Basic cloud Interpretation using Satellite Imagery

Introduction

Recall that images from weather

satellites are actually
measurements of energy from
specified bands within the
Electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.
These include the Visible (VIS) Fig-1: VIS image Nov 29, 2008 1645Z. Note
contrast of bright clouds in northern Gulf of
and Infrared (IR) portions of the Mexico and southeast US with ocean and land
EM spectrum. areas to the south.

A satellite picture consists of The resolution of the image is also

thousands of points or pixels. important. It refers to the size of
Various shades of gray, the smallest element that can be
representing the level of energy or viewed in a particular satellite
temperature, are assigned to these image. For example, if the
pixels. Normally, 256 shades of resolution is 1 km (0.6 mi), then
gray (colors may be used for the smallest feature viewable
enhancement purposes) are utilized would be an object 1 km x 1 km.
(dark to light) which provides the
various levels of contrast in the Resolution is best at the satellite
picture. subpoint (directly below the
satellite), with the resolution
The greater the contrast between generally decreasing toward the
an object (cloud) and its edges of the image (toward the
background (earth’s surface) the poles in GOES imagery).
easier it is to identify features. An
example of a good contrast would Finally, keep in mind that satellite
be between a thunderstorm or interpretation is part science and
multi-layered clouds in a frontal part art. One needs to understand
boundary (white) and the ocean’s the scientific concepts of both the
surface (dark) as in Figure 1. atmosphere and the EM spectrum.
This includes the daily or seasonal
weather or climate patterns.
For example, along the west coast In visible imagery, the oceans and
of the US, severe thunderstorms the Great Lakes generally appear
are rare (not nonexistent). On the dark, as not much energy (solar
other hand, fog is a frequent visitor radiation) is reflected back to the
along the US west coast. This satellite. However, at times a
knowledge factors into the process sunglint will be visible on the
of properly interpreting satellite ocean (Figure 2), especially if the
cloud images. ocean is smooth (light winds).

Aspects of Visible Imagery

Visible satellite imagery is a

depiction of the amount of solar
radiation reflected back from the
earth and clouds (albedo). Shades
of light gray or white are
indicative of high reflectivity. Fig 2 Sunglint over Pacific Ocean on Dec 15,
2008 at 2100z - GOES West.
Dark shades of gray or black
indicate low reflectivity of solar
radiation. The sunglint is based on the
physical law of reflection (Figure
Based on this information, 3a) which states that angle of
thunderstorms and extensive areas incidence (Θi) = the angle of
of thick layered clouds will appear reflection (Θr).
white or very bright gray. These
clouds reflect a great amount of The satellite will need to be lined
the incoming solar radiation. up with this reflected beam in
order to detect the reflected
Thinner clouds, such as cirrus, energy.
appear light to medium gray as
some energy is reflected back to
the satellite while some passes
through to the earth’s surface.
Very thin cirrus may not even be
visible as most of the radiation
passes through to the earth’s
surface. Fig 3a Law of reflection
If the ocean surface is rough least bright during the early
(ocean waves) the beam may be morning and late afternoon due to
scattered in other directions and the lower sun angle. As noted
the sunglint will not be visible earlier, visible imagery is not
(Figure 3b). available at night.

Depending upon sun angle,

shadows by and on other clouds or
the earth’s surface can be helpful
in cloud interpretation. Shadows
Fig 3b If smooth, the ocean surface acts like a are only seen in visible imagery.
mirror. However waves will result in a disruption For example, tall clouds may cast
of the path of the reflected energy.
shadows on lower clouds (Figure
5) or the ground. Convective
Another feature in visible imagery clouds (i.e. cumulus or
is the terminator line. It marks the cumulonimbus) create shadows
transition from day to night and giving them a bumpy appearance.
moves from east to west. In Figure
4, this line is located across
extreme western Africa and the
eastern Atlantic.

Fig 5 note the shadows cast by layered higher

clouds on lower clouds in eastern NY and PA, as
well as in Mo, western TN, and southern
Canada.

Fig 4 Dec 15, 2008 1800Z and night has fallen Aspects of IR Imagery
on Africa.
IR imagery depicts the
Visible imagery is brightest during
measurement of the energy emitted
the midday, due to direct angle of
by the earth, atmosphere and
the sun’s illumination. It will be
clouds. Based on Wien’s equation,
the earth system’s maximum or These variations will be more
peak emittance is in the IR band. pronounced depending upon the
The range of energy depends upon season of the year. For example, in
the temperature of the surface the winter the water will generally
emitting the radiation. Thus the IR be darker (oceans retain heat and
image is a depiction of the are warmer) than the land. In the
temperature of the cloud tops as summer, the afternoon heating of
well as the earth’s surface. the land will be more pronounced
with land areas changing from
These temperatures are converted light gray to dark gray (warmer).
and depicted as shades of gray (or
other colors) ranging from white Again, the major advantage of IR
(cold) to black (warm). imagery is that it’s available 24
hours a day. However a limitation
Based on this information, high is that when two features (earth’s
cloud tops (cold) will appear surface and fog) have similar
white. This is the case with cirrus temperatures, they will exhibit
as well as thunderstorm tops. In poor contrast in gray shades. When
fact, sometimes thin cirrus will not this occurs, it will be difficult to
show in the visible imagery but distinguish between the two. Fog
will in the IR imagery. is frequently difficult to detect on
the IR image at night.
Lower level clouds (warmer) will
appear as varying shades of dark to However, comparison with a
medium gray. The warmer oceans visible image (when available) or
and land areas will appear dark looping techniques (clouds move
gray or black. while the ground doesn’t) will help
with image interpretation.
One thing to keep in mind is that
the temperature of the land will
vary during the day while the Satellite Interpretation using
ocean will not. In the early VIS and IR Comparison
morning, the land will be cool and
may be a similar gray shade to the Based on previous classroom
ocean. By afternoon, the land will discussions, we created a matrix or
be warmed by incoming solar table listing the characteristics of
radiation with an appropriate cloud types (Appendix 1). The
change to a darker gray scale while Shades of gray that are commonly
there will be little change in the associated with these cloud types
ocean. are listed in this table.
Comparison of cloud pictures thunderstorms show up white on
(digital camera) from the ground both the VIS and the IR, and
looking up with satellite images generally have a globular or carrot
will be discussed in class. shape, as in figure 5. However, not
However, this table along with the every white cloud is a
following brief descriptions, thunderstorm. It’s important to
should help in identifying cloud know if the current weather pattern
types with satellite imagery. would support thunderstorms.

