SENSORS

Transducers:
It is an element which is subjected to physical change experience a related change.
Example: Tactile Sensors.
Sensors:
It is an element which is not subjected to physical change experience a related change.
Example: LVDT
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY:

Static Characteristics:

Range and Span:

 The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input can vary.
 The difference between the limits (maximum value - minimum value) is known as span.
 For example a load cell is used to measure force. An input force can vary from 20 to 100
N. Then the range of load cell is 20 to 100 N. And the span of load cell is 80 N (i.e., 100-
20)
Error:
 The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the measured
parameter is termed as the error of the device.
 Error = Indicated value — true value
 For example, if the transducer gives a temperature reading of 30°C when the actual
temperature is 29° C, then the error is + 1°C. If the actual temperature is
 3 1° C, then the error is — 1°C.

Accuracy:
 Accuracy is defined as the ability of the instrument to respond to the true value of the
measure variable under the reference conditions.
 For example, a thermocouple has an accuracy of ± 1° C. This means that reading given
by the thermocouple can be expected to lie within + 1°C (or) — 1°C of the true value.
 Accuracy is also expressed as a percentage of the full range output (or) full scale
deflection.
 For example, a thermocouple can be specified as having an accuracy of ±4 % of full
range output. Hence if the range of the thermocouple is 0 to 200°C, then the reading
given can be expected to be within + 8°C (or) — 8°C of the true reading.
Sensitivity:
 The sensitivity is the relationship showing how much output we can get per unit input.
 sensitivity = Output / Input
Precision:
 It is defined as the degree of exactness for which the instrument is intended to perform.

Hysteresis error:
 When a device is used to measure any parameter plot the graph of output Vs value of
measured quantity.
 First for increasing values of the measured quantity and then for decreasing values of the
measured quantity.

 The two output readings obtained usually differ from each other.
Repeatability:
 The repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are its ability to give the same
output for repeated applications of the same input value.
Reliability:
 The reliability of a system is defined as the possibility that it will perform its assigned
functions for a specific period of time under given conditions.
Stability:
 The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time.

Drift:
 The term drift is the change in output that occurs over time.

Dead band:
 There will be no output for certain range of input values. This is known as dead band.
There will be no output until the input has reached a particular value.
Dead time:
 It is the time required by a transducer to begin to respond to a change in input value.

Resolution:
 Resolution is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value that can be
detected.
 The resolution is the smallest change in the input value which will produce an observable
change in the input.
Backlash:
 Backlash is defined as the maximum distance (or) angle through which any part of a
mechanical system can be moved in one direction without causing any motion of the
attached part.
 Backlash is an undesirable phenomenon and is important in the precision design of gear
trains.
DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY SENSOR:

 Size of the displacement (mm)

 Displacement type (Linear or angular)
 Resolution required
 Accuracy Required
 Material of the object
 Cost
 Displacement sensors are contact type sensor
Types of Displacement sensors:
 Potentiometer
 Strain gauge
 Capacitive sensors
 Linear variable differential transformer
POTENTIOMETER
PRINCIPLE:
 It works on variable resistance transduction principle
Linear or Rotary potentiometer is a variable resistance displacement transducer which
uses the variable resistance transduction principle in which the displacement or rotation is
converted into a potential difference due to the movement of sliding contact over a resistive
element
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:
 A resistor with three terminals.
 Two end terminal & one middle terminal (wiper)
 Two end terminal are connected to external input voltage
 One middle and one end terminal as output voltage
 The slider determines the magnitude of the potential difference developed

Characteristics:

Resistance element mandrel of ceramic, glass or Anodized Aluminium. 2mm to 500 mm in case
of linear pot.
=For high resolution, wire is made by using ceramic
(cermet) or conductive plastic film due to low noise levels.
Wipers (Sliders) = Tempered phosphor bronze, beryllium copper or other
precious alloys.
Wire Material = Strong, ductile and protected from surface corrosion by
enamelling or oxidation. Materials &e alloys
of copper nickel, Nickel chromium, and silver palladium.
= Resistivity of wire ranges from 0.4 µΩm to 13 µΩm
Resistance range = 20Ω to 200KΩ and for plastic 500Ω to 80KΩ
Accuracy = Higher temperature coefficient of
resistance than the wire and so temperature changes have a greater effect on
accuracy.

