MODULE IN

Engineering Drawing
EnggDraw

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

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 ENGGDRAW

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should
be able to:

CLO1: identify important manual

drafting tools used to create
engineering drawing.

CLO2: Apply various concepts and

principles of engineering drawing in
interpreting technical drawings
created by others and appreciate the
importance of engineering drawings as
a medium of communication to
convey ideas in engineering fields.
ENGINEERING
DRAWING CLO3: Create different engineering
drawings and plans based on
engineering guidelines and principles.

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Course Study Guide
The key to successfully finish this module lies in your hands. This module was
prepared for you to learn diligently, intelligently, and independently. As future
engineers, doing these will greatly help and prepare you to become a great
engineer, and enhance your knowledge in engineering application in solving
problems. Aside from completing the requirements of this course, you will be
able to learn other invaluable learning skills which you will be very proud of as a
responsible learner.
The following guides and house rules will help you further to be on track and to
say at the end on the module, “I did well”

1. Before you start the activity as a student, make sure you have an Engineering
tools (T-square, triangles (30-60) and (45-45), 3 different colors of ball point pen
like (Gtech or Unipin) provide different thickness (.8 black, .5 blue and .3 red)

2. For online class all module will be upload in our google classroom. Your task is
to Download everything. Read them, don’t just look at them. You can ask me if
you have question.

3. Manage your time wisely, managing your time and making your task right on
time will help you accomplish your requirements as soon as possible. Make
schedule of your activity, (do not play games when you need to study and
learn). Plan it out for the entire term, always remember you have other things to
do.

4. Read, analyze, ask, and understand, read every module carefully, analyze
them as you go on, ask help if you didn’t understand I am here to help you learn
not to leave you behind, lastly understand what am I saying before asking
another question.

5. Do the activity per module. Each module has an instruction on how will you
make you activity.

6. Each activity has an allotted time make sure you can make the activity
before the due date. See study schedule below, this study schedule is made for
you in a 3 hours basis.

7. If you have internet connection, you can always look for other references that
will help in understanding the modules and to also develop your research skill. All

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available resources that I have will be posted in the google classroom which
you can access by login you SLU email address.

8. To be able to join our google classroom you need your SLU email address.
Your SLU email adders, is your ID number @slu.edu.ph example
[email protected]. Then join the class code that I will be sending to you.

9. Download this resources it will help you to understand the module, again read
number 2.

10. There will be a given due date for every problem sets. Considering that I will
also check and give grades for your accomplishment.

11. DO NOT CHEAT on the work of others. This will help you to grow on your own
by not cheating to other people. Remember I am here to help you.

12. For special concerns the students can communicate with the faculty through
Facebook, Text messaging, or any other mode of online communication.

Additional Guidelines for Offline Students:

 If you are a student opting for the offline mode of distance learning, you
will be tasked to send back the accomplished requirements at given
stages of the course through express mail correspondence on or before
the scheduled date to me. Make sure you will follow it up with me through
text or any other media available for you.
 While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements,
continue doing the task in the succeeding units of the module.
 If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any available
means. Remember, if there is a will, there is a way.
Evaluation

The course modules rely on formative and summative assessments to determine

the progress of your learning in each module. To obtain a passing grade in this
course, you must:

Read all course readings and answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-
assessment activities, and reflection questions.

Submit all assignments and graded quizzes

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Take the Midterm Examination.

Take the Final Examination.

If you are a student under the offline DL mode, accomplish all print-based and
electronically saved discussion activities and requirements, and submit them on
time via express mail correspondence.

Formative Assessment Activities

Formative assessments for this course are applied to ungraded activities that are
used to monitor your learning experience and provide feedback to improve both
your learning approach as well as my instructional approach.

• You are required to answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment

activities, and reflection questions but your scores in activities will not be
included in the computation of your final grade.
• The reflection questions are designed to help you to critically analyze
the course readings for better understanding while the pre-assessment
quizzes and self-assessment activities are designed as a review
management tool to prepare you for the graded quizzes and
examinations.
• Successfully answering formative activity questions and requirements
will serve as prompts to tell you if you need to study further or if you may
already move forward to the next unit of the module.
• The completeness of your answers to the pre-assessment quizzes, self-
assessment activities, and reflection questions will still be checked and
will still be part of your course completion. Hence, all pre-assessment
quizzes, self-assessment activities, and reflection questions must be
answered.
• In doing your formative assessment activities, you can always ask the
help of your family and friends.

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 • The pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities, and reflection
questions are required so you can take it anytime within the scheduled
days assigned for each module.

Summative Assessment Activities

The evaluative assessments are graded activities designed to determine if your
acquisition of learning and performance in tests is at par with standards set at certain
milestones in this course.

