Research ethics

https://www.slideshare.net/mohammeda24/research-ethics-78861141
 Out lines
1- Introduction to ethics in research

3-What is human research? •

4-Why is Research Ethics Important
5-Ethical Principles Guiding Research
6-Ethical principles according to Belmont Report
7-Participants: Who are they?
8-Procedures for protecting study participants
9-Major potential benefits to participants
10-Major Potential Risks to Participants
11-Ethics: Areas of Focus
12-Treatment of Vulnerable groups
 1. Introduction to ethics in research
• you must accept the responsibility to behave
ethically toward those who will be affected by
your research
• ethics is the study of proper action
• research ethics concerns the responsibility
of researchers to be honest and respectful
to all individuals who may be affected by
their research studies or their reports of the
studies’ results
 it is based

Ethics
Ethics: principles for guiding decision making
and reconciling conflicting values
• eople
Peopley may disagree
ee on ‘ oncs’ ethics
usebecause
it is it –is
on people's
based on people personalnal alue
value systems
t one n s to be d or –
• What one person consider to be good or right-
maybe considered bad or wrong by another
person
Human Research Ethics
The basics
 What is human research?
Human research is:
1-research conducted with people
2-research conducted about people
3. research dealing in their data or .1
tissue
 Three types of human research
1. Analysis of Existing Data of Specimens
or Secondary analysis is a form of research that uses existing
data, or secondary data, collected previously to perform a new
study. Researchers might use quantitative or qualitative data
another research team or agency gathered or .1produced for different
reasons and analyze it in a new way.

2. Observational Studies.
In an observational study, the investigator simply records
observations and analyzes data, without assigning participants to a
specific intervention or treatment. These studies may focus on
observation of risk factors, natural history, variations in disease
progression or disease treatment without delivering or assigning an
intervention.
 Three types of human research
3. Interventional Studies.
are clinical studies in which participants
are prospectively assigned to groups (e.g.,
experimental and control arms) to receive an
intervention(s) or a placebo/no interventions
.1 so that
researchers can evaluate the effects of the
interventions on biomedical or health-related
outcomes.
Why is Research Ethics Important?
- It is a reflection of respect for those who ‘take
part’ in research
- It ensures no unreasonable, unsafe or
thoughtless demands are made by
researchers
- It ensures sufficient knowledge is shared by all
concerned
- It imposes a common standard in all the above
respects
 Why is Research Ethics Important
*It has become the norm as an expectation for
research activity
*…. a professional requirement for practitioners
in some disciplines e.g. psychology
*… a requirement for access to participants in
others e.g. health
*… and a requirement to comply with external
REF’s to obtain funding e.g. ESRC
 Ethical Principles Guiding Research

*Respect for human dignity

*Respect for free and informed consent
*Respect for vulnerable persons
*Respect for privacy and confidentiality
*Respect for justice and inclusiveness
*Balancing harms and benefit
*Minimizing harm
*Maximizing benefit
 1. Human Dignity
Cardinal Principle
Basis of ethical obligations
Two essential components
The selection and achievement of morally acceptable
ends
The morally acceptable means to those ends
Protect the multiple and interdependent interests of
the person (bodily, psychological, cultural integrity)
 2. Consent

- Presumption that individuals have capacity

and right to make free and informed decisions
- In research = dialogue, process, rights, duties,
requirements for free and informed consent by
the research subject
- Your research cannot proceed without consent
- Consent must be maintained throughout
 3. Vulnerable Persons
Ethical obligations towards vulnerable persons
-Diminished competence
-Diminished decision-making capacity
Entitled to special protection, special
procedures to protect their interests
Entitlement (based on grounds of human
dignity, caring, solidarity, fairness) to special
protection against abuse, exploitation,
discrimination
 4. Privacy & Confidentiality

Fundamental to human dignity

Standards protect the access, control,
dissemination of personal information
Helps to protect mental, psychological
integrity
 5. Harms and Benefits

Balance critical to ethics of human research

Foreseeable harms should not outweigh
anticipated benefits

Harms-benefits analysis affects welfare and

rights of subjects
 6. Justice and Inclusiveness

fairness and equity

Procedural justice
Application process –

Distributive justice
Harms and benefits –
 7. Non-malfeasance
Duty to avoid, prevent or minimize harm
No unnecessary risk of harm
Participation must be essential to achieving
scientifically and societally important aims
that cannot be realized without the
participation of human subjects
Minimizing harm requires smallest number of
human subjects that will ensure valid data
 8. Beneficence
-The duty to benefit others
-The duty to maximize net benefits
-Produce benefits for subjects themselves, other
individuals
-Produce benefits for society as a whole and for
the advancement of knowledge (usually the
primary benefit)
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES ACORDING TOBelmont
Report
The Belmont Report identified three principles
essential to the ethical conduct of research
with humans:

