Digital Modulation

and
Multiplexing

176

Baseband Transmission XP

Line codes: (a) Bits, (b) NRZ, (c) NRZI,

(d) Manchester, (e) Bipolar or AMI.

178

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 1
 Bandwidth Efficiency XP

❑ Bandwidth is often a limited resource.

❑ Higher-frequency signals are increasingly attenuated
❑ Higher-frequency signals require faster electronics.
❑ Using limited bandwidth more efficiently:
❑ Using more than 2 signal levels.
❑ With four (4) signal levels we could transmit 2 bits
with a single symbol.
• Symbol rate vs. Bit rate.

179

Clock Recovery XP

❑ Solving the problem of large number of repeated bits (e.g., 15

zeros) requires accurate clocking which is expensive solution
for commodity equipment.
❑ Strategies:
❑ Sending separate clock signal to the receiver.
• Good solution for a computer buses or short cables in which there
several parallel lines.
• Wasteful solution for most networks links.
❑ Incorporating clock into the signal itself:
❑ Manchester encoding is used in classic Ethernet.
❑ XOR-ing the clock signal with zero it makes low to high transition (just like the
clock).
❑ XOR-ing with 1 it makes it is inverted and makes a high-to-low transition.
❑ Downside – 2 times the bandwidth of the original signal.

180

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 2
 Clock Recovery XP

❑ A different strategy is based on the idea that we should

code the data to ensure that there are enough
transitions in the signal.
❑ NRZ coding will have problems only for long runs of 0’s and
1’s (not for short ones).
❑ First step would be to code a 1 as a transition, and 0 as a no
transition (NRZI – Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted)
❑ USB (Universal Serial Bus) standard uses NRZI.
❑ Long run of zeros have the same problem as the original.

181

Clock Recovery XP

❑ 4B/5B – every 4 bits is mapped into a 5-bit pattern

with a fixed translation table.
❑ This table is crafted with no more than three consecutive
0s.
❑ Adds 25% overhead (better than 100% as in Manchester
Encoding).

182

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 3
 Clock Recovery XP

4B/5B mapping.

183

Clock Recovery XP

❑ There are plenty of free combinations in 4B/5B

mapping to use it for control signals:
❑ 1111 – represents an idle line
❑ 1100 – represents start of the frame.
❑ “Random” Data:
❑ Scrambling of the data.
❑ XOR data with a pseudo random sequence.
❑ Additional advantages:
• No extra bandwidth is need.
• It is better than original signal (white noise spectrum of random process)
• Energy is equally spread across all bandwidth uniformly.

184

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 4
 Balanced Signals XP

❑ Signals that have as much positive voltage as negative

voltage even over short periods of time are called
balanced signals.
❑ They average to zero, which means that they have no DC
electrical component.
❑ The lack of a DC component is an advantage because some
channels, such as coaxial cable or lines with transformers,
strongly attenuate a DC component due to their physical
properties.
❑ Balancing helps to provide transitions for clock recovery
since there is a mix of positive and negative voltages.

185

Balanced Signals XP

❑ A straightforward way to construct a balanced code is

to use two voltage levels to represent a logical 1, (say
+1 V or −1 V) with 0 V representing a logical zero.
❑ To send a 1, the transmitter alternates between the +1 V and
−1 V levels so that they always average out.
❑ This scheme is called bipolar encoding.
❑ In telephone networks it is called AMI (Alternate Mark
Inversion), building on old terminology in which a 1 is called a
‘‘mark’’ and a 0 is called a ‘‘space.’’
❑ An example is given in Fig. (e).

186

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 5
 Balanced Signals XP

❑ Bipolar encoding adds a voltage level to achieve

balance. Alternatively we can use a mapping like 4B/5B
to achieve balance (as well as transitions for clock
recovery).
❑ An example of this kind of balanced code is the 8B/10B
line code.
❑ It maps 8 bits of input to 10 bits of output, so it is 80%
efficient, just like the 4B/5B line code.
❑ The 8 bits are split into a group of 5 bits, which is mapped to
6 bits, and a group of 3 bits, which is mapped to 4 bits. The 6-
bit and 4-bit symbols are then concatenated.

187

Balanced Signals XP

❑ In each group, some input patterns can be mapped to

balanced output patterns that have the same number of 0s
and 1s.
❑ For example, ‘‘001’’ is mapped to ‘‘1001,’’ which is balanced.
❑ But there are not enough combinations for all output
patterns to be balanced.
❑ For these cases, each input pattern is mapped to two output
patterns. One will have an extra 1 and the alternate will have
an extra 0.
❑ For example, ‘‘000’’ is mapped to both ‘‘1011’’ and its
complement ‘‘0100.’’