A. Quizzes, Examinations, and Assignments

Graded quizzes, examinations, and assignments are essential to determine whether
your performance as a student is at par with standards/goals that need to be
achieved in this course. The scores obtained from each of the graded activities will
contribute to your final grade, the weights of which are presented in the grading
system described in the succeeding sections of this text. Direct scoring can be used
on straightforward requirements like short answers and multiple-choice responses,
while scoring rubrics will be provided for answers that are typically lengthy and
involve a more complex level of thinking on your part.

B. Final Course Requirement

To achieve the course learning outcome, a final design submission of all activity
or assessment per module is required. You are going to accomplish this
individually. For online students, a live presentation will be scheduled on Google
Meet or Zoom. For offline students a recorded and saved presentation will be
accommodated for submission on a USB flash drive. A separate rubric will be
used for the write up and the presentation.

Technological Tools

To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you will need the following
bond papers and pen/s, will might be needed camera for the compiling of every
activity or problems set you have done, software applications: such as Microsoft
Word is needed for the compilation of work, these applications are available in
your desktop or laptops that will not require internet connection for you to use
them. All materials and activities will be sent through the prepared google
classroom and you may also access to participate in the discussion if the
condition will allow it.

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Feedback system will be facilitated through text messaging or group chat on the
messenger; hence, you need to have with you your smartphone. If you need to
call or you want to talk to me, send me a message first and wait for my respond.
Do not give my CP number to anybody unless with my permission. I will not
entertain messages or calls from numbers that are not registered in my phone.
Hence, use only the CP number you submitted to me.

Grading system
Prelim Grade
CS Problem sets (1-4) and quizzes = 100%
Examination (none) = 0%
Total = 100%
Midterm Grade
CS Problem sets (1-4) and quizzes = 100%
Examination (none) = 0%
Total = 100%

Tentative Final Grade (TFG)

CS problem sets (5-7) and quizzes = 100 %
Examination (none) =0%
Total = 100%

Final Grade: average grade of Prelim midterm and final = 100%

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Study Schedule
Below are details in the conduct of this course arranged in chronological order vis-à-vis
the topic learning outcomes and activities designed for you to undergo the five stages
of the 5E constructivist learning model.

TOPIC LEARNING
Dates ACTIVITIES
OUTCOMES
MODULE 1 Introduction to Technical Drawing
TLO 1: Discuss the Engage: Understanding basic concept of
proper way to engineering Drawing and Drafting
present dimensions, Explore: Analyze different engineering
conventions, title tools and equipment in drafting.
Explain: Able to understand basic
block, labels and
methods of Drafting.
symbols used in
Elaborate: Recognize engineering drawing
engineering in the field of Mechanical Engineering
drawings Evaluate: Apply engineering Drawing in
drafting.
MODULE 2 Drawing Equipment’s and Their Uses
June 22-27, TLO 2: Discuss how to Engage: Understanding basic concept of
2020 draw instrumental engineering Drawing and Drafting
figures and Explore: Analyze different engineering
geometrical tools and equipment in drafting.
Explain: Able to understand basic
constructions
methods of Drafting.
TLO 3: Discuss the
Elaborate: Recognize engineering drawing
application and in the field of Mechanical Engineering
proper way to Evaluate: Apply engineering Drawing in
dimension drafting.
engineering
drawings.

MODULE 3 Lettering and Lines

June 29- July TLO 4: Analyze the Engage: Understanding basic concept of
3, 2020 different law of ideal engineering Drawing and Drafting
gasses and processes. Explore: Analyze different engineering
tools and equipment in drafting.
Explain: Able to understand basic
methods of Drafting.
Elaborate: Recognize engineering drawing
in the field of Mechanical Engineering
Evaluate: Apply engineering Drawing in
drafting.
Prelim Activity 1, 2 and 3
Activity

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MODULE: 4 Geometric Construction
TLO 5: Discuss how to Engage: Understanding basic concept of
draw instrumental engineering Drawing and Drafting
figures and Explore: Analyze different engineering
geometrical tools and equipment in drafting.
Explain: Able to understand basic
constructions
methods of Drafting.
Elaborate: Recognize engineering drawing
in the field of Mechanical Engineering
Evaluate: Apply engineering Drawing in
drafting.
MODULE 5 PROJECTION:
July 6-11, TLO 6: Discuss the Engage: Understand ideal gas processes.
2020 application and how Explore: Analyze different ideal gas laws
to draw Orthographic and process
and Isometric Explain: Solve problem sets, using
thermodynamics principles
Projections
Elaborate: Recognize thermodynamics
principle is solving problems, and actual
practices.
Evaluate: Can solve comprehensive
problems using Thermodynamic principles.
MODULE 6 DIMENSIONING
TLO7: Discuss the Engage: Understanding basic concept of
application and engineering Drawing and Drafting
proper way to Explore: Analyze different engineering
dimension tools and equipment in drafting.
Explain: Able to understand basic
engineering drawings
methods of Drafting.
Elaborate: Recognize engineering drawing
in the field of Mechanical Engineering
Evaluate: Apply engineering Drawing in
drafting.
Midterm ACTIVITY 4,5,6
Activity
MODULE 7 PROJECTION OF POINTS, LINES AND PLANES
TLO 8: Recognizing Engage: Understanding basic concept of
engineering Drawing and Drafting
a view of an object
Explore: Analyze different engineering
imagined or actual as tools and equipment in drafting.
seen by an observer Explain: Able to understand basic
who looks at the methods of Drafting.
object from a Elaborate: Recognize engineering drawing
selected point of view in the field of Mechanical Engineering
or in a chosen Evaluate: Apply engineering Drawing in
direction drafting.

