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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No. 01: ECE101-2S-2022-2023

College: Engineering
Campus: Bambang

Bachelor of
Science in
DEGREE PROGRAM COURSE NO. ECE101
Mechanical
Engineering
SPECIALIZATION COURSE TITLE Basic Electronics
YEAR LEVEL 2nd Year TIME FRAME WK NO. IM NO. 1

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Vacuum Tubes Fundamentals

II. LESSON TITLE

1. Electronic Devices

1.1 History

1.2. Application of Electronics

1.3. Passive and Active Electronic Components

2. Vacuum Tube Devices

2.1. History

2.2. Different Types of Vacuum Tubes.

2.3. Electronic Symbols for Diode, Triode, Tetrode and Pentode

2.4. Basic Operations.

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

This lesson provides the students an overview of the applications of Electronics in our every lives.
It discusses both the basic electronic components and the first electronic amplifier; the Electron tubes or
sometimes called “Vacuum Tubes”.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the important history of electronics.

2. Discuss the basic electronics components such as Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor
3. Draw the symbols for passive electronic components.
4. Discuss the fundamental theories and concepts of Vacuum Tube Device.
5. Draw the symbols for vacuum tube devices.

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V. LESSON CONTENT

1. Electronic Devices

1.1 History (Pioneers in Electronics)

Here are some Scientist and Engineers whose theories and discoveries were instrumental in the
development of electronics.

Name Theories/Discoveries Year

1. Charles Augustin 1. Developed a method for measuring the force of 1736-1806

Coulomb [French attraction and repulsion between two electrically
Engineer] charged spheres.
2. Defined the basic unit of charge quantity the
“Coulomb”.

Coulomb's law states that the electrical force

between two charged objects is directly
proportional to the product of the quantity of
charge on the objects.
2. Alessandro Volta 1. Developed the first chemical battery. 1745-1827
[Italian]
2. The unit of potential difference, the “Volts” wasnamed
after him.

“Volta found that electricity could be produced by just

stacking alternate layers or discs of metals zinc and
silver in a saltwater bath that would allow current to
flow. This was the invention of the battery, the device
described in Volta’s article on electricity in 1800. “

Spontaneous Oxidation-
Reduction reactions.

3. Andre Marie 1. Discovered that two parallel wires attract each other 1775-1836
Ampere [French when currents flow through them in the same direction
Physicist] and repel each other when currents are made to flow in
opposite directions.

Ampere’s Law states that “The magnetic field created

by an electric current is proportional to the size of that
electric current with a constant of proportionality equal
to the permeability of free space.”

2. The unit of measure for current, the “Ampere” was

named after him.
4. Georg Simon 1. Developed the Ohm Law. 1787-1854
Ohm [German Ohm’s law states that a steady current (I) flowing
Physicist] through a material of a given resistance is directly
proportional to the applied voltage (V) and inversely
proportional to the resistance (R).

2. The unit of measure forResistance, the “Ohm” was

named after him.
5. James Watt 1. The unit of electric power, the “Watt” was named after 1736-1819
[Scottish Inventor] him. The watt is the unit of power in the International
System of Units (SI) equal to one joule of work performed

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per second.
2. James Watt, mechanical engineer, and chemist who
improved on Thomas Newcomen's 1712 Newcomen steam
engine with his Watt steam engine in 1776
6. James Prescott 1. The SI unit of measure for electrical energy, the “Joule” 1818-1889
Joule [English was named after him.
Physicist]
James Prescott Joule experimented with engines,
electricity, and heat throughout his life. Joule's
findings resulted in his development of the mechanical
theory of heat and Joule's law, which quantitatively
describes the rate at which heat energy is produced
from electric energy by the resistance in a circuit.

Joule's law of heating states that, when a current '

passes through a conductor of resistance for time
then the heat developed in the conductor is equal
to the product of the square of the current, the
resistance and time.

1 Joule is the amount of work done when a force of

one Newton displaces a body one meter in the
direction of the force applied.
7. Gustav Kirchhoff 1. Developed Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) and 1824-1887
[German physicist] Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) in 1847 which allow
calculation of the currents, voltages, and resistances of
electrical networks.