STRAIN GAUGES
Strain gauges are passive type resistance sensor whose electrical resistance
change when it is stretched or compressed (mechanically strained) under the
application of force.
The electrical resistance is changed due to the change in length
(increases) and cross sectional area (decreases) of the strain gauge.
This change in resistance is then usually converted into voltage by
connecting one, two or four similar gauges as an arm of a Wheatstone bridge
(known as Strain Gauge Bridge) and applying excitation to the bridge. The bridge
output voltage is then a measure of strain, sensed by each strain gauge.
Unbonded Type Strain Gauges:

 In unbonded type, fine wire filaments (resistance wires) are stretched

around rigid and electrically insulated pins on two frames.
 One frame is fixed and the other is movable.
 The frames are held close with a spring loaded mechanism.
 Due to the relative motion between two frames, the resistance wires are
strained.
 This strain is then can be detected through measurement of the change in
electrical
resistance since they are not cemented with the surfaces, they can be
detached and
reused.
Bonded Type Strain Gauges:
 Bonded type strain gauges consists of resistance elements arranged in the
 form of a grid
of fine wire, which is cemented to a thin paper sheet or very thin
Bakelite sheet, and covered with a protective sheet of paper or thin
Bakelite.
 The paper sheet is then bonded to the surface to be strained. The gauges
have a bonding material which acts an adhesive material during bonding
process of a surface with the gauge element.
Classification of Bonded Type Strain

Gauges:  Fine wire gauges

 Metal foil gauges
 Semiconductor
filament type

Fine Wire Gauges:

 Wire of 3 to 25 microns diameter is arranged in the form of grid
consisting of parallel loops
Metal Foil Gauges:
 A thin foil of metal, deposited as a grid pattern onto a plastic backing
material using
polyimide
 Foil pattern is terminated at both ends with large
metallic pads  Entire gauge size 5- 15mm
 Adhesive directly bonded to the gauge usually epoxy

Semiconductor Filament Type:

  The gauges are produced in wafers from silicon or germanium crystals
 Special impurities such as boron is added
 It is mounted on an epoxy resin backing with copper on nickel leads
 Filament about 0.05mm thick 0.25mm wide and 1.25 to 12mm length

CAPACITIVE SENSORS:
 It is used for measuring,displacement,velocity,
force etc..
Principle:
It is passive type sensors in which equal and opposite charges are generated
on the plates due to voltage applied across the plate which is separated by
dielectric material.
Formula:

By Changing the Distance between Two Plates:

 The displacement is measured due to the change in capacitance

By Varying the Area of Overlap:

 The displacement causes the area of overlap to vary
 The capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates and varies
linearly with
changes in the displacement between the plates
By Varying the Dielectric Constant:
 The change in capacitance can be measured due to change in dielectric
constant as a
result of displacement.
 When the dielectric material is moved due to the displacement, the
material causes the dielectric constant to vary in the region where the two
electrodes are separated that results in a charge in capacitance.

Push Pull Sensor:

 Push pull displacement sensor is used to overcome the non-linearity error.
 The sensor consists of three plates with the upper pair forming one capacitor
and the
lower pair forming another capacitor.
 The displacement moves central plate between the two
other plates.  If the central plate moves downwards.
 The plate separation of the upper capacitor increases and the separation of
 the lower one decreases.

