bonnett, Jones, Stanworth, Sheard & Webster (1981, p. 381)

Outright copying is using exactly the same words as the original author
without using quotation marks or saying where the words are from.
For example:
While the Education Act of 1870 laid the groundwork for the provision of elementary or
primary education for all children in England and Wales, it was not until the
implementation of the 1944 Education Act that all girls and boys were entitled to a
secondary education. Indeed, the decades immediately following the Second World War
saw such a rapid increase in educational provision - in the USA, and many countries of
Western and Eastern Europe, as well as in Britain - that some writers refer to the
'educational explosion' of the 1950s and 1960s.

1
Paraphrase plagiarism is changing some of the words and grammar but
leaving most of the original text the same.
For example:
The Education Act of 1870 put down the basis for providing primary education for every
child in the United Kingdom. It was not, however, until the establishment of the 1944
Education Act that all male and female children were given the right to education at
secondary school.

Patchwork plagiarism is when parts of the original author's words are used
and connected together in a different way.
For example:
The right to elementary education for every child in England and Wales was established
in the 1870 Education Act. However, the right to secondary education had to wait until the
implementation of the 1944 Education Act. Following that act, in many countries of the
world, there was such a rapid increase in educational provision that it was called
the 'educational explosion' of the 1950s and 1960s.

Stealing an apt term is when a short phrase from the original text has been
used in the student’s work, possibly because it is so good.
For example:
In England and Wales, all 5 year all children have had the right to an education since
1870. This has not, however, been the case for 11 years old, who had to wait until 1944
for a national system of secondary education. Once this system was established, though,
secondary education expanded rapidly in the decades immediately following the Second
World War.

2
Signaling
It is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how various
parts of the paragraph are connected. These connections can be made explicit by the
use of different signaling words.

For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is
going to change, make it clear.
The Bristol 167 was to be Britain's great new advance on American types such as the
Lockheed Constellation and Douglas DC-6, which did not have the range to fly the Atlantic
non-stop. It was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain. However, even by the
end of the war, the design had run into serious difficulties.

If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another
sentence, make it explicit.
While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the period, it was not until
the recent work of Cairncross that the significance of this outflow was realized. Partly this
was because the current account deficit appears much smaller in current (1980s) data
than it was thought to be by contemporaries.

If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.
Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist system, especially
those which he knew from the history of Europe to have preceded capitalism; systems
such as feudalism, where the relation of production was characterized by the personal
relation of the feudal lord and his serf and a relation of subordination which came from
the lord's control of the land. Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and in the classical
Indian and Chinese social systems, or in those systems where the ties of local community
are all important.

If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.

He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the husband and father
of his own family. In addition, he has a definite place of origin and more relatives than
he knows what to do with, and he receives a rudimentary education at the Canadian
Mission School.

If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.

This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy, between orders
and bishops. For example, in the Northern context, the previous bishop of Down and

1
Connor, Dr Philbin, refused for most of his period of leadership in Belfast to have Jesuits
visiting or residing in his diocese.

Signalling words
1. Time/order
at first, eventually, finally, first, firstly, in the end, in the first place, in the second
place, lastly, later, next, second, secondly, to begin with
2. Comparison/similar ideas
in comparison, in the same way, similarly
3. Contrast/opposite ideas
but, despite, in spite of, even so, however, in contrast, in spite of this,
nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, whereas, yet
4. Cause and effect
accordingly, as a consequence, as a result, because, because of this,
consequently, for this reason, hence, in consequence, in order to, owing to this,
since, so, so that, therefore, thus
5. Examples
for example, for instance, such as, thus, as follows
6 Generalisation
as a rule, for the most part, generally, in general, normally, on the whole, in
most cases, usually
7. Stating the obvious
after all, as one might expect, clearly, it goes without saying, naturally,
obviously, of course, surely
8. Attitude
admittedly, certainly, fortunately, luckily, oddly enough, strangely enough,
undoubtedly, unfortunately
9. Summary/conclusion
finally, in brief, in conclusion, in short, overall, so, then, to conclude, to sum up
10. Explanation/equivalence
in other words, namely, or rather, that is to say, this means, to be more precise,
to put it another way

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11. Addition
apart from this, as well as, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover, nor, not
only...but also, too, what is more
12. Condition
in that case, then
13. Support
actually, as a matter of fact, in fact, indeed
14. Contradiction
actually, as a matter of fact, in fact
15. Emphasis
chiefly, especially, in detail, in particular, mainly, notably, particularly
^
Examples
1. Time/order
At first
At first the freemen of both town and country had an organization and a type of
property which still retained something of the communal as well as something of
the private, but in the town a radical transformation was taking place.
Eventually
Eventually the group did manage to buy some land in a village not far from
London, but the project had to be abandoned when the villagers zoned their land
against agricultural use.
Finally
Finally, there have been numerous women altogether outside the profession,
who were reformers dedicated to creating alternatives.
First
First, I went to see the editor of the Dispatch.
Firstly
There are two reasons. Firstly, I have no evidence whatever that the original
document has been destroyed.
In the end
In the end, several firms undertook penicillin production on a massive scale, but
hardly any ever came to Florey himself for the clinical trials which he was
desperate to extend.