The KVL states that the algebraic sum of the voltage at

node in a closed circuit is equal to zero. The KCL law
states that, in a closed circuit, the entering current at
node is equal to the current leaving at the node.
8. James Clerk 1. Unified the scientific theories of electricity and 1831-1879
Maxwell magnetism into a unified theory called “Electromagnetic
[Scottish Field”.
Mathematician] With the publication of "A Dynamical Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field" in 1865, Maxwell demonstrated
that electric and magnetic fields travel through space
as waves moving at the speed of light. He proposed
that light is an undulation in the same medium that is
the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.

9. Carl Friedrich 1. With Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1890) they set up 1777-1855
Gauss [German the first telegraph.
Mathematician] 2. The cgs unit of magnetic flux density, the “Gauss”was
named after him.

Gauss's law for electricity states that the electric flux

Φ across any closed surface is proportional to the
net electric charge q enclosed by the surface; that
is, Φ = q/ε0, where ε0 is the electric permittivity of free
space and has a value of 8.854×10–12 square
coulombs per newton per square meter.

Gauss’s law is used to quickly find electric field due

to various arrangement like charged sheet, thin infinite
straight charged wire.

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10. Nikola Tesla 1. Developed the AC Power Source and became the 1857-1943
[American World Power Standard.
Inventor, EE,
AC voltage maybe increased or decreased with a
and ME]
transformer. This allows the power to be transmitted
through power lines efficiently at high voltage. Has
fewer energy losses than DC transmitting over long
distance.
11. Edwin H. 1. Discovered the “Hall Effect”. When a wire carrying a 1855-1938
Hall [American current is placed in an applied magnetic field, a voltage
Physicist] across the is created that is proportional to the strength
of the magneticfield.

Hall effect is the deflection of electrons.

12. Heinrich Friedrich 1. Demonstrated that an increase in temperature 1804-1865
Emil Lenz [Russian increases the resistance of a metal.
physicist] 2. Formulated Lenz’s Law, which states that the current
induced by a change flow so as to oppose the effect
producing the change.

Lenz' law says that the direction of the induced

current will oppose the change in flux that created
it. It's not a matter of increasing and decreasing, it's a
matter of direction.

3. Demonstrated the “Peltier Effect”. It refers to the

thermoelectric phenomenon of the transfer of heat
energy that occurs between two materials when an
electric current passes through. This phenomenon
results in the addition or removal of heat. The heat
transfer is both proportional to the current as well as
reversible.

13. Heinrich Hertz 1. Proved that electricity could be transmitted in 1857-1894

[German Physicist] electromagnetic waves.
2. The unit of measure for the frequency is “Hertz”,named
after him.

14. Michael Faraday 1. Discovered the principle of induction (1 F is the unit of 1791-1867
[Natural Philosopher] capacitance that will store 1 coulomb of charge when 1
volt is applied).
2. The unit of measure forcapacitance is “Farad”,named
after him.

Faraday's first law of electromagnetic induction states,

“Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying
magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced.
Likewise, if the conductor circuit is closed, a current is
induced, which is called induced current.”

The value depends on the time rate of change of

magnetic field through the coil.

15. Joseph Henry 1. The first wind insulated wires around an iron core to 1797-1878
[American Scientist] obtain powerful electromagnets.
2. Invented the electricmotor.
3. The unit of measure for inductance is “Henry”, named
after him. It is defined as the measure of electric
current changes at one ampere per second, resulting in
an electromotive force of one volt across the inductor.
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Inductance is property of a conductor (often in the

shape of a coil) that is measured by the size of the
electromotive force, or voltage, induced in it, compared
with the rate of change of the electric current that
produces the voltage

1.2 Applications of Electronics

There are so many applications of electronics today, especially with the fast-changing development of
technology. Here are some of the important divisions of electronics:

1. Communications Electronics

This field of electronics include the radio Amplitude Modulation (AM) & Frequency Modulation (FM)
and Television (TV) broadcasting. The equipment from the transmitter side which in turn converts the
sound wave into electrical wave to be transmitted to the antenna and the audio and video equipment in
the studio that supplies the modulating signal with the necessary information signal.