1. Respect for persons

2. Beneficence
3. Justice

These three basic principles serve as the foundation of the

current HHS regulations and guidelines for the ethical
conduct of human subjects research supported by HHS.
•
Respect for human dignity
This Principle includes
1-The right to self-determination
2-The right to full disclosure
 The Right to Self-Determination
The right to self-determination means
that prospective participants have the right to
decide voluntarily whether to participate in a
study, without risking penalty or prejudicial
treatment. It also means that people have
that right to ask question, to refuse to give
information, and to withdraw from the study.
 The Right to Full Disclosure
The principle of respect for human dignity •
emcompasses people’s right to make
informed, voluntary decision about study
participation. Which requires full disclosure.
Full Disclosure
Means that the research has fully described the
Nature of the study, the person’s right to refuse
Participation, the researcher’s responsibilities,
And likely risks and benefits.
 The Right to Full Disclosure
Summary
The right to self determination and the right to
full disclosure are the tow major elements on
Which informed consent – discussed.
 Beneficence
One of most fundamental ethical principles in
research is that of beneficence which imposes a
duty on researchers to minimize harm and to
maximize beneficence. This principle covers
multiple dimensions
-The right to freedom from harm and
discomfort.
- The right to protection from exploitation.
 The right to freedom from harm and
discomfort
Researchers have an obligation to avoid,
prevent, or minimize harm in studies with
humans. Harm and discomfort can take many forms:-
can be physical (eg.,injury),emotional(eg.,stress) social
(eg.,loss of social port)of financial (eg., loss of wages).
Ethical researchers must use strategies to minimize all
types of harm and discomfort , even ones that are
temporary.
 The right to protection from
exploitation
Involvement in a study should not place
participants at a disadvantage or expose them
to situations for which they have not been
prepared. Participants need to be assured that
their participation, or information they might
provide, will not be used against them in any
way.
 The right to protection from
exploitation
For example •
Person describing his or her economic
circumstances to researcher should not be
exposed to the risk of losing public health
benefits; a person reporting drug abuse should
not fear exposure to criminal authorities.
 cont,
- Qualitative, Quantitative Data
in qualitative research, the risk of exploitation my
become especially acute because the
psychological distance between investigators and
participants typically declines as the study
progresses .On other hand ,qualitative
researchers typically are in better position than
quantitative researchers to do good, rather than
just to avoid doing harm, because of the close
relationships they often develop with
participants
 JUSTICE
.The third broad principle articulated in the
Belmont Report concerns justice, which
includes participants 'right to fair treatment
and their right to privacy
-the right to fair treatment
-the right to privacy
 The Right to Fair Treatment

One aspect of the justice principle concerns the

equitable distribution of benefits and burdens
of research .The selection of study participants
should be based on research requirements and
not on the vulnerability or compromised
position of certain people.
 The Right to Fair Treatment cont
The right to fair treatment encompasses other
obligations. It means that researchers must treat
people who decline to participate in a study or
who withdraw from it in a non prejudicial manner
they must honor all agreements made with
participants, including the payment of any
promised stipends; demonstrate sensitivity to
[and respect for] thebeliefe, habits,and lifestyles
of people from different backgrounds or cultures;
and afford participants courteous and tactful
treatment at all times.
 the right to privacy
Virtually all research with humans involves
intruding into personal lives; researchers should
ensure that their research is not more intrusive
than it needs to be and that participants’ privacy
is maintained throughout the study. Participants
have the right to expect that any data they
provide will be kept in strictest confidence.
 Participants: Who are the?
Defining participants

