Types of Rotary Non-positive Displacement Compressors

1. Centrifugal compressors
2. Axial flow compressors.
Note: ‘Displacement Compressor’ means the air is compressed by being trapped in the reduced
space formed by two sets of engaging surfaces.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
The figure shows the centrifugal compressor with double sided impeller.

Fig 1: centrifugal compressor

 It consists of curved radial vanes which are attached to shaft and rotate.
 The impeller is a disc fitted with radial vanes.
 The casing is surrounding the rotating impeller.
 The diffuser is housed in a radial portion of the housing.
 Air enters the eye of impeller. Due to the centrifugal action of impeller, the air moves
radially outwards with the guidance of impeller vanes.
 The impeller transfers energy to air by increasing its pressure.
 Then the air enters diverging portion called diffuser. Here, the kinetic energy is converted
into pressure rise further.
  Nearly half the pressure rise is achieved by impeller and remaining by diffuser.
 A pressure ratio of 5:1 is obtained by single stage centrifugal compressor and for higher
pressure ratio’s multi stage compressors are used.
Centrifugal compressor is a head or pressure producing machine. It has larger frontal area than
the axial flow compressor. It is capable of producing pressure ratio of about 4: 1 per stage.

VELOCITY AND PRESSURE VARIATION

The changes of pressure and velocity of air passing through the impeller and diffuser are shown
in Fig. 2

Fig: 2 Variations of pressure and velocity of air passing through impeller and diffuser
STATIC TEMPERATURE AND TOTAL HEAD (OR) STAGNATION TEMPERATURE
Since the velocities in centrifugal compressors are very large, total head quantities should be
considered. The total head quantities include the kinetic energy of the air passing through the
compressor.

Consider a horizontal passage of varying area.

Applying steady flow energy equation to the
system for 1 kg of air flow, assume Q = 0; W = 0
 Temperature ‘T’ is called the static temperature T is measured
by the thermometer when the thermometer is moving at the air
velocity. If the moving air is brought to rest under reversible
conditions, the total kinetic energy of the air will be converted
into heat energy, increasing the temperature and pressure of the
air. This increased temperature and pressure of the air is known
as “stagnation” or “total head” temperature and pressure. The
total head temperature and pressure are denoted by a suffix ‘O’.

Stagnation State and Stagnation Properties

The state of a fluid attained by isentropically decelerating it to zero velocity at zero elevation is
referred to as the stagnation state. It is often used as a reference state. The properties of the fluid
at the stagnation state are the stagnation properties of the gas.
Stagnation Enthalpy
Stagnation enthalpy of a gas or vapour is its enthalpy when it is adiabatically decelerated to zero
velocity at zero elevation. Therefore,

For an adiabatic energy transformation process, stagnation enthalpy remains constant. In a power
generating turbo machine, W is positive so that Δ h0 is negative, i.e., the total enthalpy of the
flowing fluid decreases from the inlet to the exit. In a power absorbing device (compressors),
mechanical energy input occurs, so that the stagnation enthalpy of the fluid increases from the inlet
to the exit. Hence W will be negative.
STEADY-FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

This is the steady flow energy equation for a control volume or an open system. This will be
rewritten for processes in various turbo machines.
Most of the compressible flow turbo machines, such as turbines, compressors and blowers are
assumed to be an adiabatic machines i.e., q= 0. In these machines, the change in potential energy
(Δ Z) is negligible as compared to changes in enthalpy (Δ h) and kinetic energy is:

Energy equation for a turbine and compressor:

EULER’S EQUATION - (ENERGY TRANSFER)

Energy transformation can occur in both stator and rotors of turbo machines. Energy transfer can
occur only in its moving or rotating elements i.e. rotors/impeller. An expression for estimating the
amount of energy transfer taking place in a turbo machine is derived below. The Fig.4 shows the
velocity triangles at the entry and exit of a general turbo machine. All the velocity vectors are
shown in same plane and are assumed to remain constant.
The peripheral velocity of the blades at entry & exit are:

Velocity components at the entry and exit of the rotor

In order that the fluid enters and leaves the blade passage without shock, the relative velocities Cr1
and Cr2 at inlet and outlet are in the direction of the respective tangents to the blade.
The relative velocities make angles β1 and β2 respectively with u1 and u2.
The absolute velocities of the fluid at inlet and outlet to the blades are obtained by a vectorial
combination of Cr and u, make angles α1 and α2 with u1 and u2 respectively.
The components of absolute velocities parallel to the tangential directions are Cw1 and Cw2 and
those to the radial directions are Cf1 and Cf2.
Clearly, Cf1 and Cf2 are associated with the flow rate through the impeller / runner.

The absolute velocity C at both the entry and exit has a tangential component Cw and a radial
component Cf.
The torque on the rotor/impeller (exerted by the impeller on the fluid) is obtained by employing
Newton’s second law of motion for the change of moment of momentum.
Torque = Rate of change in moment of momentum.
The tangential momentum at a given station is

Therefore, Torque on the impeller is given by:

For a constant flow machine

If the value of the torque given by this equation is positive [r2 Cw2 > r1 Cw1], it applies to a head
producing turbo machines (pumps, fans, blower, compressors etc.).
The work done is given by:
Work = Torque *Angular Velocity of the rotor
For compressors, pumps, etc.

The above equation is known as Euler’s equation for pump and compressor (or) Euler’s work.
The work done per kg of air:

Fig 5
Using the inlet and outlet velocity triangles, we have

Inserting the values of Cw2 * u2 and Cw1 *u1 from the above expressions (i) and (ii) in eqn. (2),
we get

 The first term represents the increase in K.E. of 1 kg of working fluid in the impeller which
will be converted into the pressure energy in the ‘diffuser’.
 The second term represents the pressure rise in the impeller due to ‘diffusion action’ (since
the relative velocity decreases from inlet to outlet).
 The third term represents the pressure rise in the impeller due to ‘centrifugal action’ (since
the working fluid enters at a lower diameter and comes out at a higher diameter).

IMPELLER BLADE SHAPE - BACKWARD, RADIAL AND FORWARD BLADE

IMPELLERS
The exit vane shape of the centrifugal compressors are generally any one of the three
configurations.
(i) Backward curved
(ii) Radial and
(iii) Forward curved
If the angle between the rotor blade tip and the tangent to the rotor at the exit is acute i.e., β2<90°,
the vanes are backward curved vanes. If this angle is a right angle β2 = 90°, the blade is said to be
radial. If it is greater than 90° [β2>90°], the blade is forward curved as shown in Fig. 6.
The velocity triangles at the inlet and exit of centrifugal machines are shown in Fig.7. It is assumed
that there are no guide vanes, therefore C1 will be radial and α1= 90° and Cw1 = 0. Since there is
no whirl velocity at inlet, the particular condition is “zero whirl and swirl” at inlet. The Fig.7 (a)
shows the entry and exit velocity triangles for backward curves vanes with zero whirl at inlet. Fig.
7(b) shows radial curved vanes in which exit vane angle β2 is 90°.
Fig. 7 (c) shows the velocity triangles for forward curved vanes [β2>90°], with zero whirl at
inlet.
VELOCITY TRIANGLE AND WORK DONE BY THE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
The work done by the impeller on the air is obtained by drawing the inlet and outlet velocity
triangles as shown in Fig.8.
Let,
C1 = Absolute velocity of the entering air
D1 = Diameter of the impeller at inlet (r1/2)
u1 = Mean velocity of the impeller at inlet (or) peripheral velocity at inlet
Cr1 = Relative velocity of air to the wheel at inlet
Cf1= Velocity of flow at inlet and
C2, D2, u2, Cr2, Cf2 = Corresponding values at the outlet
N = Speed of the impeller in rpm
β1 = Blade angle at inlet
α1 = Angle at which air leaves the impeller
β2 = Blade angle at outlet
The power by the impeller on the air per sec per ṁ kg of air flow:
As the air enters the impeller radially which means that, the absolute velocity of air at inlet is in
the radial direction and hence fluid angle α1 = 90° and Vw1 = 0.
Therefore, the equation (4) becomes.