Range and Standoff

The distance from the face of the probe to the center of the range is referred to as standoff. This is an
estimated distance. Range is the measuring range of the probe. Usual ranges for the capacitive
measurement systems are from +/– 10 µm (+/- 0.0004”) to +/– 1000 µm (+/– 0.040”). Ranges beyond 25
mm (1”) are possible in special cases.

Figure 6. Range and Standoff

Resolution
Resolution is the smallest increment of displacement that can be measured at a specific bandwidth.
Resolution, according to MicroSense, is an RMS value, as it is measured with a true RMS meter which
delivers a clear-cut result.

Bandwidth
An important advantage of non-contact capacitive measurement is its ability to measure highly rapid
motions. Applications such as spindle analysis, servo control, and vibration analysis often need the ability
to measure extremely small and very rapid motions. Active systems such as the MicroSense 5810 and
MicroSense 6810 are built to handle extremely challenging applications having filter bandwidths to 100
kHz. Passive systems such as the MicroSense 8810 and MicroSense 4810 also work well at bandwidths up
to 20 kHz. However, the system resolution is relative to the square root of the bandwidth.
Both Butterworth and Bessel filters are provided in MicroSense Active systems, and Butterworth filters are
provided in MicroSense Passive systems. Filters are selected in software or by jumpers on the boards.

Linearity
Since the arrival of economical computers and analog/digital cards, linearity has become less of a concern
in the last decade. It is possible that a system has integral non-linearity and this relationship is repeatable
within resolution parameters and can be compensated with basic software adjustments. For all its systems,
MicroSense provides linearity compensation data.

Stability
Stability of the sensor is a function of numerous factors. These can be categorized as external and internal
factors. Relative measurement stability is not a problem for numerous measurements such as servo
control, spindle analysis, or other short duration relative measurement stability. For measurements where
accuracy is necessary over long periods of time, meticulous selection of sensing systems and external
factors are very important.
As a standard rule, passive systems such as the MicroSense 8810 and MicroSense 4810 have better long-
term stability features than active systems such as the MicroSense 6810 and MicroSense 5810. Standard
probes are built using stainless steel and possess a thermal coefficient of around 200 ppm/°C.
 LVDT

What is an LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)?

The LVDT full form is “Linear Variable Differential Transformer” is LVDT. Generally, LVDT is a normal type
of transducer. The main function of this is to convert the rectangular movement of an object to the
equivalent electrical signal. LVDT is used to calculate displacement and works on the transformer principle.

LVDT Construction
LVDT comprises of a cylindrical former, which is bounded by one main winding in the hub of the former and
the two minor LVDT windings are wound on the surfaces. The amount of twists in both the minor windings
is equivalent, but they are reverse to each other like clockwise direction and anti-clockwise direction.

For this reason, the o/p voltages will be the variation in voltages among the two minor coils. These two coils
are denoted with S1 & S2. Esteem iron core is located in the middle of the cylindrical former. The excitation
voltage of AC is 5-12V and the operating frequency is given by 50 to 400 HZ.

Working Principle of LVDT

The working principle of the linear variable differential transformer or LVDT working theory is mutual
induction. The dislocation is a nonelectrical energy that is changed into an electrical energy. And, how the
energy is altered is discussed in detail in the working of an LVDT.

LVDT Working Principle

Working of an LVDT
The working of LVDT circuit diagram can be divided into three cases based on the position of the iron core
in the insulated former.
 In Case-1: When the core of the LVDT is at the null location, then both the minor windings flux will
equal, so the induced e.m.f is similar in the windings. So for no dislocation, the output value (e out) is
zero because both the e1 & e2 are equivalent. Thus, it illustrates that no dislocation took place.
 In Case-2: When the core of the LVDT is shifted to up to the null point. In this case, the flux involving
with minor winding S1 is additional as contrasted to flux connecting with the S 2 winding. Due to this
reason, e1 will be added as that of e2. Due to this eout (output voltage) is positive.
 In Case-3: When the core of the LVDT is shifted down to the null point, In this case, the amount of e2
will be added as that of e1. Due to this e out output voltage will be negative plus it illustrates the o/p to
down on the location point.