People who are the principal focus of the •

research
Whom the research impacts (concurrently or •
retrospectively).
 Procedures for protecting study
participants
Now that you are familiar with fundamental
ethical principles for conducting research, you
need to understand the procedures researchers
follow to adhere to them .
It is these procedures that should be evaluated
in critiquing the ethical aspects of a study.
 Risk- Benefits Assessments
One strategy that researchers use to protect •
participants is to conduct a risk-benefits
assessment. Such an assessment is designed
to determine whether the benefits of
participating in a study are in line with costs
be they financial physical, emotional, or social
(i.e,Whether risk-to benefits ratio is acceptable).
 Cont.,
The general guideline is that the degree of risk •
to be taken by participants should never
exceed the potential humanitarian benefits of
knowledge to be gained . Thus, the selection
of a significant topic that has the potential to
improve patient care is the first step in
ensuring that research is ethical.
Major potential benefits to
participants
*Access to a potentially beneficial
intervention that might otherwise be
unavailable to them.
* Comfort in being able to discuss their situation
or problem with a friendly objective person.
*Increased knowledge about themselves or
their condition, either though opportunity for
introspection and self- reflection or through
direct interaction with researchers.
Major potential benefits to
participants
*Escape from a normal routine, excitement of
being part of study.
*Satisfaction the information they provide may
help others with similar problems or condition.
*Direct monetary or material gain through
stipends or other incentives.
 Major Potential Risks to
Participants
*Physical harm, including unanticipated side
effects.
*Physical discomfort, fatigue, or boredom.
*Psychological or emotional distress resulting
from self-disclosure, introspection, fear of the
unknown, discomfort with strangers, fear of
eventual repercussion, anger or embarrassment
at the type of questions being asked.
 Major Potential Risks to Participants
*Social risks, such as the risk of stigma, adverse
effects on personal relationships, loss of status.
*Loss of privacy.
*Loss of time.
*Monetary costs (e.g, for transportation, child
car, time lost from work).
 Research Ethics: Areas of Focus

*Harm
*Informed Consent
*Confidentiality
*Deception
*Reporting Results and Plagiarism
 Harm
-As mentioned before, researchers should
take every precaution to ensure that
participants are not subjected to undue harm
or stress
-Harm and discomfort can take many forms
;can be physical[eg, injury], emotional[ eg
,stress]social[eg,loss of social port]or
financial[eg, loss of wages]. Ethical
-researchers must use strategies to minimize
all types of harm and discomfort, even ones
that are temporary
 Informed Consent
-Voluntary Informed Consent is essential for research
involving human subjects
-According to the APA, Informed Consent should include:
*Description of the nature of the research
*Statement that the research is voluntary and
participants can withdraw at any time
*Identification of Risks and Benefits
*Description of how confidentiality will be protected
*Description of compensation
*Description of what info researchers will share with
participants
*Identification of who is responsible for research with
contact information
 Confidentiality
*All information collected in a research
project should remain confidential
-Participants should be assigned a HIPAA
compliant code
-Data should be locked away in a secure setting
-Electronic Databases should also be protected
What do you do if you bump into a
research participant in Wal-Mart?
 Plagiarism
*Comes from the Latin word meaning “to
kidnap”
*Examples of plagiarism:
-Copying someone else’s words without proper
citation
-Stealing someone else’s ideas
-Stealing someone else’s intellectual property
Bottom Line: Cite sources properly and
minimize quotations in research reports
 Treatment of Vulnerable groups

Adherence to ethical standards is often •

straightforward. The rights of special vulnerable
groups, however, ,may need to be protected through
additional procedures and heightened sensitivity.
Vulnerable subjects may be incapable of living fully
informed consent, or may be at high risk of
unintended side effects because of their
circumstances You should pay particular attention to
the ethical dimensions of study when people who
are vulnerable are involved as being vulnerable are
the following
 cont.,
1-Children legally and ethically.
2-Mentally or emotionally disabled people. •
3-Severely ill or physically disabled people. •
4-The terminally ill •
5-Institutionalied people •
 1- Children legally and ethically
. Children do not have the competence of give •
informed consent and so the consent of children’s
parents or guardians shoud be obtained.

However ,it is appropriate especially if the child is at •

least 7 Years of age-to obtain the child’s assent as well
Assent refers to the child’saffirmative agreement to
participants.
If the child is development mature enough to •
understand the basics of informed consent evidence of
respect for the child’s right to self-determination.
 2- Mentally or emotionally disabled
people
.Individuals whose disability makes it •
impossible for them to weight the risk and
benefits of participation and make informed
decisions .
(peopelaffected by cognitive important, •
mental illness, coma and so on)
Also can not legally provide informed •
consent.In such cases, researchers should
obtain the written consent of lgal guardin.
 3-Severely ill or physically disabled
people
For patients who are very ill or undergoing •
certain treatment (e.g.,mechanical ventilation)
it might be necessary to assess their ability to
make reasoned decisions about study
participation.
Another issue that for certain disabilities , •
special procedures for obtaining consent may
be required.
 CONT
For example :
With people who cannot read and write or •
who have a physical impairment preventing
them from writing alternative procedures for
documenting informed consent should be
used.
 4-The terminally ill
Terminally ill people can seldom expect to
benefit personally from research, and thus the
risk-to- benefit ratio needs to be carefully
assessed researchers must also take steps to
ensure that if the terminally ill do participate
in a study ,their health care and comfort are
not compromised.
 5-Institutionalied people
Nurses often conduct studies with hospitali ed •
or institutionalized .
 References

Beecher, H.K. 1966. “Ethics and Clinical Research.” New England Journal of Medicine 274(24):1354– •
1360.