The satellite communications are considered communications electronics with both receiver and
transmitter equipment mold into one huge device located in space.

High-Fidelity (Hi-fi) audio equipment is also considered with radio receiver equipment whereby the
receiver has a powerful audio amplifier to drive the speaker that converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy such as sound waves.

2. Electric Power

Electronics devices and systems provide the proper generation and distribution of a 60 Hz pure
sinewave AC power to our households. Included electronic parts are lighting, motors, heating, and
generators. The electronic equipment in the control and monitoring of the electrical system plays a vital
role without it, more manpower is required to achieved the same performance.

3. Digital Electronics

In this digital world as we speak, most of our equipment or gadgets requires digital signals with a value
of 1’s and 0’s. Meaning, that all equipment that requires a digital signal is considered digital electronics
such as desktop computers, laptop, tablet, android phone, etc.

4. Automotive Electronics

This area involves the use of electronic equipment inside the car parts and accessories such as battery
chargers, relays for controlling the lights, motors for power window, electronic dash boards, the ECU
(electronic control unit) or computer. box and many more.

5. Industrial Electronics

Most of the manufacturing industry today are using lots of electronic equipment for the control and
monitoring of the processes. Equipment such as computer-controlled machinery for the automation of
robotics arms for welding, painting, etc. Includes many types of electronic sensors such as temperature
sensor, light sensor, infra-red sensor, humidity sensor, moisture sensor and the like.

6. Medical Electronics

This field of electronics combines the electronics and biology. Medical electronics today is one of the
fast-growing field of electronics, that include equipment such as x-rays, ECG, EEG, Ultrasound, and the
like. Some parts of the human body are now being supported by electronics devices, one example is
pacemaker which is placed in the chest or abdomen to help control abnormal heart beats.

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3. Electronics Components

3.1 Passive Electronic Components

These electronic components or devices normally do not have the ability to amplify a given signal
or to control an electrical quantity or to rectify a given electrical quantity. The current flowing thru it is
Bilateral in nature, meaning, the same amount of electrical current passes thru in both directions.

3.1.1 Resistor

The resistors are used in a variety of ways for many applications in electronic circuits. The main
function of a resistor is to limit the amount of current flowing through a given circuit or to produce a desired
voltage drop in each circuit.

Resistors are normally manufactured in a variety of shapes, sizes and have ohmic values ranging
from a fraction of an ohm (Ω) to several megohms (MΩ). The power dissipation or wattage rating of a
resistor is determined mainly by its physical size. But there is, however, no direct correlation between the
physical size of a resistor and its resistance value.

The unit of measure for resistor values is called Resistance (R), and it is represented by the Greek
symbol omega ‘’Ω’’. The standard symbol for resistor is shown below.

(a) (b)

Resistor Electronic Symbols. (a) Fixed Resistor (b) Variable Resistor

3.1.2 Capacitor (Condenser)

The capacitor consists of an insulator (also called a dielectric) between two metal conductors. The
conductors make it possible to apply voltage across the insulator enabling the capacitor to hold or store
an electric charge. The more charge stored for a given voltage, the higher the capacitance (the ability of
a capacitor to store a charge). The symbol for capacitance is C, and the unit is the farad (F), named after
Michael Faraday.

Different types of capacitors are manufactured for specific values of C. They are named according to
the dielectric material used. Common types are air, ceramic, mica, paper, metal film, and electrolytic (the
most used) capacitors.

One of the most important properties of a capacitor is its ability to block a steady Direct Current (DC)
voltage from batteries while passing Alternating Current (AC) signals coming from outlets (e.g.
MERALCO, NUVELCO, etc.).