LVDT Specifications
Linearity
The highest difference from straight proportion among distance calculated and o/p distance over calculating
range.
 > (0.025 + % or 0.025 – %) Full Scale
 (0.025 to 0.20 + % or 0.025 to 0.20 – %) Full Scale
 (0.20 to 0.50 + % or 0.20 to 0.50 – %) Full Scale
 (0.50 to 0.90 + % or 0.50 to 0.90 – %) Full Scale
 (0.90 to + % or 0.90 to – %) Full Scale and up
 0.90 to ± % Full Scale & Up
Operating Temperatures
The operating temperatures of LVDT include
> -32ºF, (-32-32ºF), (32 -175ºF), (175-257ºF), 257ºF & up. The range of temperature within which the
device must accurately operate.
Range of Measurement
The range of IVDT measurement includes
0.02″ to 20.0″
Output
Current, Voltage, or Frequency
Interface
A serial protocol like RS232, or Parallel protocol like IEEE488.

LVDT Types
Frequency Based, Current Balance AC/AC based, or DC/DC based.

Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT

The LVDT advantages and disadvantages include the following.
 The measurement of the displacement range of LVDT is very high, and it ranges from 1.25 mm -250
mm.
 The LVDT output is very high, and it doesn’t require any extension. It owns a high compassion which
is normally about 40V/mm.
 When the core travels within a hollow former consequently there is no failure of displacement input
while frictional loss so it makes an LVDT as a very precise device.
 LVDT demonstrates a small hysteresis and thus repetition is exceptional in all situations
 The power consumption of the LVDT is very low which is about 1W as evaluated by another type of
transducers.
 LVDT changes the linear dislocation into an electrical voltage which is simple to progress.
 LVDT is responsive to move away from magnetic fields, thus it constantly needs a system to keep
them from drift magnetic fields.
 It is accomplished that LVDTs are more beneficial as contrasted than any kind of inductive transducer.
 LVDT gets damaged by temperature as well as vibrations.

LVDT Applications
The applications of the LVDT transducer mainly include where dislocations to be calculated that are
ranging from a division of mm to only some cms.
 The LVDT sensor works as the main transducer, and that changes dislocation to electrical signal
straight.
 This transducer can also work as a secondary transducer.
 LVDT is used to measure the weight, force and also pressure
 Some of these transducers are used to calculate the pressure and load
 LVDT’s are mostly used in industries as well as servomechanisms.
 Other applications like power turbines, hydraulics, automation, aircraft, and satellites

OPTICAL ENCODERS

It is used to measure position, velocity, acceleration and direction of movement of rotors.
INCREMENTAL ENCODERS PRINCIPLE:

When a beam of light passes through slots in a disc, it is sensed by the light sensor opposite to the light
source
When the disk is rotated, a pulsed output is produced by sensor with number of pulses being proportional
to the position of the disc and number of pulses per second determines the velocity of the disk
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:

It consists three components light source, coded disk and photo detector

The disk is made up of plastic or glass.

The disk consists of opaque and transparent segment alternatively.

The wheel is between light and photo detector.

The photo detector receives the light signal alternatively which is converted into

electrical signal.

ABSOLUTE ENCODERS PRINCIPLE:

The principle of operation is that they provide a unique output corresponds to each rotational position of
the shaft.
The output is in the form of binary numbers representing the angular position.
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:

The disc has four concentric slots and four photo detectors to detect the light pulse.
The slots are arranged in such way that they give a binary number.
It consist opaque and transparent segments. This pattern is called as track.
The encoders have 8 to 14 slots.
The number of the track determines the resolution of the encoder.
The number of bits in binary number will be equal to the number of tracks.
EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY
SENSOR: PRINCIPLE:
When a coil is supplied with alternating current, an alternating magnetic field
is produced which induces an EMF on it. If there is a metal near to this alternating
magnetic field, on EMF is induced in it. The EMF cause current to flow. This
current flow is eddy current.

CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:

 It has two identical coils.

 One reference coil & another sensing coil which senses the magnetic
current in the
object.
 Eddy current start to flow due to AC(conducting object) close to sensor
 Eddy current produce a magnetic field to oppose the magnetic field
generated by sensing coil.
  Due to this opposition reduction flux is created. To detect 0.001mm

INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS:

  It consists of coil wound round a core.
 Metal is close to coil Inductance changes occurs.
 It is suitable for ferrous metals
PNEUMATIC PROXIMITY SWITCHES:
 It is suitable for sensing non conducting materials
 Air is allowed to escape from the front side
of the sensor.  When there is no object air
escapes freely.
 When there is an object, the escaping air is blocked and return
backed to system.  It is used to measure the range 3mm to 12mm
PROXIMITY SWITCHES:
 It is used in robotics for sensing elements
 It is also used in NC machines, material handling systems and
assembly lines.  Micro switch
 Reed switch
 Photo
sensitive
switch
 Mechanic
al switch

Micro Switch:

 It is limit switch operated by levers, rollers & cams

 It is switch which requires physical contact and small force to close the
contacts.
 Example a belt conveyor.
Reed Switch:
 It is a non – contact proximity switch that consists of two magnetic
switch contacts
 enclosed in a glass tube fined with
an inert gas.  When magnet is
closed switch is operated.  Used for
high speed application

Photo Sensitive Devices:

 It is used to sense opaque object.

 Photo detector receives a beam of light produced by the LED.
 Object is passed the beam gets broken or reflected when is detected.
HALL EFFECT SENSORS:

Principle:
 When a current carrying semiconductor plate is placed in a transverse
magnetic field, it
experiences a force (Lorentz force). Due to this action a beam of charged
particles are forced to get displaced from its straight path. This is known as
Hall Effect.
 A current flowing in a semiconductor plate is like a beam of moving
charged particles
and thus can be deflected by a magnetic field. The side towards which
the moving
electron deflected becomes negatively charged and the other side of the
plate becomes positively charged or the electrons moving away from it.
 This charge separation produces an electrical voltage which continues until
the Lorentz force on the charged particles from the electric field balances
the forces produced by the magnetic field. The result is a traverse potential
difference known as Hall voltage.

Construction & Working:

  Current is passed through leads 1 and 2 of the semiconductor plate and the
output leads
are connected to the element faces 3 and 4.
 These output faces are at same potential when there is no transverse
magnetic field passing through the element and voltage known as
Hall voltage appears when a transverse magnetic field is passing through
the element.
 This voltage is proportional to the current and the magnetic field.
 The direction of deflection depends on the direction of applied current and
the direction of magnetic field

TEMPERATURE SENSORS:

Bimetallic Strips:
 A Bimetallic thermostat consists of two different metal strips bounded
together and they
cannot move relative to each other.
 These metals have different coefficients of expansion and when the
temperature changes the composite strips bends into a curved strip, with
the higher coefficient metal on the outside of the curve.
 The basic principle in this is all metals try to change their physical
dimensions at different rates when subjected to same change in temperature.
 This deformation may be used as a temperature- controlled switch, as
in the simple
thermostat.
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs):
 The materials used for RTDs are Nickel, Iron, Platinum, Copper,
Lead, Tungsten,
Mercury, Silver, etc.
 The resistance of most metals increases over a limited temperature
range and the relationship between Resistance and Temperature is shown
below.

 The Resistance temperature detectors are simple and resistive elements in

the form of
 coils of wire
 The equation which is used to find the linear relationship in RTD is

Constructional Details of RTDs:

 The platinum, nickel and copper in the form wire are the most commonly
used materials
in the RTDs.
 Thin film platinum elements are often made by depositing the metal
on a suitable substrate wire- wound elements involving a platinum wire
held by a high temperature glass adhesive inside a ceramic tube.