Faden, R.R., and T.L. Beauchamp. 1986. A History and Theory of Informed Consent. New York: Oxford •
University Press.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). 2001. Preserving Public Trust: Accreditation and Human Research •
Participant Protection Programs.

Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. •

Jonas, H. 1969. “Philosophical Reflections on Experimenting with Human Subjects.” Daedalus 98:219– •
247.

Jones, J.H. 1981. Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. •

New York: The Free Press. •

Katz, J. 1972. Experimentation with Human Beings. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. •

National Bioethics Advisory Commission (NBAC). 1997. Cloning Human Beings. 2 vols. Rockville, MD: U.S. Government •
Printing Office.

National Bioethics Advisory Commission •

———. 1998. Research Involving Persons with Mental Disorders That May Affect Decisionmaking Capacity. 2 vols. •
Rockville, MD: U.S. Government Printing Office.
———. 1999a. Ethical Issues in Human Stem Cell Research. 3 vols. Rockville, MD: U.S. Government Printing Office. •

———. 1999b. Research Involving Human Biological Materials: Ethical Issues and Policy Guidance. 2 vols. Rockville, MD: •
U.S. Government Printing Office.

———. 2001. Ethical and Policy Issues in International Research: Clinical Trials in Developing Countries. 2 vols. Bethesda, •
MD: U.S. Government Printing Office.
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (National •
Commission). 1979.

Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research. Washington, D.C.: •
U.S. Government Printing Office.

Tuskegee Syphilis Study Ad Hoc Advisory Panel. 1973. Final Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, •
Education, and Welfare.

19 •
Thank You
RESEARCH PROBLEM

DR. MAHESWARI JAIKUMAR

[email protected]
 Definition of Research
The Department of Education and Training defines
research as follows:
Research is defined as the creation of new
knowledge and/or the use of existing
knowledge in a new and creative way so
as to generate new concepts,
methodologies and understandings. This
could include synthesis and analysis of
previous research to the extent that it
leads to new and creative outcomes.
This definition of research is consistent
with a broad notion of research and
experimental development (R&D) as
comprising of creative work undertaken on
a systematic basis in order to increase the
stock of knowledge, including knowledge
of humanity, culture and society, and the
use of this stock of knowledge to devise
new applications.
This definition of research
encompasses pure and strategic
basic research, applied research and
experimental development. Applied
research is original investigation
undertaken to acquire new
knowledge but directed towards a
specific, practical aim or objective
(including a client-driven purpose).
 RESEARCH PROBLEM
•A Research problem is a question
that a researcher wants to
answer or a problem that a
researcher wants to solve.
• A research problem is an issues
or a concern that an investigator
/ researcher presents and
justifies in a research study.
WHAT SHOULD BE HAPPENING

THE PROBLEM
STATEMENT

WHAT IS ACTUALLY HAPPENING

• Identification and formulation of
a research problem is the first
step of the research process.

• It is the most challenging &

difficult phase of the research
process.
Selecting a Research Problem
• Selection of a research problem
depends on several factors such
as researcher’s knowledge, skills,
interest, expertise, motivation &
creativity with respect to the
subject chosen.
• A good research studies needs a
lots of time for selection of
research problem.

• Initially every researcher faces a

predicament of identifying,
selecting and formulating a good
research problem.
 DEFINITION
• “ A situation for which we have no
ready & successful response by
instinct or by previous acquired
habit. We must find out what to
do”, i.e. the solution can be found
out only after an investigation.
R.S. Woodworth.
• In others words, a research
problem is an area of concern
where there is a gap in the
knowledge base needed for
professional practices.
• A research problem and problem
statement are frequently used as
synonyms.

• However there are a lot of

difference between them.
 COMPONENTS OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM
• A research problem has 6
components.