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 TLO 9: Discuss the
complete set
of drawing information
needed for the
manufacture and
assembly of a product
based on its design
MODULE 8 SECTIONING
TLO 10: Discuss the Engage: Understanding basic concept of
proper way to show engineering Drawing and Drafting
sectional views and its Explore: Analyze different engineering
different applications tools and equipment in drafting.
Explain: Able to understand basic
methods of Drafting.
Elaborate: Recognize engineering drawing
in the field of Mechanical Engineering
Evaluate: Apply engineering Drawing in
drafting.
Final Activity ACTIVITY 7,8,9

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL DRAWING

Objectives: At the end of this chapter students should be able to:

- Define what graphic communication is

- Identify types of drawing

- Explain the difference between artistic and technical drawings

- Identify some of the applications of technical drawings

- Identify types of technical drawings

DRAWING

A drawing is a graphic representation of an object, or a part of it, and is the

result of creative thought by an engineer or technician. When one person
sketches a rough map in giving direction to another, this is graphic
communication. Graphic communication involves using visual materials to relate
ideas. Drawings, photographs, slides, transparencies, and sketches are all forms
of graphic communication. Any medium that uses a graphic image to aid in
conveying a message, instructions, or an idea is involved in graphic
communication. One of the most widely used forms of graphic communication is
the drawing.

Technically, it can be defined as “a graphic representation of an idea, a

concept or an entity which actually or potentially exists in life. Drawing is one of
the oldest forms of communicating, dating back even farther than verbal
communication. The drawing itself is a way of communicating all necessary
information about an abstract, such as an idea or concept or a graphic
representation of some real entity, such as a machine part, house or tools. There
are two basic types of drawings: Artistic and Technical drawings.

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 ARTISTIC DRAWINGS

(SOURCE: Engineering Drawing by Wuttet Taffesse and Laikemariam Kassa,

Haramaya University, 2005)

ARTISTIC DRAWINGS

Artistic Drawings range in scope from the simplest line drawing to the most
famous paintings. Regardless of their complexity, artistic drawings are used to
express the feelings, beliefs, philosophies, and ideas of the artist.

In order to understand an artistic drawing, it is sometimes necessary to first

understand the artist. Artists often take a subtle or abstract approach in
communicating through their drawings, which in turn gives rise to various
interpretations.

TECHNICAL DRAWINGS

The technical drawing, on the other hand, is not subtle, or abstract. It does
not require an understanding of its creator, only an understanding of technical
drawings.

A technical drawing is a means of clearly and concisely communicating all

of the information necessary to transform an idea or a concept in to reality.
Therefore, a technical drawing often contains more than just a graphic
representation of its subject. It also contains dimensions, notes and specifications.

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(SOURCE: Engineering Drawing by Wuttet Taffesse and Laikemariam Kassa,
Haramaya University, 2005)

TYPES OF TECHNICAL DRAWINGS

Technical drawings are based on the fundamental principles of projections. A

projection is a drawing or representation of an entity on an imaginary plane or
planes. This projection planes serves the same purpose in technical drawing as is
served by the movie screen. A projection involves four components

1. The actual object that the drawing or projection represents

2. The eye of the viewer looking at the object

3. The imaginary projection plane

4. Imaginary lines of sight called Projectors

The two broad types of projections, both with several subclassifications, are
parallel projection and perspective projection.

Parallel Projection

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 Parallel Projection is a type of projection where the line of sight or projectors
are parallel and are perpendicular to the picture planes. It is subdivided in to the
following three categories: Orthographic, Oblique and Axonometric Projections.

Orthographic projections: are drawn as multi view drawings, which show

flat representations of principal views of the subject.

Oblique Projections: actually show the full size of one view.

Axonometric Projections: are three-dimensional drawings, and are of three

different varieties: Isometric, Dimetric and Trimetric.

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(SOURCE: Engineering Drawing by Wuttet Taffesse and Laikemariam Kassa,
Haramaya University, 2005)

Perspective Projection

Perspective projections are drawings which attempt to replicate what the

human eye actually sees when it views an object. There are three types of
perspective projections: Onepoint, Two-point and Three-point Projections.