188

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 6
 Balanced Signals XP

❑ As input bits are mapped to output bits, the encoder

remembers the disparity from the previous symbol. The
disparity is the total number of 0s or 1s by which the signal is
out of balance.
❑ The encoder then selects either an output pattern or its
alternate to reduce the disparity.

189

Baseband to Passband Signals XP

❑ Often, we want to use a range of frequencies that does not

start at zero to send information across a channel.
❑ For wireless channels, it is not practical to send very low
frequency signals because the size of the antenna needs to be
a fraction of the signal wavelength, which becomes large.
❑ In any case, regulatory constraints and the need to avoid
interference usually dictate the choice of frequencies.
❑ Even for wires, placing a signal in a given frequency band is
useful to let different kinds of signals coexist on the channel.
❑ This kind of transmission is called passband transmission
because an arbitrary band of frequencies is used to pass the
signal.

190

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 7
 Baseband to Passband Signals XP

❑ Fortunately, maximum data rate or capacity of channel are all in

terms of bandwidth, or the width of the frequency band.
❑ The absolute frequency values do not matter for capacity.
❑ This means that we can take a baseband signal that occupies 0
to B Hz and shift it up to occupy a passband of S to S+B Hz
without changing the amount of information that it can carry,
even though the signal will look different.
❑ To process a signal at the receiver, we can shift it back down to
baseband, where it is more convenient to detect symbols.
❑ Shifting of a Baseband to a Passband requires modulation.
❑ Digital modulation can be done on:
❑ Amplitude
❑ Frequency, or
❑ Phase
191

Basic Digital Modulation Techniques XP

❑ Digital modulation: Amplitude, frequency

and/or Phase are used to represent a digital
state
❑ ASK: Amplitude shift keying V(t) = A(t) cos(2πfc t + Φ)

❑ FSK: Frequency shift keying V(t) = A(t) cos(2πf(t) t + Φ)

❑ PSK: Phase shift keying V(t) = A(t) cos(2πfc t + Φ(t))

❑ QAM: Quadrature amplitude modulation -

V(t) = A(t) cos(2πfc t + Φ(t))

192

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 8
 Basic Digital Modulation Techniques XP

Types of digital-to-analog modulation

193

Passband Transmission XP

(a) A binary signal. (b) Amplitude shift keying.

(c) Frequency shift keying. (d) Phase shift keying.

194

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 9
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) XP
Dr Salman Ali
AlQahtani

Message signal x(t)

Modulated ASK signal s(t)

Signals Carriers

 A cos(2f c t) binary 1
s(t) =  1  Acos(2f ct) binary 1
 A2 cos(2f ct) binary 0 On/Off keying s(t) = 
 0 binary 0

❑ The strength of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 and 0.

❑ Frequency and phase remains the same.
❑ H i ghly susceptible to noise interference.
❑ On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200 bps
❑ The ASK technique is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber

196

Frequency Shift Keying XP

Message signal x(t)

FSK signal s(t)

 A cos( 2 f 1t) binary 1

s(t ) = 
 A cos( 2 f 2 t ) binary 0

❑ Frequency of the carrier is varied to represent digital data (binary 0/1)

❑ Peak amplitude and phase remain constant.
❑ Avoid noise interference by looking at frequencies (change of a signal) and ignoring
amplitudes.
❑ Limitations of FSK is the physical capabilities of the carrier.

197

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 10
 Binary Frequency-Shift Keying (BFSK) XP

❑ Two binary digits represented by two different

frequencies near the carrier frequency

 A cos (2f1t )
 binary 1
s (t ) = 
 A cos (2f 2t )
 binary 0

• where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by

equal but opposite amounts

198

Binary Frequency-Shift Keying (BFSK) XP

❑ Less susceptible to error than ASK

❑ On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200bps
❑ Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio
transmission
❑ Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs that
use coaxial cable

199

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 11
 Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK) XP

❑ More than two frequencies are used

❑ In this case each signaling element represents more
than one bit.
❑ The transmitted MFSK signal for one signal element
time can be defined as follows:
si (t ) = A cos 2f i t 1  i  M
where,
❑ f i = f c + (2i – 1 – M)f d
❑ f c = the carrier frequency
❑ f d = the difference frequency
❑ M = number of different signal elements = 2L
❑ L = number of bits per signal element