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(a) (b) (c)

Capacitor Electronic Symbols.
(a) Non-Polarized Fixed Capacitor (b) Polarized Fixed Capacitor (c) Variable Capacitor

3.1.3 Inductor (Choke, Coil)

The inductance is the ability of a conductor to produce induced voltage when the current flowing
through it varies in magnitude. A long copper wire (magnet wire) has more inductance than a short wire,
since more conductor length cut by magnetic flux produces more induced voltage. Similarly, a coil has
more inductance than the equivalent length of straight wire because the coil concentrates magnetic flux.
A coil of copper wire is called an Inductor and the symbol for inductance is L, and the unit is the Henry
(H).

An air-core coil is an inductor with the wire for the coil is wound around a hollow insulating tube
and because the magnetic field of the current in the coil is in air. The air-core coils are used in Radio-
Frequency (RF) circuits because higher frequencies need less L for the required inductive effect. Iron-
core inductors are used in the audio-frequency (AF) range, especially in the AC power-line frequency of
60 Hz and for lower frequencies.

(a) (b) (c)

Inductor Electronic Symbols.
(a) Air-core Fixed Inductor (b) Iron-core Fixed Inductor (c) Variable Inductor

3.2 Active Electronic Components

These types of electronic devices have the ability to amplify a signal or to rectify a given signal voltage.
These devices are the main component and forms the heart of electronic systems and subsystems.

3.2.1 Diodes

Diodes are considered active device for the reason that they are used for rectification purposes, that
is, diodes convert AC signal to DC signal. These diodes are called Rectifier Diodes such as the 1N4001
and 1N4007. There are so many types of diodes according to their practical use. Examples are Zener
Diodes, Light-Emitting Diodes, Varactor, Schottky Barrier Diodes, Photoconductive Diodes, IR Emitter
Diodes, Tunnel Diodes, Photodiodes and many more. They are used as a voltage regulator, oscillators,
switches, signal mixture, signal limiters, signal modulator, and demodulators, etc.

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Two (a) (b)

(c)
Some Diode Electronic Symbols. (a) Rectifier Diodes or Signal Diodes (b) Zener Diodes (c) Photodiodes

3.2.2 Transistors

These devices have the ability to amplify a signal such example are the voltage amplifier, current
amplifier and power amplifier transistor circuits. They have also the ability to control electrical quantities
and transistors are normally a Current-Controlled-Current Source configuration. While the input current
is so small in the transistor, a larger current is being controlled by the input current. There are two types
of transistors: Bipolar-Junction Transistor (BJT) and the Field-Effect Transistor (FET). These devices
required only a minimal supply voltage to operate properly not like vacuum tubes which requires hundreds
of volts.

Collector

Base

Emitter

(a) (b)

Transistor Symbols. (a) NPN Bipolar-Junction Transistor (b) n- Channel Field-Effect Transistor

3.2.3 Electron Tubes

In a tube, the charge carriers are free electrons that travel through space between electrodes inside
the device (plate and cathode). Decades ago, vacuum tubes, also known as electron tubes, were the
only electronic devices available for use as amplifiers, oscillators, detectors, and other electronic circuits
and systems. A typical tube (called a valve in England) ranged from the size of your thumb to the size of
your fist. They are still used in some power amplifiers, microwave oscillators, and video display units
(CRT TV).

The Electron tubes generally require high voltage to operate the device. Even in modest radio
receivers, 100 V to 200 V dc was required when these tubes were employed. This mandated bulky power
supplies, and created an electrical shock hazard which is very dangerous.

Two Types of Electron Tubes

There are two basic types of electron tube: the vacuum tube and the gas-filled tube. As their names
imply, vacuum tubes have virtually all the gases removed from their envelopes. Gas-filled tubes contain
elemental vapor at low pressure.

3.2.3.1 Gas-Filled Tube

The gas-filled tubes normally have a constant voltage drop, no matter what the value of current.
This makes them very useful as voltage regulators for high-voltage and high-current power supplies.
Gas-filled tubes can withstand conditions that would destroy semiconductor regulating devices. Gas-filled
tubes emit infrared (IR), visible light, and/or ultraviolet (UV). This property can be put to use for decorative
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lighting.

A small neon bulb can be employed to construct an AF relaxation oscillator.