Thermistors:
 Thermistor is a semiconductor device that has a negative temperature
coefficient of
resistance in contrast to positive coefficient displayed by most metals.
 Thermistors are small pieces of material made from mixtures of metal
oxides, such as Iron, cobalt, chromium, Nickel, and Manganese.
 The shape of the materials is in terms of discs, beads and rods.
 The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because its resistance
changes rapidly with temperature.
 The resistance of conventional metal-oxide thermistors decreases in a
very non-linear  The change in resistance per degree change in
temperature is considerably larger than
that which occurs with metals.

 The resistance-temperature relationship for a thermistor can be described by

an equation
of the form
β/t
Rt = Ke
 Where Rt, is the resistance at temperature t, with K and β being constant.
Thermistors
have many advantages when compared with other temperature sensors. manner
with
an increase in temperature
 The simple series circuit for measurement of temperature using a
thermistor and the
variation of resistance with temperature for a typical thermistor.

 The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because its resistance

changes rapidlywith temperature.
Thermocouples:
 Thermocouples are based on the See back Effect.
 The thermocouple temperature measurement is based on a creation of an
electromotive force (emf).

 "When two dissimilar metals are joined together an e.m.f will exist
between the two points A and B, which is primarily a function of the junction
temperature. The above said to be principle is See back effect..
 The thermocouple consist of one hot junction and one
cold junction
 Hot junction is inserted where temperature is measured
 Cold junction is maintained at a constant reference temperature.
 LIGHT SENSOR

The Photodiode.

Photo-diode
The construction of the Photodiode light sensor is similar to that of a conventional PN-junction diode except
that the diodes outer casing is either transparent or has a clear lens to focus the light onto the PN junction
for increased sensitivity. The junction will respond to light particularly longer wavelengths such as red and
infra-red rather than visible light.
This characteristic can be a problem for diodes with transparent or glass bead bodies such as the 1N4148
signal diode. LED’s can also be used as photodiodes as they can both emit and detect light from their
junction. All PN-junctions are light sensitive and can be used in a photo-conductive unbiased voltage mode
with the PN-junction of the photodiode always “Reverse Biased” so that only the diodes leakage or dark
current can flow.
The current-voltage characteristic (I/V Curves) of a photodiode with no light on its junction (dark mode) is
very similar to a normal signal or rectifying diode. When the photodiode is forward biased, there is an
exponential increase in the current, the same as for a normal diode. When a reverse bias is applied, a
small reverse saturation current appears which causes an increase of the depletion region, which is the
sensitive part of the junction. Photodiodes can also be connected in a current mode using a fixed bias
voltage across the junction. The current mode is very linear over a wide range.

Photo-diode Construction and Characteristics

When used as a light sensor, a photodiodes dark current (0 lux) is about 10uA for geranium and 1uA for
silicon type diodes. When light falls upon the junction more hole/electron pairs are formed and the leakage
current increases. This leakage current increases as the illumination of the junction increases.
Thus, the photodiodes current is directly proportional to light intensity falling onto the PN-junction. One
main advantage of photodiodes when used as light sensors is their fast response to changes in the light
levels, but one disadvantage of this type of photodevice is the relatively small current flow even when fully
lit.
The following circuit shows a photo-current-to-voltage converter circuit using an operational amplifier as the
amplifying device. The output voltage (Vout) is given as Vout = IP*Rƒ and which is proportional to the light
intensity characteristics of the photodiode.
This type of circuit also utilizes the characteristics of an operational amplifier with two input terminals at
about zero voltage to operate the photodiode without bias. This zero-bias op-amp configuration gives a
high impedance loading to the photodiode resulting in less influence by dark current and a wider linear
range of the photocurrent relative to the radiant light intensity. Capacitor Cf is used to prevent oscillation or
gain peaking and to set the output bandwidth (1/2πRC).