200

Phase Shift Keying (PSK) XP

❑ Phase of the carrier is varied to represent digital data (binary 0 or

1), i.e., Binary PSK (BPSK)
❑ Amplitude and frequency remains constant.
❑ Phases are separated by 180 degrees.
❑ If phase 0 deg. to represent 0, 180 deg. to represent 1. (2-
PSK)

Message
signal
x(t)
 Acos(2f t +  ) binary 1 PSK
s(t) = 
 A cos(2f t +  +  ) binary 0 signal
s(t)

201

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 12
 Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) XP

❑ Two-level PSK (BPSK)

❑ Uses two phases to represent binary digits

 A cos(2f ct )
 binary 1
s (t ) = 
 A cos(2f c t +  )
 binary 0

 A cos(2f ct )
 binary 1
=
− A cos(2f c t )
 binary 0

202

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) XP

28 Dr Salman Ali
❑ More efficient use of bandwidth can beAlQahtani
achieved
if each signaling element represents more than
one bit.
❑ QPSK refers to PSK with 4 states.
❑ The “Quad” in QPSK refers to four phases in
which a carrier is sent in QPSK. Also, called 4-
PSK.
❑ Because QPSK has 4 possible states, QPSK can
encode two bits per symbol.
❑ QPSK uses phase shifts separated by multiples
of  / 2 (90o).

203

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 13
 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) XP
28 Dr Salman Ali
AlQahtani
❑ Example: Relationship between different phases:

204

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) XP

Dr Salman Ali
AlQahtani

Message signal x(t)

QPSK signal s(t)

0,0 = 0 0,0 =  / 4
 A cos( 2f t) binary 00  
 A cos( 2f t +  )
 2 binary 01 0,1 =  / 2 0,1 = 3 / 4
s(t) =  o 
 A cos( 2f t + 3 ) binary 10 1,0 =  1,0 = −3 / 4
  = − / 4
 A cos( 2f t + 4 ) binary 11

 = 3 / 2
 1,1 r  1,1

205

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 14
 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) XP

❑ Four-level PSK (QPSK)

❑ Each element represents more than one bit

 
A cos 2f c t + 
  4
11




A cos 2f ct +
3 

s (t ) = 
01
 4 
 3 
A cos 2f ct − 

00
 4 

  
A cos 2f c t −  10
 4

206

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) XP

26
❑ The essence of quadrature modulation methods is the application of
complementary pairs of amplitude to two simultaneous sinusoidal waves
differing in phase by one-quarter of a cycle.
❑ Sinusoidal waves (of the same frequency) with a phase difference of a
quarter (or three-quarters) of a cycle are said to be in a quadrature
phase relationship.
❑ It is customary to refer to one of these waves as the I wave, or in-
phase wave, and the other as the Q wave, or quadrature wave.

207

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 15
 QPSK and its implementation XP

• In QPSK, we parallelize the bit stream so that every two incoming bits are split up and
PSK a carrier frequency. One carrier frequency is phase shifted 90o from the other - in
quadrature.
• The two PSKed signals are then added to produce one of 4 signal elements. L = 4 here.

208

Constellation Diagrams XP

❑ A constellation diagram helps us to define the

amplitude and phase of a signal when we are
using two carriers, one in quadrature of the other.
❑ The X-axis represents the in-phase carrier and the
Y- axis represents quadrature carrier.

209

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 16
 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) XP
Constellation diagram
❑ It is a convenient way to represent the symbols available when both I
and Q waves are modulated separately.
❑ You can see that there are four symbols with QPSK, whereas BPSK
has only two.
Q Q
0,1

1 0 1,1 0,0
I I

1,0

(a) BPSK (b) QPSK

210

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) XP

Dr Salman Ali
QPSK Constellation diagram AlQahtani
0,0 = 0

0,1 =  / 2

1,0 = 
 = 3 / 2
 1,1

 A cos( 2 f t) binary 00

 A cos( 2 f t + 2 ) binary 01
s(t ) = 
 A cos( 2 f

 A cos( 2 f
t + 3 )
t +  4)
binary 10
binary 11
o
r More
practical
Phase Data

0,0 =  / 4 45 00
 135 01
0,1 = 3 / 4
 225 11
1,0 = −3 / 4 315 10
 = − / 4
 1,1

211

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 17
 ASK, BPSK, QPSK Constellation
XP
Diagrams
Dr Salman Ali
AlQahtani