Symbol for Neon Bulb Gas-Filled Tube

3.2.3.2 Vacuum Tubes

The basic parts of a vacuum tube are: heater or filament, cathode, and the plate (anode). The is
responsible for the emission of millions of electrons upon heated by the heater, while the plate or anode
receives or collects all the emitted electrons from the cathode.

Types of Cathodes

In a tube, the electron-emitting electrode is called the cathode. The cathode is usually heated by
means of a wire filament (tungsten), similar to the glowing element in an incandescent bulb.

1. Directly Heated Cathode

The glowing filament or heater also serves as the cathode for this device. This type of electrode is
called a directly heated cathode. The negative supply voltage is applied directly to the filament. The
filament voltage for most tubes is 6 V or 12 V dc only. It is important to note that DC be used to heat the
filament in this type of tube, because AC will tend to modulate the output. The schematic symbol for a
diode tube with a directly heated cathode is shown below.

Plate

Cathode

Directly Heated Cathode

2. Indirectly Heated Cathode

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This type of cathode has a filament enclosed within a cylindrical cathode, and the cathode gets hot
from the IR radiated by the filament or heater. The filament normally receives 6 V or 12 V ac or dc. In an
indirectly heated cathode arrangement, ac does not cause modulation problems, as it can with a directly
heated cathode tube. Because the electron emission in a tube depends on the filament or heater, warm-
up time is badly needed before they can operate properly. This warm-up time can vary from a few
seconds (for a small tube with a directly heated cathode) to a couple of minutes (for massive power-
amplifier tubes with indirectly heated cathodes). The warm-up time for a large tube is about the same as
the boot-up time for a personal computer. The schematic symbol for a diode tube with an indirectly heated
cathode is shown below.

(a) (b)

Indirectly Heated Cathode (a) symbol (b) basic construction

Types of Vacuum Tubes

There are actually four types of vacuum tubes used in electronic circuits: Vacuum Tube Diode, Triode,
Tetrode and Pentode. The number of electrodes determines the type of tube.

1. Diodes

This device consisting of only two electrodes; the cathode and the plate or anode, not considering the
filament or heater as an electrode. That’s”, why diode is used because of the initial word ‘’di’’ meaning
“two” electrodes. The diode is the simplest type of vacuum tube device where, it is used mainly to convert
AC signal to DC signal. The process of converting AC to DC is called rectifications process and the diode
device is called rectifier diodes. A schematic symbol for diode is shown below.

Vacuum Diode Schematic Symbol

2. Triodes

This device is the first electronic component that can amplify a given signal. The process of increasing
the magnitude of a signal to a desired level is called Amplification Process. The triode has three
electrodes namely; plate, cathode and control grid (G1). The flow of large current between the cathode
and plate can be controlled by means of an electrode. This electrode, the control grid (or simply the grid
(G1)), is a wire mesh or screen that lets electrons pass through it. The grid impedes the flow of electrons
if it is provided with enough negative voltage relative to the cathode. The greater the negative grid bias,
the more the grid obstructs the flow of electrons through the vacuum tube. Triodes are normally used for
Audio Frequency (AF) amplifiers but seldom use for Radio Frequency (RF) amplifiers because of its high

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inter-electrode capacitances which cause oscillations.
Plate

Control Grid

Cathode
Triode Schematic Symbol

3. Tetrode
This device consisting of four electrodes namely; plate, cathode, control grid (G1) and screen grid (G2).
A second grid can be added between the control grid and the plate. This is a spiral of wire or a coarse
screen, and is called the screen grid or screen. This grid normally carries a positive dc voltage at 25 to
35 percent of the plate voltage. The screen grid reduces the capacitance between the control grid and
plate, minimizing the tendency of a tube amplifier to oscillation. The screen grid can also serve as a
second control grid, allowing two signals to be injected into a tube. In a vacuum tube, the cathode, grid(s),
and plate exhibit interelectrode capacitance that is the primary limiting factor on the frequency range in
which the device can produce gain (amplification). The interelectrode capacitance in a typical tube is a
few picofarads. This is negligible at low frequencies (AF), but at (RF) frequencies above approximately
30 MHz, it becomes a significant problem. Vacuum tubes intended for use as RF amplifiers are designed
to minimize this capacitance. This is where the tetrode is normally used for Radio Frequency (RF)
amplifiers such as for AM, FM, and TV transmitters and receivers. Its schematic symbol is shown below.