(SOURCE: Engineering Drawing by Wuttet Taffesse and Laikemariam Kassa,

Haramaya University, 2005)

Purpose of Technical Drawings

To appreciate the need for technical drawings, one must understand the
design process. The design process is an orderly, systematic procedure used in
accomplishing a needed design.

Any product that is to be manufactured, fabricated, assembled,

constructed, built, or subjected to any other types of conversion process must first
be designed. For example, a house must be designed before it can be built.

Application of Technical Drawing

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 Technical drawings are used in many different applications. They are
needed in any setting, which involves design, and in any subsequent forms of
conversion process. The most common applications of technical drawings can
be found in the fields of manufacturing, engineering and construction.

For instance, Surveyors, civil engineers, sanitarians use technical drawings

to document such works as the layout of a new subdivisions, or the marking of the
boundaries for a piece of property. Contractors and construction personnel use
technical drawings as their blue prints in converting architectural and engineering
designs in to reality.

(SOURCE: Engineering Drawing by Wuttet Taffesse and Laikemariam Kassa,

Haramaya University, 2005)

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Review questions:

1. Discuss the different types of drawing

2. Explain the different application of technical drawing

3. What is graphic communication?

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 CHAPTER 2: DRAWING EQUIPMENTS AND THEIR USES

Objectives: At the end of this chapter students should be able to:

- List the main drawing equipments

- Discuss the use of different drawing equipments

Introduction

To record information on paper instruments and equipments are needed.

Engineering drawing is entirely a graphic language hence instruments are
essentially needed. Drawing must be clear, neat and legible in order to serve its
purpose. Hence it is extremely important for engineers to have good speed,
accuracy, legibility and neatness in the drawing work.

Important Drawing Equipments

All drawings are made by means of various instruments. The quality of

drawing depends to a large extent on the quality, adjustment and care of the
instruments.

1. Drawing Paper

Drawing paper is the paper, on which drawing is to be made. All

engineering drawings are made on sheets of paper of strictly defined sizes, which
are set forth in the U.S.S.R standards. The use of standard size saves paper and
ensures convenient storage of drawings. Now a day, A3 and A4 are the most
commonly used paper sizes. The U.S.S.R standard establishes five preferred sizes
for drawings as tabulated bellow:

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Table 2.1 Description of the size of drawing paper

(SOURCE: Engineering Drawing by Wuttet Taffesse and Laikemariam Kassa,

Haramaya University, 2005)

Title block is a rectangular frame that is located at the bottom of the sheet. It is
recommended that space should be provided in all title blocks for such
information as description of title of the drawing, dates, designer (drawer), and
name of enterprise or educational institute, size (scale)

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(SOURCE: Engineering Drawing by Wuttet Taffesse and Laikemariam Kassa,
Haramaya University, 2005)

(SOURCE: World Class CAD)

2. Triangles (setsquares)

They are used to construct the most common angles (i.e. 300 , 450 , 600 ) in
technical drawings. The 450 x 450 and 300 x 600 triangles are the most commonly
used for ordinary work.

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3. T- square

It is used primarily to draw horizontal lines and for guiding the triangles when
drawing vertical and inclined lines. It is manipulated by sliding the working edge
(inner face) of the head along the left edge of the board until the blade is in the
required position.

4. French curve

It is used to draw irregular curves that are not circle arcs. The shape varies
according to the shape of irregular curve.

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5. Protractor

It is used for laying out and measuring angle.

6. Scale (ruler)

A number of kinds of scales are available for varied types of engineering

design. Scales with beveled edges graduated in mm are usually used.

7. Pencil

The student and professional man should be equipped with a selection of

good, well-sharpened pencil with leads of various degrees of hardness such as:
9H, 8H, 7H, and 6H (hard); 5H& 4H (medium hard); 3H and 2H (medium); and H&
F (medium soft). The grade of pencil to be used for various purposes depends on

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the type of line desired, the kind of paper employed, and the humidity, which
affects the surface of the paper. Standards for line quality usually will govern the
selection. For instance,

- 6H is used for light construction line.

- 4H is used for re-penciling light finished lines (dimension lines, center lines, and
invisible object lines)

- 2H is used for visible object lines

- F and H are used for all lettering and freehand work.

(SOURCE: Engineering Drawing by Wuttet Taffesse and Laikemariam Kassa,

Haramaya University, 2005)

8. Compass

It is used to draw circles and arcs both in pencil and ink. It consists of two
legs pivoted at the top. One leg is equipped with a steel needle attached with a
screw, and other shorter leg is, provided with a socket for detachable inserts.

9. Divider

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 Used chiefly for transferring distances and occasionally for dividing spaces
into equal parts. i.e. for dividing curved and straight lines into any number of equal
parts, and for transferring measurements.