IMPORTANT FORMULAE
1. Power required for ṁ kg/s of air flow

If the blade is radial (ideal case), then the velocity diagram at the outlet of the impeller is as
shown in Fig. 9.
As Cw2 = u2, the work done per ṁ kg/s of air flow is given by:

Since the air cannot leave the impeller at a velocity greater than the impeller tip velocity, the
maximum work supplied per kg of air flow per second is given by the above eqn.
 2. Width of Blades of Impeller and Diffuser
Let, ṁ = Mass of air flowing per second,
b1 = Width (or height) of impeller at inlet,
Cf1 = Velocity of flow at inlet of the impeller,
ρ1 = density of air at inlet
r1 = Radius of impeller at the inlet,
Then, ṁ = ρ1 * (Volume of air flowing per second)

But as the air is entering radially,

Similarly the width of impeller blade at the outlet can be found by using suffix 2 in eqn.

The width or height of the impeller blades at the outlet and height of diffuser blade at the inlet
should be same theoretically.
The width of height of the diffuser blades at the outlet, is given by

Where suffix‘d’ represents the quantities at the outlet of the diffuser.

If, n = Number of blades on the impeller,
And t = Thickness of the blade,

3. Isentropic Efficiency of the Compressor

The following losses occur when air flows through the impeller:
(i) Friction between the air layers moving with relative velocities and friction between the air and
flow passages.
(ii) Shock at entry.
(iii) Turbulence caused in air.
The above losses cause an increase in enthalpy of the air without increase of pressure therefore
the actual temperature of air coming out from the compressor is more than the temperature of air
if it is compressed isentropically. The actual work required for the same increase in pressure is
more due to irreversibilities.

Fig 9

4. Slip factor
The difference between (u2 - Cw2) is known as slip.
Slip factor (φs) is defined as the ratio of actual whirl component (Cw2) and the ideal whirl
component (u2)
5. Work factor
Therefore the actual work is obtained by multiplying u2 Cw2 (theoretical work) by a factor φW
known as work factor or power input factor.

The actual work input to the air is greater than the theoretical value due to friction between the
casing and the air carried around by the vanes. In order to take this into account “work factor”, φ W
is introduced, so that the actual work done on the air becomes:

6. Pressure Co-efficient (φW)

It is defined as the ratio of isentropic work to Euler work.

7. Stage Work
1. Specific Work

2. The flow co-efficient at the impeller exit

Fig 10

3. Pressure co-efficient
8. Stage Pressure Rise
The static pressure rise in a centrifugal compressor stage occurs in the impeller, diffuser and the
volute. The static pressure rise across the diffuser and volute occurs due to the energy
transformation processes accompanied by a significant deceleration of the flow. The fluid is
assumed to be a perfect gas and isentropic process.
where,

9. Degree of Reaction
The degree of reaction is defined as

10. Mass Flow Rate

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
An axial compressor is a pressure producing machine. As the name indicates, the flow of air or
fluid is in the direction of the rotor axis. It consists of a rotor with moving blades and a stator fixed
to casing which serve to recover part of kinetic energy imparted to the working fluid. This kinetic
energy imparted to the fluid by means of the rotating blades is then converted into a pressure rise.