212

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)XP

❑ PSK is limited by the ability of the equipment to distinguish between small
differences in phases.
❑ Limits the potential data rate.
❑ If multiple pairs of Q and I amplitude (say 1 and -1; and 3 and -3) are allowed,
then more symbols become available.
❑ This is the principle of quadrature amplitude modulation, or QAM, which you
can think of as the application of ASK to QPSK (or PSK).
❑ We can have x variations in phase and y variations of amplitude
❑ x • y possible variation (greater data rates)

Amplitude Phase

213

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 18
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
XP
Dr Salman Ali
❑ Numerous variations. # of phase shifts > # of amplitude shifts AlQahtani
8-QAM for example:
• 3-bit binary words are used.
• There are eight QAM
symbols.
• Actually, 8-QAM is hardly
ever used, because it turns
out that allocating 3 bits to
each symbol is problematic
in practice.
• 16-QAM and 64-QAM
are much more common.

First example handles noise best

Because of ratio of phases to
amplitudes ITU-T recommendation.

214

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

XP

4-QAM (1 amplitude, 4 phases):

QAM

16-QAM ( 4 amplitudes, 4 phases):

8-QAM (2 amplitudes, 4 phases):

215

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 19
 More Higher Order Modulation XP

❑ 16QAM(16-Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation) Q
❑ Each IQ symbol location is
represented by 4 data bits
(000100) (001100) (011100) (010100) (110100) (111100)(101100) (100100)
❑ 64QAM (64-Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation)
(000101) (001101) (011101) (010101) (110101) (111101)(101101) (100101)
❑ Each symbol is now worth 6 bits

Q (000111) (001111) (011111) (010111) (110111) (111111)(101111) (100111)

(000110) (001110) (011110) (010110) (110110) (111110)(101110) (100110)

I
(0010) (0110) (1110) (1010)

(000010) (001010) (011010) (010010) (110010) (111010)(101010) (100010)

(0011) (0111) (1111) (1011)
I
(000011) (001011) (011011) (010011) (110011) (111011)(101011) (100011)
(0001) (0101) (1101) (1001)
(000001) (001001) (011001) (010001) (110001) (111001)(101001) (100001)

(0000) (0100) (1100) (1000)

(000000) (001000) (011000) (010000) (110000) (111000) (101000) (100000)

216

Why Not Just Keep Going? XP

❑ Errors in modulation create symbol errors in transmission

❑ Noise in the transmission channel create symbol errors
❑ Inaccuracies in the receiver creates errors
❑ Signal-to-noise requirements increase with higher order modulations

Q (0010) (0110) (1110) (1010)

(01) (11)
(0011) (0111) (1111) (1011)
I
I
(0001) (0101) (1101) (1001)

(00) (10)
(0000) (0100) (1100) (1000)

217

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 20
 What Limits Transmission? XP

❑ The rate at which symbols can be transmitted is limited by the

bandwidth of the channel.
❑ The rate at which errors are introduced into the bit stream [i.e. the bit
error rate (BER)] depends on the noise level in the channel.
Q

Q (0010) (0110) (1110) (1010)

(01) (11)
(0011) (0111) (1111) (1011)
I
I
(0001) (0101) (1101) (1001)

(00) (10)
(0000) (0100) (1100) (1000)

218

Passband Transmission XP

Constellation Diagram
(a) QPSK. (b) QAM-16. (c) QAM-64.

219

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 21
 Code Assignment XP

❑ It is important to note that the Constellation graphs of

the previous slide does not tell how to assign the
codes to each combination.
❑ Example:
❑ With QAM-16 if one symbol stood for 0111 and the
neighboring symbol stood for 1000 – if the receiver
mistakenly picks the adjacent symbol it will cause all of the
bits to be wrong.
❑ A better coding scheme will allow adjacent symbols to have
only one bit difference (Gray Code)

220

Passband Transmission XP

Gray-coded QAM-16.

221

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 22
 Multiplexing

222

Multiplexing XP

❑ The modulation schemes allow us to send one signal to

convey bits with wired or wireless communication
channels.
❑ It cost the same amount of money to install and
maintain a high-bandwidth transmission line as a low-
bandwidth between two different offices (e.g., cost is
incurred in digging up a trench).
❑ Multiplexing schemes have been developed to share
lines among many signals.