10. Template

A template is a thin, flat piece of plastic containing various cutout shapes.

It is designed to speed the work of the drafter and to make the finished drawing
more accurate. Templates are available for drawing circles, ellipses, plumbing’s,
fixtures etc. Templates come in many sizes to fit the scale being used on the
drawing. And it should be used wherever possible to increase accuracy and
speed.

Drawing board is a board whose top surface is perfectly smooth and level on
which the drawing paper is fastened.

Clinograph (Adjustable set square)-its two sides are fixed at 900 and the third side
can be adjusted at any angle.

Rubber or eraser- extra lines or curves which are not required in the drawing are
to be rubbed out or erased. Hence a rubber or eraser are required in the drawing
work. Erasers are available in many degrees of hardness, size and shape.

Eraser shield –it is an important device to protect lines near those being erased. It
is made up of thin metal plate in which gaps of different widths and lengths are
cut.

Tracing paper – it is a thin transparent paper. Figures below it can be seen easily
and traced out in pencil ink

Drawing ink- it is used for making drawings in ink on tracing paper.

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Review questions:

1. Mention the main drawing equipments

2. Explain the use of different drawing equipments

3. Discuss the different type of pencils with their use

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 CHAPTER 3: LETTERING AND LINES

Objectives: At the end of this chapter students should be able to:

- Write letters according to the standard

- Explain the different line types

- Mention the application of each line type in technical drawings

Letter Styles

Letter styles are generally classified as Gothic, Roman, Italic and Text. They
were all made with speedball pens, and are therefore largely single-stroke letters.
If the letters are drawn in outline and filled in, they are referred to as “filled- in”
letters. The plainest and most legible style is the gothic from which our single-stroke
engineering letters are derived. The term roman refers to any letter having wide
down ward strokes and thin connecting strokes. Roman letters include old romans
and modern roman, and may be vertical or inclined. Inclined letters are also
referred to as italic, regardless of the letter style; text letters are often referred to
as old English. Depending up on the spacing between words and thickness of
strokes, letters may be classified as follows.

Extended and Condensed Letters

To meet design or space requirements, letters may be narrower and

spaced closer together, in which case they are called “Compresed” or
“Condensed”letters. If the letters are wider than normal, they are referred to as
“Extended”letters.

Light Face and Bold Face Letters

Letters also vary as to the thickness of the stems or strokes. Letters having
very thin stems are called Light Face Letters, while those having heavy stems are
called Bold Face Letters.

Technique of Lettering

“Any normal person can learn to letter if he is persistent and intelligent in his
efforts.” While it is true that” Practice makes perfect,” it must be understood that

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practice alone is not enough; it must be accompanied by continuous effort to
improve.

There are three necessary steps in learning to letter:

1. Knowledge of the proportions and forms of the letters, and the order of the
strokes.

2. Knowledge of composition- the spacing of the letters and words.

3. Persistent practice, with continuous effort to improve

Guide Lines

Extremely light horizontal guidelines are necessary to regulate the height of

letters. In addition, light vertical or inclined guidelines are needed to keep the
letters uniformly vertical or inclined. Guidelines are absolutely essential for good
lettering, and should be regarded as a welcome aid, not as an unnecessary
requirement.

Make guidelines light, so that they can be erased after the lettering has
been completed. Use a relatively hard pencil such as a 4H to 6H, with a long,
sharp, conical point.

A. Guidelines for Capital Letters

On working drawings, capital letters are commonly made 3mm high, with
the space between lines of lettering from ¾ th to the full height of the letters. The
vertical guidelines are not used to space the letters (as this should always be done
by eye while lettering), but only to keep the letters uniformly vertical, and they
should accordingly be drawn at random.

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 A guideline for inclined capital letters is somewhat different. The spacing of
horizontal guidelines is the same as for vertical capital lettering. The American
Standard recommends slope of approximately 68.20 with the horizontal and may
be established by drawing a “sloped triangle”, and drawing the guidelines at
random with T-square and triangles.

Guidelines for Lower-Case Letters

Lower-case letters have four horizontal guidelines, called the cap line,
waistline, and base line and drop line. Strokes of letters that extend up to the cap
line are called ascenders, and those that extend down to the drop line,
descenders. Since there are only five letters (p, q.g, j, y) that have descenders,
the drop lines are little needed and are usually omitted. In spacing guidelines,
space “a” may vary from 3/5 to 2/3 of space “b”.

The term single stoke or one stoke does not mean that the entire letter is
made without lifting the pencil. But the width of the stroke is the width of the stem
of the letter.

Single stoke lettering

The salient features of this type of lettering are:

- Greatest amount of lettering on drawings is done in a rapid single stroke letter

i.e. either vertical, or inclined.