• They are as follows…

• 1. Relevance of the study.
• 2. Title of the study.
• 3. Operational definitions of the
variables.
• 4. Objectives of the study.
• 5. Delimitations of the study.
• 6. Scope & limitations of the study.
1.The significance or relevance of the study is a written
statement that explains why your research was needed. It's
a justification of the importance of your work and impact it
has on your research field, it's contribution to new
knowledge and how others will benefit from it.
2.The title summarizes the main idea or ideas of your study. A
good title contains the fewest possible words that
adequately describe the contents and/or purpose of your
research paper. The title is without doubt the part of a paper
that is read the most, and it is usually read first.
3. Operational variables (or operationalizing definitions) refer
to how you will define and measure a specific variable as it is
used in your study. For example, if we are concerned with the
effect of media violence on aggression, then we need to be
very clear what we mean by the different terms.
4. Objectives can be general or specific. The general
objective of your study states what you expect to achieve
in general terms. Specific objectives break down the general
objective into smaller, logically connected parts that
systematically address the various aspects of the problem.
5. Delimitations are choices made by the researcher which
should be mentioned. They describe the boundaries that
you have set for the study. Limit your delimitations to the
things that a reader might reasonably expect you to do but
that you, for clearly explained reasons, have decided not to
do.
6. Scope and limitations are two terms that address the details of a
research project. The term scope refers to the problem or issue that
the researcher wants to study with the project. Limitations is the
term used for constraints that impact the researcher’s ability to
effectively study the scope of the project.
 IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH
PROBLEM
• Identification of the research
problem is the first step.

• Generally a broad area is selected

and then it is delimited or narrowed
down to a specific one sentence
statement of the problem.
 SOURCES OF RESEARCH
PROBLEM
• The common sources of
research problem are as follows.
• 1. Personal experience.
• 2. Practical experience.
• 3. critical appraisal of literature.
• 4.Previous research.
• 5. existing theories.
• 6. Social issues.
• 7. Brainstorming.
• 8. Intuition.
• 9. Folklores.
• 10. Exposure to field situation.
• 11. Consultation with experts.
 PERSONAL EXPERIENCE
• Day to day experience of the
researcher serves as a good
source of ideas to formulate
research problem.
• Eg.,
 PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE
• Clinical experience provides
nurses ample opportunities foe
problem identification.

• This serves as a source for

identifying research problems.
 CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF
LITERATURE
• When one looks at books,
articles, summaries of clinical
issues relating to the subject of
our interest, pertinent questions
may arise.
• These may strike
the reader’s
mind by
stimulating
imagination and
directly the
additional
research
needed.
 PREVIOUS RESEARCH
• A body of knowledge is
developed on a sound research
finding.
• Usually at the end of the research
problems are suggested based on
the shortcoming of the previous
research, these could be
investigated.
 EXISTING THEORIES
• Research is a process of theory
development and theory testing.
• If an existing theory is used in
developing a researchable
problem, a specific statement
from theory must be isolated.

• Generally a part or parts of a

theory are subjected to testing in
a clinical situation.
• The testing of a theory is needed
therefore they serve as a good
source of research problem.
 SOCIAL ISSUES
• Sometimes issues of global
contemporary or political issues of
relevance are suggested.

• A idea for a research may stem

from a familiarity with social
concerns or controversial social
issues.
 BRAINSTORMING
• Brainstorming sessions are good
techniques to find new research
questions.
• Brainstorming refers to
intensified discussions among
interested people of the
profession in order to find more
ideas to formulate a good
research problem.
 INTUITION
• Intuitions' are considered good
sources of knowledge as well as
sources to find new research
problems.
• It is believed that reflective mind
is a good source of ideas, which
may be used to find out new and
good research problems.
 FOLKLORES
• Common beliefs could be right or
wrong.

• E.g., Studying just before

examination decrease the score.
A researcher can conduct a study
to test this.
 EXPOSURE TO FIELD
SITUATIONS
• During field exposure
researchers get a variety of
experiences which may provide
plenty of ideas to formulate
research problems.
 CONSULTATIONS WITH
EXPERTS
• Experts are believed to have
sound experience of their
respective field, which may
suggest a significant problem to
be studied.
• In addition experts may help in
finding a current problem of
discipline to be solved which
may serve as a basis for
formulation of research
problem.
THANK YOU
Collectin Data
g

Presented By:
Dr.Deepthi Athuluru
Dept. of Public Health Dentistry
 DATA
• A dictionary defines data as facts or figures
from which conclusions may be drawn.

• A collective recording of observations either

numerical or otherwise is called data
Statistics is a tool for converting data
into
Statistics

informati
Data on Information

•But where then does data come from ?