223

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 23
 Concepts and Models for Multiple Divisions
XP
68 Dr Salman Ali
❑ A radio signal can be represented by a function
AlQahtani of
frequency, time and code as;
s(f,t,c) = s(f,t) c(t)
where s(f,t) is the function of frequency and
time and c(t) is the function of code
❑ Use of different frequencies to transmit a signal: FDMA
❑ Distinct time slot: TDMA
❑ Different codes CDMA

224

FDMA XP

❑ FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) takes advantage of passband

transmission to share a channel.
❑ It divides the spectrum into frequency bands, with each user having exclusive
possession of some band in which to send their signal.
❑ FDMA was the initial multiple-access technique for cellular systems
❑ Separates large band into smaller channels.
❑ Each channel has the ability to support user.
❑ G uard bands are used to separate channel preventing co-channel interference
Frequency

Bm

Frequency
channel
Time Bc

225

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 24
 Frequency Division Multiplexing XP

Frequency division multiplexing. (a) The original bandwidths.

(b) The bandwidths raised in frequency.
(c) The multiplexed channel.

226

FDMA XP

f1’ f1
MS #1

f2’ f2
MS #2
…

…
…

fn’ fn
MS #n
BS
Reverse channels Forward channels
(Uplink) (Downlink)

227

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 25
 FDMA: Channel Structure XP

Guard Band Wg Sub Band Wc

…
1 2 3 4 N
Frequency

Total Bandwidth W=NWc

f1’ f2’ fn’ f1 f2 fn

… …

Frequency
Reverse channels Forward channels
Protecting bandwidth

228

Advantages of FDMA XP

❑ If channel is not in use, it sits idle

❑ Channel bandwidth is relatively narrow
❑ Simple algorithmically, and from a hardware standpoint
❑ Fairly efficient when the number of stations is small and the
traffic is uniformly constant
❑ Capacity increase can be obtained by reducing the
information bit rate and using efficient digital code
❑ No need for network timing
❑ No restriction regarding the type of baseband or type of
modulation

231

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 26
 Disadvantages to using FDMA XP
71 Dr Salman Ali

❑ The presence of guard bands AlQahtani

❑ Requires right RF filtering to minimize

adjacent channel interference
❑ Maximum bit rate per channel is fixed
❑ Small inhibiting flexibility in bit rate capability
❑ Does not differ significantly from analog
system

232

Time Division Multiplexing XP

❑ Entire bandwidth is available to the user for finite period of time.

❑ Users are allotted time slots for a channel allowing sharing of a single channel.
❑ Requires time synchronization.
❑ Each of the user takes turn in transmitting and receiving data in a round robin
fashion.
Time-frame
Frequency

Time
Time slot

233

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 27
 TDMA XP

❑ Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).

❑ Round robbing of each user that uses a complete
bandwidth to transmit data during the time that
was allocated.
❑ Used in telephone and cellular networks

234

TDMA XP

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).

235

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 28
 TDMA XP

Frequency f ’ Slot Frequency f

#1
… … … … … …

#1

#1
#1
MS #1 t t
… … … … … …
#2

#2

#2

#2
MS #2 t t
…

… … … … … …

#n

#n
#n

MS #n #n t t

Frame Frame Frame Frame BS

Reverse channels Forward channels

(Uplink) (Downlink)

236

TDMA: Channel Structure XP

f
Frame Frame Frame

… … …
#1
#2

#1

#2
#n
#1

#2

#n

#n

(a). Forward channel

f’
Frame Frame Frame

… … …
#1
#2

#1

#2
#n
#1

#2

#n

#n

(b). Reverse channel

237

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 29
 TDMA: Frame Structure (Cont’d) XP

Frequency
f=f’
Frame Frame

… … … …
#1
#2

#1

#2

#1
#n
#1

#2

#n

#n

#2

#n
Time

Forward Reverse Forward Reverse

channel channel channel channel

Channels in Simplex Mode

238

TDMA: Frame Structure (Cont’d) XP

Frequency
Frame Frame Frame

… … …
#1
#2

#1

#2
#n
#n
#1

#2

#n

Time

Head Data
Guard
time

239

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 30
 TDMA XP
74 Dr Salman Ali
❑ Advantages AlQahtani

❑ More efficient use of spectrum, compared to FDMA

❑ Will accommodate more users in the same spectrum space
than an FDMA system
❑ Disadvantages
❑ Network and spectrum planning are intensive
❑ Multipath interference affects call quality
❑ Too few users result in idle channels (rural versus urban
environment)
❑ Higher costs due to greater equipment sophistication

240

Code Division Multiplexing XP

❑ Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) – works in completely different

way from FDM or TDM.
❑ Form of a spread spectrum communication approach, in which a
narrowband signal is spread out over a wider frequency band.
❑ This can make it more tolerant of interference, as well as allowing multiple
signals from different users to share the same frequency band.
❑ This CDM is better known as CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access).
❑ TDM – Group of people communicate verbally but at different
times.
❑ FDM – Group of people communicate on different pitches at the
same time.
❑ CDMA – Group of people communicate at the same time but
using different languages. Goal is to be able to filter out the
langue of choice and consider everything else as noise.