- The ability to letter and perfectly can be acquired only by continued and careful
practice

- it is not a matter of artistic talent or event of dexterity in hand writing

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 Order of strokes

They are necessary to have legible and accurate letter styles. In the
following description an alphabet of slightly extended vertical capitals has-been
arranged in-group. Study the slope of each letter with the order and direction of
the storks forming it. The proportion of height and width of various letters must be
known carefully to letter them perfectly.

The I-H-T Group

- The letter I is The Foundation Stroke.

- The top of T is drawn first to the full width of the square and the stem is started
accurately at its mid-point.

The L-E-F Group

- The L is made in two strokes.

- The first two strokes of the E are the same for the L, the third or the upper stoke
is lightly shorter than the lower and the last stroke is the third as long as the lower

- F has the same proportion as E

The V-A-K Group

- V is the same width as A, the A bridge is one third up from the bottom.

- The second stroke of K strikes stem one third up from the bottom and the third
stroke branches from it.

The M-W Group

- are the widest letters - M may be made in consecutive strokes of the two
verticals as of N - W is made with two V’s

The O-Q-C-G Group

- The O families are made as full circles and made in two strokes with the left side
a longer arc than the right.

- A large size C and G can be made more accurately with an extra stroke at
the top

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 The D- U-J Group

- The top and bottom stokes of D must be horizontal, fail line to observe this is a
common fault with beginners

- U is formed by two parallel strokes to which the bottom stroke be added.

- J has the same construction as U, with the first stroke omitted.

The P-R-B Group

- The number of stokes depends up on the size of the letter.

- The middle line of P and R are on centerline of the vertical line.

(SOURCE: Engineering Drawing by Wuttet Taffesse and Laikemariam Kassa,

Haramaya University, 2005)

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3. Spacing of Letters

Uniformity in spacing of letters is a matter of equalizing spaces by eye. The

background area between letters, not the distance between them, should be
approximately equal. Some combinations, such as LT and VA, may even have to
be slightly overlapped to secure good spacing. In some cases, the width of a
letter may be decreased. For example, the lower stroke of the L may be shortened
when followed by A.

Words are spaced well apart, but letters with in words should be spaced closely.
Make each word a compact unit well separated from the adjacent words. For
either upper case or lower-case lettering, make the spaces between words
approximately equal to a capital O. Avoid spacing letters too far apart and words
too close together.

4. Lettering in Maps

Letters are generally used on maps as follows:

- Vertical capital: name of states, countries, towns, capitals, titles of the map etc

- Vertical lower case: name of small towns, villages, post offices etc.

- Inclined capital: name of oceans, bays, gulfs, large lakes, rivers etc.

- Inclined lower case: name of rivers, creeks, small lakes, ponds, marshes and
springs

5. Conventional Lines

Each line on a technical drawing has a definite meaning and is drawn in certain
ways. There are certain conventional lines recommended by American Standard
Association. According to the standard,” three widths of line, thick, medium, and
thin are recommended… exact thickness may vary according to the size and
type of drawing.

There should also be a distinct contrast in the thickness of different kinds of lines,
particularly between the thick lines and thin lines.

In technical drawings, make construction lines so light that they can barely be
seen, with a hard sharp pencil such as 4H to 6H. For visible lines, hidden lines, and

21
other “thick” lines use relatively soft pencils, such as F or H. All thin lines except
construction line must be thin, but dark. They should be made with a sharp
medium grad pencil, such as H or 2H.

Figure 3.7 Conventional lines

(SOURCE: Engineering Drawing by Wuttet Taffesse and Laikemariam Kassa,

Haramaya University, 2005)

Review Questions:

1. Discuss the different types of lines

2. Explain the application of each line types in technical drawings

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 CHAPTER 4: GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION

Objectives: At the end of this chapter students should be able to:

- Define geometric nomenclatures like angles, lines etc

- Discuss the steps to construct different geometric figures like lines, arcs, polygon,
ellipse etc

Introduction

Strict interpretation of geometric construction allows use of only the

compass and an instrument for drawing straight lines, and with these, the
geometer, following mathematical theory, accomplishes his solutions. In
technical drawing, the principles of geometry are employed constantly, but
instruments are not limited to the basic two as T-squares, triangles, scales, curves
etc. are used to make constructions with speed and accuracy. Since there is
continual application of geometric principles, the methods given in this chapter
should be mastered thoroughly. It is assumed that students using this book
understand the elements of plane geometry and will be able to apply their
knowledge.

The constructions given here afford excellent practice in the use of

instruments. Remember that the results you obtain will be only as accurate as your
skill makes them. Take care in measuring and drawing so that your drawings will
be accurate and professional in appearance.

GEOMETRIC NOMENICLATURE

A. POINTS IN SPACE A point is an exact location in space or on a drawing surface.

A point is actually represented on the drawing by a crisscross at its exact location.
The exact point in space is where the two lines of the crisscross intersect. When a
point is located on an existing line, a light, short dashed line or cross bar is placed
on the line at the location of the exact point. Never represent a point on a
drawing by a dot; except for sketching locations.