•How is it gathered ?
•How do we ensure its accurate ?
•Is the data reliable?
•Is it representative of the population from which
it was drawn?
5.3
 Methods of Collecting Data

• Direct Observation
• Experiments, and
• Surveys.
 Methods
Mailing paper questionnaires to respondents,
who fill them out and mail them back
Having interviewers call to respondents on the
telephon and ask them the question in a
e interview
• telephone the interviewers to the
Sending
respondent’s home or office to administer
the questions in face-to-face
interviews
Depending upon the nature of the
variable data is classified into 2
broad categories

• Qualitative Data

• Quantitative Data:-
1. discrete

2. continuous
• Qualitative data :-
(characterized by words)

when the data is collected on

the basis of attributes or qualities like
sex, malocclusions, cavity etc.
• Quantitative data :- (characterized by
numbers)
when the data is collected through
measurement, like arch length, fluoride
concentration etc.

• Discrete data :-
when the variable under observation
takes only fixed values like whole numbers.

• Continuous data :-
if the variable can take any value in a
given range, decimal or fractional.
Quantitative: numbers breadth generalizability
Qualitative: words depth specific

Remember, "Not everything that counts can be counted."

 Quantitative method
Qualitative methods
Quantitative Qualitative

Surveys Focus groups

Questionnaires
Tests Unstructured
interviews
Existing databases Unstructured
observations
Common data collection methods
• Survey • Testimonials
• Case study • Tests
• Interview • Photographs,
• Observation videotapes, slides
• Group assessment • Diaries, journals,
logs
• Expert or peer
reviews • Document review
and analysis
• Portfolio reviews
Are the data reliable and valid?
• Validity:
Are you measuring what you think you are
measuring?
• Reliability:
if something was measured again using the
same instrument, would it produce the
same (or nearly the same) results?
• The main sources of data are :-
1) surveys
2) experiments
3) records in OPD

• Data can be collected through either :-

1) primary source
2) secondary source
• Primary Source :-
Here the data is obtained by the investigator
himself. This is a first hand information.
• Advantages :-
Precise information and reliable.
• Disadvantages :-
Time consuming, expensive.
• Primary data can be obtained using :-
1) Direct personal
2) Oral health examination
3) Questionnaire method
• Secondary Source :-
The data already recorded is utilized
to serve the purpose of the objectives of
study.
Ex:- The records of opd of the dental
clinics.
 Data Gathering Techniques
• Observation

• Questioning
 Data domains
Cognitive -- paper and pencil

Affective -- interview

Psychomotor -- observation
 Data Presentation

The objective of classification of data is to

make the data simple, concise, meaningful and
interesting and helpful in further analysis.
There are 2 methods of presenting data:-
1) Tabulation
2) Diagrams
• Tabulation :-
Is the first step before the data is used
for analysis or interpretation.

• In the process of tabulation the following

type of classification are encountered.

1) Geographical i.e area wise

2) Chronological i.e on the basis of time
3) Qualitative i.e. according to attribute
4) Quantitative i.e. in terms of magnitude
 TABLE FORMAT :
Number of Primary Health Centres in India at 5-year Intervals during 1970-1990

YEAR No.of PHCs

1970 5015

1975 5293

1980 5484

1985 7284

1990 18,981
• Classification by Space :-

1) Data are classified by location of occurrence

2) Arrangement of set of categories

in
alphabetical order of the terms defining these
categories,

3) In the order of their geographical location

may be found to be suitable in many cases.
 Table 2

Number of Literates in Rural and Urban Areas in India (state wise list).

No.of literates ( in thousands)

STATES
RURAL URBAN
Andhra Pradesh 14,821 10,119
Assam 7921 1709
Bihar 20,358 6485
Maharastra 22,164 20,774
Gujarat 12,096 9179
Kerala 16,443 6228
Madhya Pradesh 14,464 9027
Tamil Nadu 17,424 12,958
Karnataka 12,267 8812
Orissa 10,303 2608
Punjab 6253 3699
Rajastan 8189 5428
Uttar Pradesh 33,079 13,968
West Bengal 20,337 12,382
TOTAL 216,119 123,376
• Chronological i.e. On the basis of time :-

1) In this case data are classified by time of

occurrence of the observations

2) Arrangement of categories is almost

always in chronological order
 Table 3

Number of Primary Health Centres in India at 5-year Intervals during 1970-1990

YEAR No.of PHCs

1970 5015

1975 5293

1980 5484

1985 7284

1990 18,981
• Classification by attribute :-
1) When the data represent observations made
on a qualitative characteristic the classification in
such a case is made according to this qualities.