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In the first place/in the second place
If we try to analyse the conception of possession, we find two elements. In the
first place, it involves some actual power of control over the thing possessed. In
the second place, it involves some intention to maintain that control on the part
of the possessor.
Lastly
Lastly, we may notice that even a wrongful possession, if continued for a certain
length of time, matures into what may be, for practical purposes,
indistinguishable from ownership.
Later
Later she went up to the office.
Next
Next, I'd like to show you some pictures.
Second
And second, this kind of policy does not help to create jobs.
Secondly
He was first of all an absolute idiot, and secondly he was pretty dishonest.
To begin with
To begin with, the ratio between attackers and defenders was roughly the same.
2. Comparison
In comparison
The vast majority of social encounters are, in comparison, mild and muted
affairs.
In the same way
Every baby's face is different from every other babies. In the same way, every
baby's pattern of development is different from every other.
Similarly
You should notify any change of address to the Bonds and Stock
Office. Similarly, savings certificates should be re-registered with the Post Office.
3. Contrast
But
In 1950 oil supplied only about 10% of our total energy consumption; but now
it's up to about 40% and still rising.

4
Despite
Despite the difference in their ages, they were close friends.
Even so
This could lead you up some blind alleys. Even so, there is no real cause for
concern.
However
The more I talked the more silent Eliot became. However, I left thinking that I
had created quite an impression.
In spite of this
My father always had poor health. In spite of this, he was always cheerful.
Nevertheless
He had not slept that night. Nevertheless, he led the rally with his usual vigour.
On the contrary
I have never been an enemy of monarchy. On the contrary, I consider
monarchies essential for the well-being of new nations.
On the other hand
John had great difficulties playing cricket. But on the other hand, he was an
awfully good rugby player.
Still
He's treated you badly. Still he's your brother and you should help him.
Yet
Everything around him was blown to pieces, yet the minister escaped without a
scratch.
4. Cause/effect
Accordingly
She complained of stiffness in her joints. Accordingly, she was admitted to
hospital for further tests.
As a consequence
The red cross has not been allowed to inspect the camps, and as a
consequence little is known about them.
The Cold War has ended. As a consequence, the two major world powers have
been able to reduce their arms budgets dramatically.
As a result
Many roads are flooded. As a result, there are long delays.

5
Because
Because these were the only films we'd seen of these people, we got the
impression that they did nothing else but dance to classical music.
Because of this
The cost of running the club has increased. Because of this, we must ask our
members to contribute more each week.
Consequently
Japan has a massive trade surplus with the rest of the world. Consequently, it
can afford to give more money to the Third World.
For this reason
The traffic was very heavy. For this reason, he was late.
Hence
The computer has become smaller and cheaper and hence more available to a
greater number of people.
In consequence
The fastest these animals can run is about 65 kph and in consequence their
hunting methods have to be very efficient indeed.
In order that
They are learning English in order that they can study a particular subject.
In order to
He had to hurry in order to reach the next place on this schedule.
Owing to this
The rain was terrible. Owing to this, the match was cancelled.
So
He speaks very little English, so I talked to him through an interpreter.
So that
You take some of the honey and replace it with sugar so that the bees have
something to eat.
Therefore
I'm not a member of the Church of England myself. Therefore, it would be rather
impertinent of me to express an opinion.

6
Thus
If I am to accept certain limitations on my freedom, I must be assured that
others are accepting the same restraints. Thus, an incomes policy has to be
controlled if it is to be effective.
5. Example
For example
Many countries are threatened by earthquakes. For example, Mexico and Japan
have large ones this century.
For instance
Not all prices have increased so dramatically. Compare, for instance, the price of
oil in 1980 and the price now.
Such as
There are many reasons why the invasion failed, such as the lack of proper food
and the shortage of ammunition.
Thus
Plants as well as stones can be charms. The Guyana Indians have many plant
charms, each one helping to catch a certain kind of animal. The leaves of the
plant usually look like the animal it is supposed to help to catch. Thus, the charm
for catching deer has a leaf which looks like deer horns.
6. Generalization
As a rule
As a general rule, the less important than executive is, the more status-conscious
he is likely to be.
For the most part
The New Guinea forest is, for the most part, dark and wet.
In general
The industrial processes, in general, are based on man-made processes.
Normally
Meetings are normally held three or four times a year.
On the whole
One or two were all right but on the whole, I used to hate going to lectures.
Usually
She usually found it easy to go to sleep at night.