Fig 11

 In this axial flow compressor, air is flowing parallel to the axis of compressor.
 It consists of stators (fixed blades) and Rotors (rotating blades) in an alternate rows.
 The rotors are fixed with rotating drum and stators are fixed to the casing.
 One stage of compressor means a row of stator blades with a row of rotor blades.
 The work energy of moving blades is transferred to air to accelerate.
 The blades are so arranged that the space between the blades forms diffuser passage and
hence air pressure is increased at the expense of velocity.
 The air is then further flown through stator blades and gets diffused and its pressure is
further increased.
 After air gets pressure rise in one stage, it will be allowed to pass second stage and
pressure is continuously raised.
 The annular area is normally reduced from inlet to outlet of the compressor to keep the
flow velocity constant.
 The stator blades serve to convert a part of kinetic energy to pressure energy and to guide
air from one stage to next stage without shock.
Stage Velocity Triangles
The stage velocity triangles for an axial flow compressor is shown in Fig 12. Air enters with an
absolute velocity C1 and angle α1 [from the axial direction] into the rotor blades. The inlet guide
vanes, guide the flow in a proper angle of attack.

Fig.12

A general cycle includes, the entry to the rotor (1), exit from the rotor (2) and the diffuser (stator)
blade exit (3) respectively. In axial compressors, the assumptions are following:
(a) Axial Velocity Cf1 = Cf2 = Cf = constant
(b) Blade speed u1 = u2 = u =constant
(c) C1 = C3 and α1 = α3
(d) In rotor, relative velocities are tangent and stator absolute velocity is tangent.
 3

Blade Loading and Flow Coefficients

This is a dimensionless quantity used for comparing different stages of various sizes and speeds.
i.e., Blade Loading Co-efficient

Flow co-efficient is the ratio between the axial velocity to its blade speed.

Specific Work

DEGREE OF REACTION
Degree of reaction (Rd) is defined as the ratio of pressure rise in the rotor blades to the
compressor stage.

Pressure rise in the compressor stage equals work input per stage:
Pressure rise in the rotor blades is at the expense of K.E. and is
Refer inlet and outlet velocity triangles:

Similarly from velocity triangles,

Degree of reaction is usually taken as 0.5,

From this α1 = β2; α2 = β1

So with 50% reaction blading, the compressors have symmetrical blades and with this type of set-
up, losses in flow path are greatly reduced. In symmetrical blades, the tip clearance and fluid
friction losses are minimum.
INFINITESIMAL STAGE EFFICIENCY (OR) POLYTROPIC EFFICIENCY
Polytropic efficiency is the isentropic efficiency of one stage of a multi-stage compressor. This
small stage efficiency is constant for all stages of a compressor with infinite number of stages.
The irreversible actual compression process can be considered as equivalent to a polytropic process
with an index ‘n’.
FINITE STAGE EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a finite stage can be expressed in terms of the small stage efficiency. Take static
values of temperature and pressure and assuming perfect gas.

IMPORTANT FORMULAE
1. Flow coefficient (φ f)

2. Head or work coefficient (φ h)

It is defined as the ratio of actual work done to the kinetic energy developed by the mean
peripheral velocity.

3. Deflection co-efficient (φ def)

4. Pressure co-efficient (φ p)It is defined as the ratio of isentropic work done to kinetic energy
developed by the peripheral velocity.
5. Pressure ratio

6. Stagnation pressure ratio

7. Number of stages
If the work done per stage is assumed to be the same, then the number of stages (N)

Since the pressure ratio per stage is the same:

The overall pressure ratio:

SURGING
It is the phenomena of excessive aerodynamic pulsation which is transmitted throughout the
machine by virtue of sudden drop in delivery pressure or complete breakdown of the steady
through flow.
The fig 13 shows the relation between mass flow and
pressure ratio for some typical performance characteristics
curves at different speeds (N1, N2, etc.). The surge
phenomenon is explained with the aid of one of the curves
in this figure. It is assumed that, a valve placed in the
delivery line of a compressor running at constant speed, is
slowly opened. When the valve is shut and the mass flow is
zero, the pressure ratio will have some value A,
corresponding to the pressure head produced by the action Fig 13
of the rotor on the air trapped between the blades. When the
valve is opened, flow commences and the pressure ratio 113
increases. At some point B, where the efficiency approaches its maximum value, the pressure ratio
will reach a maximum, and any further increase in mass flow will result in a fall of pressure ratio.
For mass flows greatly in excess of that corresponding to the design mass flow, the air angles will
be widely different from the vane angles, breakaway of the air will occur, and the efficiency will
fall off rapidly. In this hypothetical case, the pressure ratio drops to unity at C, when the valve is
fully opened and all the power is absorbed in overcoming internal frictional resistance.
The region between A and B (having positive slope) is unstable. Let the compressor be operating
at point D on left of B. Now the mass flow is reduced and the pressure ratio is also reduced
according to the graph. If pressure of air downstream of the compressor does not fall quickly
enough, the air will tend to reverse the direction and flow back in the direction of resulting pressure
gradient in to the compressor. When this occurs, the pressure downstream of the compressor has
also fallen, so that the compressor will now pick up again to repeat the cycle of events, which
occurs at high frequency. Such a situation should be avoided by keeping the operating point to the
right of B. This is because the decrease in mass flow in this region is accompanied by increase in
pressure ratio and thus stability is obtained.
The point to the left of B where surging begins is a function of the ability of flow passage
downstream of the compressor to swallow the flow. Such points for various values of N/√T1 would
lead to a locus called the surge line as shown in figure.
Surging leads to vibration of the entire machine which can ultimately lead to mechanical failure.
Therefore, the operation of compressors on the left of surge line is injurious to the machine and
must be avoided and that range is unstable range. The stable range of operation of the compressor
is on the right-hand side of this line.
STALLING
Stalling is the separation of flow from the blade surface. A partial blockage or uneven flow in the
blade passages due to the change of angle of incidence is called stalling. At low flow rates, the
axial velocities are lower and the angle of incidence is increased as shown in fig 14.

Fig 14
 At large values of the incidence, the flow separation occurs on the suction side of the blades which
is referred to as positive stalling and the pressure hide is negative stalling.
This is a separate phenomenon, which may contribute to surge but can exist in the nominally stable
operating range. This is the rotating stall. When there is any non-uniformity in the flow or geometry
of the channels between blades, breakdown in the flow occurs in one channel, say B in figure. This
causes the air to be deflected in such a way that channel C receives fluid at a reduced angle of
incidence and channel A at an increased incidence.
Channel A then stalls, resulting in a reduction of incidence to channel B enabling the flow in that
channel to recover. Thus the stall passes from channel to channel and the stall cells will rotate in a
direction opposite to that of the rotor blades. It may lead to aerodynamically induced vibrations
and high frequency noises resulting in fatigue failures in other parts of the compressor. The blades
can fail due to resonance. This occurs when the frequency of the passage of stall cells through a
blade coincides with its natural frequency. Both the efficiency and delivery pressure drop
considerably on account of rotating stall.
COMPARISON BETWEEN CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
Centrifugal compressors Axial flow compressors

Radial flow Axial flow (Parallel to the direction of axis of

the machine)

Pressure ratio per stage is high, about 4.5:1. Low pressure ratio per stage about 1.2:1. This
This unit is compact. is due to absence of centrifugal action. Less
compact and less rugged.

Isothermal efficiency is about 80 to 82% With modern aero foil blades, ηiso is about 86
to 88%.
Frontal area is larger Frontal area is smaller. Hence the axial flow
compressor is more suitable for jet engines due
to less drag.

More flexibility of operation due to adjustable Less flexibility of operation.

prewhirl and diffuser vanes.

Low starting torque required. High starting torque required.

Multistaging is slightly difficult. More suitable for multi-staging.

Upto 400 bar delivery pressure is possible. Delivery pressure is only upto 20 bar.
It is used in application of blowing engines in Mostly used in jet engines due to higher
steel mills, low pressure refrigeration, big efficiency and smaller frontal area. Also used
central air conditioning plants, fertilizer and in power plant gas turbines and steel mills
industry, supercharging I.C. engines, gas
pumping in long distance pipe lines etc.