241

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 31
 CDMA XP
76 Dr Salman Ali
❑ CDMA is a spread spectrum technique AlQahtani

used to increase spectrum efficiency.

❑ Users share bandwidth by using code
sequences that are orthogonal to each other
❑ SS has been used in military applications due to
anti- jamming and security.

Cod
e
Cod
e

User 4

User 3

User 2

Frequency User 1
Time

Time

242

Code Division Multiplexing XP

❑ Simplified CDMA:
❑ Each bit time is subdivided into short intervals called chips.
❑ There are typically 64-128 chips per bit.
❑ Each station is assigned a unique m-bit code called a chip sequence.
❑ Chip sequence will be represented in parenthesis.
❑ We will be using +1 and -1 to represent bits.
❑ To transmit
• 1 bit, a station sends its chip sequence.
• 0 bit, a station sends inverted chip sequence.
• No other patterns are permitted.
❑ Example m = 8 bits.
• Station A chip sequence = (-1 -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1)
• 1 – (-1 -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1)
• 0 – (+1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1 -1 -1)

243

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 32
 Code Division Multiplexing XP

❑ Increasing the amount of information to be send

from b bits/sec to mb bits/sec means that the
bandwidth needed for CDMA is greater by a factor of
m than the bandwidth needed for station using
FDM.
❑ If we have a 1 MHz band available for 100 stations, with FDM each
one would have 10 kHz and could send at 10 kbps (assuming 1 bit per
Hz).
❑ With CDMA, each station uses the full 1 MHz so the chip rate is 100
chips per bit spread the station’s bit rate of 10 kbps across the
channel.

244

Code Division Multiplexing XP

(a) Chip sequences for four stations.

(b) Signals the sequences represent

245

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 33
 CDMA XP

❑ S - indicates the m-chip vector for station S.

❑ Sത - indicates the negated signal.
❑ All paired chip sequences are orthogonal, meaning
that:
❑ S•T = 0 => Walsh Code to produce the sequences.
𝑚
1
S•T ≡ ෍ 𝑆𝑖 𝑇𝑖 = 0
𝑚
𝑖=1
ഥ = 0. Also
❑ Note that if S•T = 0 then so is S•T
1 𝑚 1 𝑚 1 𝑚
S•S ≡ σ 𝑆𝑆 = σ 𝑆2 = σ ∓1 2 = 1, and
𝑚 𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑖 𝑚 𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑚 𝑖=1
S•S ≡ +1

246

Code Division Multiplexing XP

(a) Six examples of transmissions.

(b) Recovery of station C’s

247

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 34
 Advantages of CDMA XP

❑ Many users of CDMA use the same frequency.

❑ Multipath fading may be substantially reduced
because of large signal bandwidth
❑ No absolute limit on the number of users
❑ Easy addition of more users
❑ Impossible for hackers to decipher the code sent
❑ Better signal quality

248

Disadvantages to using CDMA XP

81 Dr Salman Ali
AlQahtani
❑ As the number of users increases, the overall
quality of service decreases
❑ Self-jamming
❑ Near- Far- problem arises

249

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 35
 Comparison of various Multiple Division
XP
Techniques
Technique FDMA TDMA CDMA
Divide the frequency Divide the time into Spread the signal
Concept band into disjoint non-overlapping with orthogonal
subbands time slots codes
All terminals active Terminals are active All terminals active
Active terminals on their specified in their specified slot on same
frequencies on same frequency frequency
Synchronization in
Signal separation Filtering in frequency Code separation
time
Advantages Simple and robust Flexible Flexible
Complex
Inflexible, available Requires guard
receivers, requires
frequencies are space,
Disadvantages power control to
fixed, requires synchronization
avoid near-far
guard bands problem
problem
Current Radio, TV and
GSM and PDC 2.5G and 3G
applications analog cellular

250

CS-2008 Computer Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 36