7
7. Stating the obvious
As one might expect
There are, as one might expect, several other methods for carrying out the
research.
After all
They did not expect heavy losses in the air. After all they had superb aircraft.
Clearly
Clearly, there is no point in continuing this investigation until we have more
evidence.
It goes without saying
It goes without saying that I am grateful for all your help.
Naturally
Naturally, publishers are hesitant about committing large sums of money to such
a risky project.
Obviously
Obviously, I don't need to say how important this project is.
Of course
There is of course an element of truth in this argument.
Surely
In defining an ideology, the claims which seek to legitimate political and social
authority are surely as important as the notion of authority itself.
8. Attitude
Admittedly
Admittedly, economists often disagree among each other.
Certainly
Ellie was certainly a student at the university but I'm not sure about her brother.
Fortunately
Fortunately, such occurrences are fairly rare.
Luckily
Luckily, Saturday was a fine day.
Oddly enough
Oddly enough, it was through him that I met Carson.
Strangely enough

8
 It has, strangely enough, only recently been discovered.
Undoubtedly
Undoubtedly, many families are victims of bad housing.
Unfortunately
He couldn't wait to tell Judy. Unfortunately, she had already left for work.
9. Summary/conclusion
Finally
Let's come finally to the question of pensions.
In brief
In brief then, do you two want to join me?
In conclusion
In conclusion, let me suggest a number of practical applications.
In short
In short, the report says more money should be spent on education.
Overall
Overall, imports account for half our stock.
So
So, if a woman did leave the home, she was only supposed to concern herself
with matters pertaining to domestic life.
Then
The importance of education, then, has been infinitely greater than in previous
centuries.
To conclude
To conclude, I'd like to say thank you to everyone who has worked so hard to
make this conference possible.
To sum up
To sum up, we cannot hope for greater success unless we identify our needs
clearly.
10. Explanation/equivalence
In other words
In other words, although the act of donating blood would increase the chances
of the donor dying, this increase was small compared with the increase in the
recipient's chances of surviving.

9
Namely
He could not do anything more than what he had promised - namely, to look
after Charlotte's estate.
... three famous physicists, namely, Simon, Kurte and Mendelsohn.
Or rather
The account here offered is meant as a beginning of an answer to that
question. Or rather it contributes by setting the question in a certain way.
That is to say
The Romans left Britain in 410 AD - that is to say England was a Roman
dependency for nearly 500 years.
This means
With syphilis and gonorrhea, the ages are also recorded, and this means that an
accurate map of disease prevalence can be drawn and any trends or changes
can be recognized very quickly.
To be more precise
These reforms of Justinian in AD 529 proclaim that they are "imposing a single
nature" on trusts and legacies or, to be more precise, imposing it on legatees
and trust beneficiaries.
To put it another way
He was being held there against his will. To put it another way, he was a
prisoner.
11. Addition
Also
Sugar is bad for your teeth. It can also contribute to heart disease.
Apart from this
Eccleshall and Honderich find common cause in a desire to establish the
ideological nature of Conservative thought, but apart from this their approaches
to the study of Conservativism are very different.
As well as
Marx and Engels, as well as many of their contemporaries, believed that
pastoralism predated agriculture.
Besides
Besides being good test cases, Locke obviously finds these ideas intrinsically
interesting too.

10
Furthermore
Computer chess games are still a bit expensive, but they are getting cheaper all
the time. Furthermore, their chess-playing strength is rising.
In addition
Our survey will produce the essential statistics. In addition, it will provide
information about people's shopping habits.
Moreover
The drug has powerful side-effects. Moreover, it can be addictive.
Nor
I could not afford to eat in restaurants. Nor could anyone I knew.
I couldn't understand a word they said, nor could they understand me.
Not only...but also
Meissner was not only commander of the army but also a close friend of the
President.
Too
Evans was not only our doctor. He was a friend too.
What is more
What is more, more machines will mean fewer jobs.
12. Condition
In that case
Of course the experiment may fail and in that case we will have to start again.
Then
Sometimes the computer system breaks down. Then you'll have to work on
paper.
13. Support
As a matter of fact
The company is doing very well. As a matter of fact, we have doubled our sales
budget.
In fact
The winter of 1940 was extremely bad. In fact, most people say it was the worst
winter of their lives.

11
Indeed
This act has failed to bring women's earnings up to the same level. Indeed, the
gulf is widening.
They continue to work throughout their short life. Indeed, it is overwork which
eventually kills them.
14. Contradiction
Actually
There are many stories which describe wolves as dangerous, blood thirsty
animals, but actually they prefer to avoid human beings.
In fact
I thought he could speak the language fluently. In fact, that wasn't the case at
all.
15. Emphasis
Chiefly
How quickly you recover from an operation chiefly depends on your general state
of health.
The experiment was not a success, chiefly because the machine tools were of
poor quality.
Especially
They don't trust anyone, especially people in our position.
I'm not attracted to Sociology, especially the way it's taught here.
In detail
The implications of this theory are examined in detail in chapter 12.
In particular
In particular, he was criticized for pursuing a policy of conciliation and reform.
Mainly
The political group will have more power, mainly because of their large numbers.
Notably
Some people, notably his business associates, had learned to ignore his moods.
The organization had many enemies, most notably among feminists.
Particularly
Many animal sources of protein are also good sources of iron. Particularly useful
are liver, kidney, heart, beef, sardines, pilchards (red fish generally), and
shellfish, including mussels and cockles.

12