Plate

Screen Grid (G2)

Control Grid (G1)

Cathode
Tetrode Schematic Symbol
4. Pentodes

The electrons coming from the cathode in a tetrode can bombard the plate with such force that some of
them bounce back, or knock other electrons from the plate. This so-called secondary emission can
hinder tube performance and, at high power levels, cause screen current so high that the electrode is
can be destroyed. This problem can be eliminated by placing another grid, called the suppressor grid
(G3) or suppressor, between the screen and the plate. The suppressor grid repels secondary electrons
emanating from the plate, preventing most of them from reaching the screen grid. The suppressor grid
also reduces the capacitance between the control grid and the plate more than a screen grid by itself.
Greater gain and stability are possible with a pentode, or tube with five electrodes or elements, than with
a tetrode or triode. The schematic symbol for a pentode is shown below.
Plate

Suppressor Grid
Control Grid (G1) Screen Grid (G2)

Cathode
Tetrode Schematic Symbol.

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VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

VII. EVALUATION (Note: Not to be included in the student’s copy of the IM)

VIII. ASSIGNMENT

1. MATCHING TYPE ACTIVITY

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONICS

DIRECTION: Match each definition in Column A with its example in Column B by connecting a line.

A. Applications of Electronics B. Example

1. Medical Electronics
Walkie Talkie

2. Digital Electronics
Programmable Logic Controller

3. Electric Power
SCADA

4. Automotive Electronics
electrocardiogram (ECG)

5. Communications Electronics
Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

6. Industrial Electronics INTEL I7 Microprocessor

2. DRAWING ACTIVITY

ELECTRONICS SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS AND ITS DESCRIPTION

DIRECTION: Using a black ball pen, draw the schematic symbols of the following devices
and also give the corresponding description or uses.

Electronics Component

Device Name Schematic Symbol Description (uses)

1. Zener Diode

2. Varactor Diode

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3. Fixed Resistor

4. Variable Resistor

5. Non-Polarized
Capacitor

6. Polarized Capacitor

7. Triode

8. Tetrode

9. Pentode

10. Iron-core Inductor

3. Research Activity: Use the Internet to research the following questions:

a. Draw the schematic symbols with their corresponding descriptions of the following electronic
devices.
1. Ammeter
2. Voltmeter
3. Ohmmeter
4. Battery
5. AC Voltage Source
6. Ground

b. What is the difference between the Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor in terms of their operations.

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) ‘’In accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of a Copyrighted Work of Republic Page 13 of 13
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No. 01: ECE101-2S-2022-2023

IX. REFERENCES

A. Book/Printed Resources

Boylestad, R.L. & Nashelsky, L. (2013). Electronic devices and circuit theory ( 11th Ed.) . Singapore:
Pearson Education South Asia.

Floyd, T.L. (2002). Electronic devices (7th Ed.). Singapore: Pearson Education South Asia.

Neamen, D.A. (2002). Electronics circuit analysis and design (2nd Ed.). Philippines: McGraw-Hill
International Edition.

B. e-Resources/ e-Book

Schultz, Mitchel E. (2016). Grob Basic Electronics. ( 12 Edition). McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza,
New York, NY 10121. https://engineeringbookslibrary.com/grobs-basic-electronics-12th-edition/

MIT OpenCourseWare ( 30 August 2019) Circuits and Electronics

http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-002-circuits-and-electronics-
spring-2007

Dube.D.C. ( 30 August 2019 ) Electronics I https://freevideolectures.com/course/3062/electronics-i

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) ‘’In accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of a Copyrighted Work of Republic Page 14 of 13
Act 8293, the copy righted works included in this material may be reproduced
for educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution’’