B. LINE Lines are straight elements that have no width, but are infinite in length
(magnitude), and they can be located by two points which are not on the same

23
spot but fall along the line. Lines may be straight lines or curved lines.A straight line
is the shortest distance between two points. It can be drawn in any direction. If a
line is indefinite, and the ends are not fixed in length, the actual length is a matter
of convenience. If the end points of a line are important, they must be marked
by means of small, mechanically drawn crossbars, as described by a pint in
space.

Straight lines and curved lines are considered parallel if the shortest distance
between them remains constant. The symbol used for parallel line is //. Lines,
which are tangent and at 900 are considered perpendicular. The symbol for
perpendicular line is ⊥.

C. ANGLE

An angle is formed by the intersection of two lines. There are three major kinds of
angles: right angels, acute angles and obtuse angles. The right angle is an angle
of 900 , an acute angle is an angle less than 900 , and an obtuse angle is an angle
more than 900 . A straight line is 1800 . The symbol for an angle is < (singular) and
<’s (Plural). To draw an angle, use the drafting machine, a triangle, or a protractor.

D. TRIANGLES

A triangle is a closed plane figure with three straight sides and their interior angles
sum up exactly 1800 . The various kinds of triangles: a right triangle, an equilateral
triangle, an isosceles triangle, and an obtuse angled triangle.

24
E. QUADRIALTERAL

It is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides. When opposite sides are
parallel, the quadrilateral is also considered to be a parallelogram.

F. POLYGON

A polygon is a closed plane figure with three or more straight sides. The most
important of these polygons as they relate to drafting are probably the triangle
with three sides, square with four sides, the hexagon with six sides, and the
octagon with eight sides.

G. CIRCLE

A circle is a closed curve with all points on the circle at the same distance from
the center point. The major components of a circle are the diameter, the radius
and circumference.

- The diameter of the circle is the straight distance from one outside curved
surface through the center point to the opposite outside curved surface.

25
- The radius of a circle is the distance from the center point to the outside curved
surface. The radius is half the diameter, and is used to set the compass when
drawing a diameter.

- A central angle: is an angle formed by two radial lines from the center of the
circle.

- A sector: is the area of a circle lying between two radial lines and the
circumference.

- A quadrant: is a sector with a central angle of 900 and usually with one of the
radial lines oriented horizontally.

- A chord: is any straight line whose opposite ends terminate on the circumference
of the circle.

- A segment: is the smaller portion of a circle separated by a chord.

- Concentric circles are two or more circles with a common center point.

- Eccentric circles are two or more circles without a common center point.

26
H. SOLIDS

They are geometric figures bounded by plane surfaces. The surfaces are called
faces, and if these are equal regular polygons, the solids are regular polyhedral

TECHNIQUES OF GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS

To construct the above mentioned geometric figures, we have to know

some principles and procedures of geometric construction. Thus, the remaining
of this chapter is devoted to illustrate step-by-step geometric construction
procedures used by drafters and technicians to develop various geometric forms

A. How to Bisect a Line or an Arc

To bisect a line means to divide it in half or to find its center point. In the
given process, a line will also be constructed at the exact center point at exactly
900.

Given: Line A-B

Step 1: Set the compass approximately two-thirds of the length of line A-B and
swing an arc from point A.

Step 2: Using the exact same compass setting, swing an arc from point B.

Step 3: At the two intersections of these arcs, locate points D and E.

27
Step 4: Draw a straight-line connecting point D with point E. Where this line
intersects line A-B, it bisects line A-B. Line D-E is also perpendicular to line A-B at
the exact center point.

B. HOW TO DIVIDE A LINE IN TO Number of EQUAL PARTS

Given: Line A-B

Step 1: Draw a construction line AC that starts at end A of given line AB. This new
line is longer than the given line and makes an angle of not more than 300 with it.

Step 2: Find a scale that will approximately divide the line AB in to the number of
parts needed (11 in the example below), and mark these divisions on the line AC.
There are now ‘n’ equal divisions from A to D that lie on the line AC (11 in this
example).

Step 3: Set the adjustable triangle to draw a construction line from point D to point
B. Then draw construction lines through each of the remaining ‘n-1’ divisions
parallel to the first line BD by sliding the triangle along the straight edge. The
original line AB will now be accurately divided.

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C. How to Bisect an Angle

To bisect an angle means to divide it in half or to cut it in to two equal angles.

Given: Angle BAC

Step 1: Set the compass at any convenient radius and swing an arc from point A

Step 2: Locate points E and F on the legs of the angle, and swing two arcs of the
same identical length from points E and F, respectively.

Step 3: Where these arcs intersect, locate point D. Draw a straight line from A to
D. This line will bisect angle BAC and establish two equal angles: CAD and BAD.