2) Alphabetical arrangement of categories may

be suitable for general purpose table

3) In the case of special purpose table

arrangement may be made in the order of
importance of these categories
 Table 4

Patients who attended Leprosy Clinics during 1993

Type of leprosy No. of patients

Tuberculoid 604

Lepromatous 272

Indeterminate 72

Borderline 48

TOTAL 996
Classification by the size of observations :-
1. when the data represent observations of
some characteristic on a numerical scale,
classification is made on the basis of the individual
observations.

2. The range of observations is suitable divided

into smaller divisions called class intervals.

3. The numerical scale adopted may be either

discrete or continuous.
 Table 5
Distribution of Single Live Born with respect to Birth Weight
Birth Weight (grams) No.of children (n)
< 1500 24
1500 - 1999 60
2000 - 2499 422
2500 and above 3202
TOTAL 3708
Principles (in tabulation of data) :-
1. Every table should contain a title, should
be concise and meaningful.
2. The tables should be numbered
3. The heading of columns or rows should be
clear and concise .eg: ht in cm, age in
years , wt in kg etc
4. The number of class intervals should be
sufficient to condense the data bringing
out their significant features .
5. The class intervals should be at equal
width
 6. Uniform size class intervals are preferable
7. Sometimes open end class intervals are
used
8. The class intervals should be clearly defined
to avoid ambiguity .eg- 0-4, 5-9, 10-14 etc.
9. Units of measurements should be specified.
10. If the data is not original , the source of
the data should be mentioned at the bottom
of the table.
11. Groups should be tabulated in ascending or
descending order.
12. If certain data is omitted or excluded deliberately,
the reason for same should be given.

13. For many arithmetic calculations the midpoint of

each class interval will be used as a representative
of each item in that interval.

14. The interval should be so chosen that the mid

point of each interval is approximately the average
of the items in that interval.

15. It will be convenient if mid points and limits are

whole numbers.
16. The class intervals should be same through
out table except in case of age
• 0-<1 (infant up to 1yr)
• 1-4 (toddlers 1to 5yrs but not completed 5
yrs)
• 5-14 ( School children < 15yrs)
Presentation by Graphs and Diagrams:-

Diagrams and graphs are extremely useful

because

1. They are attractive to the eyes

2. Give a birds eye view of the entire data

3. Have a lasting impression on the mind

of the layman

4. Facilitate comparison of data.

Basic rules in the construction
of diagrams and graphs :-
1. Every diagram must be given a
title
2. It should be simple
3. The vertical axis is always labeled
as the ‘y’ axis. It is also “ordinate”.
4. The horizontal axis is always
labeled as ‘x’ axis . It is also called
“abscissa”.
5. The x axis and y axis meet at right
angles at a point called origin (o)
6. The values of variables are
presented on the x axis and the
frequency on y axis
7. The number of lines drawn in any graph should
not be many so that the diagram does not look
clumpsy.
8. The scale of presentation for the x axis and y axis
should be mentioned at the right hand corner of
the graph
9. The scale of division of two axis should be
proportional and the division should be mark
along with the details of the variables and
frequencies presented on the axis.
Presentation of quantitative data is
through graphs, the common
graphs in use are:-

1. Histogram
2. Frequency polygon
3. Frequency curve
4. Line graph
5. Scatter or dot diagram
Presentation of qualitative data is
through diagrams, the common
diagrams in use are:-

1. Bar diagram
2. Pie/sector diagram
3. Pictogram or picture diagram
4. Map diagram or spot map
 Line diagram:
• This diagram is useful to study changes of
values in the variable overtime.
• Simplest type of diagram.
• On the X axis the time such as hours, days,
weeks, months or years are represented.
• The value of any quantity pertaining to this is
represented along the Y axis.
OP

500
450
467
400 380 400 402
367 38 0
350 346 354
NO OF OUT-PATIENT

300 300 289

250 250 265
200
150
100
50
0

Nov-06
Feb-06

May-06

Aug-06

Dec-06
Apr-06
Jan-06

Mar-06

Jun-06

Sep-06

Oct-06
Jul-06
Frequency polygon:

1. The most commonly

used graphic device to
illustrate statistical
distribution.
2. Used to represent
frequency distribution
of quantitative data.
3. Useful to compare 2 or
more frequency
distributions.
• A frequency polygon is a variation of a
histogram, in which the bars are replaced by
lines connecting the midpoints of the tops
of the bars.