Photo-diode Amplifier Circuit

Photodiodes are very versatile light sensors that can turn its current flow both “ON” and “OFF” in
nanoseconds and are commonly used in cameras, light meters, CD and DVD-ROM drives, TV remote
controls, scanners, fax machines and copiers etc, and when integrated into operational amplifier circuits as
infrared spectrum detectors for fibre optic communications, burglar alarm motion detection circuits and
numerous imaging, laser scanning and positioning systems etc.

The Phototransistor
Photo-transistor
An alternative photo-junction device to the photodiode is the Phototransistor which is basically a photodiode
with amplification. The Phototransistor light sensor has its collector-base PN-junction reverse biased
exposing it to the radiant light source.
Phototransistors operate the same as the photodiode except that they can provide current gain and are
much more sensitive than the photodiode with currents are 50 to 100 times greater than that of the
standard photodiode and any normal transistor can be easily converted into a phototransistor light sensor
by connecting a photodiode between the collector and base.
Phototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar NPN Transistor with its large base region electrically
unconnected, although some phototransistors allow a base connection to control the sensitivity, and which
uses photons of light to generate a base current which in turn causes a collector to emitter current to flow.
Most phototransistors are NPN types whose outer casing is either transparent or has a clear lens to focus
the light onto the base junction for increased sensitivity.

Photo-transistor Construction and Characteristics

In the NPN transistor the collector is biased positively with respect to the emitter so that the base/collector
junction is reverse biased. therefore, with no light on the junction normal leakage or dark current flows
which is very small. When light falls on the base more electron/hole pairs are formed in this region and the
current produced by this action is amplified by the transistor.
Usually the sensitivity of a phototransistor is a function of the DC current gain of the transistor. Therefore,
the overall sensitivity is a function of collector current and can be controlled by connecting a resistance
between the base and the emitter but for very high sensitivity optocoupler type applications, Darlington
phototransistors are generally used.
Photo-darlington
Photodarlington transistors use a second bipolar NPN transistor to provide additional amplification or when
higher sensitivity of a photodetector is required due to low light levels or selective sensitivity, but its
response is slower than that of an ordinary NPN phototransistor.
Photo darlington devices consist of a normal phototransistor whose emitter output is coupled to the base of
a larger bipolar NPN transistor. Because a darlington transistor configuration gives a current gain equal to a
product of the current gains of two individual transistors, a photodarlington device produces a very sensitive
detector.

The Light Dependent Resistor

Typical LDR
As its name implies, the Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is made from a piece of exposed semiconductor
material such as cadmium sulphide that changes its electrical resistance from several thousand Ohms in
the dark to only a few hundred Ohms when light falls upon it by creating hole-electron pairs in the material.
The net effect is an improvement in its conductivity with a decrease in resistance for an increase in
illumination. Also, photoresistive cells have a long response time requiring many seconds to respond to a
change in the light intensity.
Materials used as the semiconductor substrate include, lead sulphide (PbS), lead selenide (PbSe), indium
antimonide (InSb) which detect light in the infra-red range with the most commonly used of all
photoresistive light sensors being Cadmium Sulphide (Cds).
Cadmium sulphide is used in the manufacture of photoconductive cells because its spectral response curve
closely matches that of the human eye and can even be controlled using a simple torch as a light source.
Typically then, it has a peak sensitivity wavelength (λp) of about 560nm to 600nm in the visible spectral
range.
The Light Dependent Resistor Cell

The most commonly used photoresistive light sensor is the ORP12 Cadmium Sulphide photoconductive
cell. This light dependent resistor has a spectral response of about 610nm in the yellow to orange region of
light. The resistance of the cell when unilluminated (dark resistance) is very high at about 10MΩ’s which
falls to about 100Ω’s when fully illuminated (lit resistance).