When both are available, VISible

and IR imagery should be used to
complement each other.

In the IR imagery:
---white or light gray shades are
areas of high clouds (cold).
---low level clouds (warmer) are
dark to medium gray shades, and
may be difficult to distinguish
from the earth’s surface.

In visible imagery:
---white or light gray shades are
generally thick clouds (layered or
thunderstorms).
---thin clouds (i.e. cirrus) appear as Fig 5 Vis (left) and IR (right) Feb 18, 2009
light gray or may be transparent 2000z. Cloud tops blowing off from wsw to ene
with upper level winds (anvils) with carrot
---low clouds (depending upon shape.
thickness) will range from medium
to light gray (cumulus), to dark or The matrix that follows at then end
medium gray for stratocumulus of this section is a general guide to
and stratus. use when learning to interpret
---Thick fog may appear as satellite imagery. Actual cloud
medium to light gray, depending pictures and satellite images will
upon time of day and thickness of be discussed in the cloud type
cloud. modules.

An example of using both VIS and

IR would be in monitoring
thunderstorms. In general,
Determining Cloud Types cloud tops suggest showers with
cumuliform clouds.
Figures 6-a (visible) and 6-b (IR) Off the US east coast, light gray
are satellite images from clouds in the VIS (globular in
December 22, 2008 at 1545Z. shape) are medium gray in the IR
Comparison of the two pictures (relatively warm tops). As a result,
will be used to determine cloud these are relatively lower level
types. thick clouds (stratocumulus and
cumulus) developing in the cold
air moving off the continent and
over the warmer ocean (heating
from below).

In the Gulf of Mexico and across

Texas, bright clouds in the VIS are
dark gray in the IR. Thus these are
low level clouds of stratocumulus
and stratus origin.

Finally, as one moves north into

Oklahoma and Kansas, the clouds
are bright in both the VIS and IR,
suggesting multilayered clouds
associated with a developing storm
system. These clouds are a mixture
of cumuliform and
altostratus/altocumulus clouds
Fig 6 a (top) IR image
Fig 6 b (bottom) Visible image layered to cirrus.
Dec 22, 2008 1545Z.

The narrow rope cloud in the west Summary

central Atlantic is a great example.
This narrow line is bright in the When diagnosing the atmosphere,
VIS (figure 6b) but medium gray no one tool suffices. An astute
in the IR (figure 6 a). This student of the atmospheric
information suggests the tops are sciences uses all available data
not very cold, thus they are not (surface observations, radar and
thunderstorms. While associated both visible and IR satellite
with a frontal system, the lower images).
Understanding the scientific
concepts of regional climatology,
current weather patterns, and
strengths and weaknesses of
remote sensing is very important if
one is to properly use satellite
images.

A scientific method of learning

how to interpret satellite images
involves coupling conceptual
knowledge of cloud formation
with satellite image technology.
Compare your visual cloud
observations with GOES satellite
images. Note how clouds form or
dissipate both visually and in
satellite imagery. You will soon
learn to distinguish fog from
cumulus clouds, and
thunderstorms from layered
stratiform clouds.
 Appendix I - General cloud description when viewed on satellite Imagery

Cloud Type Content Base height Characteristic Color or tone Color or tone
above ground shape on Visible satellite IR satellite
satellite image

Cirrus Ice 20,000 to Thin wispy or Light gray or white

40,000 Feet smooth. Ground white but thin
usually visible.
Cirrostratus Ice 15,000 to Thin veil or Light gray or Light gray or white
30,000 Feet sheet like white
cirrocumulus Ice 15,000 to Thin patches Light gray or Light gray or white
30,000 Feet white
Altostratus Water and ice 6,500 to Smooth layered Medium to light Medium gray
15,000 Feet cloud but edges gray. May have
may be ragged striations/shadows
Altocumulus Water and ice 6,500 to Smooth layered Medium to light Medium gray
15,000 Feet cloud but edges gray. May have
may be ragged striations
Stratocumulus Water (and ice 1500 to Lumpy/cellular. Medium to light Dark to medium gray.
in winter) 6500 Feet May be in lines gray Sometimes poor
or groups with contrast between land
edges touching and cloud.
Cumulus Water (may Lumpy/bumpy. Light gray to medium to light gray
have ice) < 6,500 Feet Individual white
elements visible
Cumulonimbus Water and ice Globular or
< 6,500 feet but carrot shaped.
tops can grow to Bumpy. May be Bright white Bright white
> 50,000 Feet in lines and cast
shadows.
Nimbostratus Water and ice 6,500 Feet or Large area of
less but layered smooth cloud Medium to bright Medium gray to white
up to 20,000 with striations. gray
feet
Stratus (and fog) Water (and ice Smooth. Shape Medium gray to Dark to medium gray.
in winter) < 3000 Feet frequently white depending Frequently poor
defined by upon cloud contrast between cloud
topography thickness and ground use visible
to help when available