• Advocates of the frequency polygon argue

that the purpose of a histogram is to show
the shape of the data distribution and
removing the bars makes the shape clearer
and smoother.
Construction of frequency polygon:
1. To draw a frequency polygon, A point is marked in
the midpoint of the class interval, corresponding to
the frequency.
2. Then these points are connected by straight lines.
3. The first point and last point are joined to the
midpoint of previous and next class respectively.
4. Rather than leaving the graph suspended in space ,
we assume that there is another interval above and
below which is having frequency of 0 .
5. so the midpoint of group are assume having
frequency of 0.the group is now allowed to meet x-
axis on both the ends.
Advantages of frequency polygon:

• It is very easy to construct and very easy to

interpret.

• It is useful in portraying more than two

distributions on the same graph paper with
different colors. So it is very useful to compare 2 or
more than 2 distributions.
 Frequency curve:-
When the number of observations are very large and groups
are more (ie; small class intervals) the frequency polygon
tends to loose its angulation and it forms a smooth curve
known as frequency curve.
 Scatter diagram or dot diagram:
1. It is a graphic presentation of data.
2. It is used to show the nature of co-
relation between 2 variables
 Bar diagram
1. This diagram is used to represent
qualitative data.
2. It represent only one variable.
3. The width of the bar remains the same
and only the length varies according to the
frequency in each category.
4. There are 3 types of bars:
a) simple bar
b) multiple bar
c) component bar diagram
• Simple bar:
The limitation of this method is that they can
represent only onthe classification and hence
cannot be used for comparison

500 467 OP

450 400 402

400 380 367 380
346 354
350
300 289
NO OF OUT-PATIENT

300 250 265

250
200
150
100
50
0

Oct-06

Nov-06
Jan-06

Feb-06

Jun-06

Jul-06

Aug-06

Dec-06
Apr-06

May-06

Sep-06
Mar-06
• Multiple bar:
1. This diagram is used to compare qualitative data with
respect to a single variable.
2. This diagram is similar to the bar diagram except that
for each category of the variable we have a set of bars of
the same width corresponding to the different section
without any gap in between the width and the length
corresponds to the frequency.
OP

467
IP
500
450
400

402
380

380
367
400

354
346
350
300
NO OF PATIENT

289
265

300
250

250

154
200
120

150 102

90
86

78
100

70
67
60

59

48
45

50
0

Nov-06
May-06

Aug-06
Feb-06

Apr-06

Dec-06
Mar-06

Jun-06

Sep-06
Jan-06

Oct-06
Jul-06
Component bar diagram:
• This diagram is used to represent qualitative
data.
• It is desired to represent both the no of cases in
major groups as well as the subgroups
simultaneously
 Histogram:
this diagram is used to
depict quantitative
data
1. It is a bar diagram
without gap between
bars.
2. If we draw frequencies
of each group or class
intervals in the form of
columns or rectangles
such a diagram is called
histogram.
3. It represents a frequency
distribution.
The histogram is constructed as follows:
1. On the X axis the size of the observation is marked.
2. Starting from 0 the limit of each class interval is
marked, the width corresponding to the width of the
class interval in the frequency distribution.
3. On the Y axis the frequencies are marked
4. A rectangle is drawn above each class interval with
height proportional to the frequency of that
interval.
Advantages of Histogram:

Easy to understand

Disadvantages of Histogram:

• Only 1 histogram can be placed at a time.

• More time consuming to construct than a
frequency polygon.
 Pie diagram:
1. These are popularly used
to show percentage break
2. downs for qualitative data.
It is so called because the
entire graph looks like a
represent
pie and itsslices cut from a
components
pie.
3. A circle is divided into
different sectors
corresponding to the
distribution.
frequencies of the
4. Some knowledge of circles
and degrees is necessary
5. The total angle at the center of the circle is 360
degrees and it represents the total frequency.

6. After the calculation of angle, segments are drawn

in the circle and the segments are shaded with
different shades or colors and an index is provided
for the shaded colors
7. Cannot be used to represent 2 or more data sets
 Pictogram
1. Display of data through pictograms was
initiated by Dr Otto Neurath in 1923.
2. Data are displayed by the pictures of the
items to which the data pertain.
3. A single picture represents a fixed no.
4. They are the least satisfactory type of
diagrams.
5. They are inaccurate too.
Map diagram or spot map or cartograms:

1. These maps are used to show geographical

distribution of frequencies of a characteristics.
 References
1. Kirkwood BR, Sterne JAC. Essentials in Medical
Statistics. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell; (2010).
2. Jay S. Kim And Ronald J. Dailey. Biostatistics For
Oral Healthcare. Blackwell Publishing Company.
2008
3. C.R Kothari. Research Methodology methods and
technologies. 2nd edition. New age international
private ltd publishers; 2004. reprint 2007