D. How to Draw an Arc or Circle (Radius) Through Three Given Points

Given: Three points in space at random: A, Band C.

Step 1: With straight line, lightly connect points A to B, and B to C,

Step 2: Using the method outlined for bisecting a line, bisect lines A-B and B-C

Step 3: Locate point X where the two extended bisectors meet. Point X is the exact
center of the arc or circle.

29
Step 4: Place the point of the compass on point X and adjust the lead to any of

the points A, B, or C (they are the same distance), and swing the circle. If all work
is done correctly, the arc or circle should pass through each point.

E. How to Draw a Line Parallel to a Straight Line at a Given Distance

Given: Line A-B, and a required distance to the parallel line.

Step 1: Set the compass at the required distance to the parallel line. Place the
point of the compass at any location on the given line, and swing a light arc
whose radius is the required distance.

Step 2: Adjust the straight edge of either a drafting machine or an adjusted

triangle so that it line sup with line A-B, slide the straight edge up or down to the
extreme high point, which is the tangent point, of the arc, then draw the parallel
line.

30
F. How to Draw a Line Parallel to a Line Curved Line at a Given Distance

Given: Curved line A-B, and a required distance to the parallel line,

Step 1: Set the compass at the required distance to the parallel line. Starting from
either end of the curved line, place the point of the compass on the given line,
and swing a series of light arcs along the given line.

Step 2: using an irregular curve, draw a line along the extreme high points of the
arcs.

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G. How to Draw a Perpendicular Lines to a Line at a Point Method 1

Given: Line A-B with point P on the same line.

Step 1: Using P as a center, make two arcs of equal radius or more continuous arc
(R1) to intercept line A-B on either side of point P, at points S and T.

Step 2: Swing larger but equal arcs (R2) from each of points S and T to cross each
other at point U.

Step 3: A line from P to U is perpendicular to line A-B at point P

H. How to Draw a Perpendicular to a Line at a Point

Method 2 Given: Line A-B with point P on the line.

Step 1: Swing an arc of any convenient radius whose center O is at any

convenient location NOT on line A-B, but positioned to make the arc cross line A-
B at points P and Q

Step 2: A line from point Q through center O intercepts the opposite side of the
arc at point R

Step 3: Line R-P is perpendicular to line A-B (A right angle has been inscribed in a
semi circle)

32
I. How to Draw a Perpendicular to a line from a Point Not on the Line

Given: Line A-B and point P

Step 1: Using P as a center, swing an arc (R1) to intercept line A-B at points G and
H.

Step 2: Swing larger, but equal length arcs (R2) from each of the points G and H
to intercept each other at point J.

Step 3: Line P-J is perpendicular to line A-B

33
J. How to Draw a Triangle with Known Lengths of Sides

Given: lengths 1, 2, and 3.

Step 1: Draw the longest length line, in this example length 3, with ends A and B.
Swing an arc (R1) from point A whose radius is either length 1 or length 2; in this
example length 1.

Step 2; using the radius length not used in step 1, swing an arc (R2) from point B to
intercept the arc swung from point A at point

Step 3: Connect A to C and B to C to complete the triangle

K. How to Draw a Square

Method-1 Given: The locations of the center and the required distance across the
sides of a square.

Step 1: Lightly draw a circle with a diameter equal to the distance around the
sides of the square. Set the compass at half the required diameter.

Step 2: Using triangles, lightly complete the square by constructing tangent lines
to the circle. Allow the light construction lines to project from the square, without
erasing them.

Step 3: Check to see that there are four equal sides and, if so, darken in the actual
square using the correct line thickness.

34
Method-2 Given one side AB. Through point A, draw a perpendicular. With A as a
center, and AB as radius; draw the arc to intersect the perpendicular at C. With B
and C as centers, and AB as radius, strike arcs to intersect at D. Draw line CD and
BD.

L. How to Draw A Pentagon (5 Sides)

Given: The locations of the pentagon center and the diameter that will
circumscribe the pentagon.

Step 1: Bisect radius OD at C.

35
Step 2: With C as center, and CA as radius, strike arc AE. With A as center, and AE
as radius, strike arc EB. Step 3: Draw line AB, then set off distances AB around the
circumference of the circle, and draw the sides through these points.

M. How to Draw A Hexagon (6 Sides)

N. To Draw Any Sided Regular Polygon

To construct a regular polygon with a specific number of sides, divide the given
diameter using the parallel line method as shown in fig below. In this example, let
us assume sevensided regular polygon. Construct an equilateral triangle (0-7-8)
with the diameter (0-7) as one of its sides. Draw a line from the apex (point 8)
through the second point on the line (point 2). Extend line 8-2 until it intersects the
circle at point 9. Radius 0-9 will be the size of each side of the figure. Using radius
0-9 step off the corners of the seven sides polygon and connect the points.

36
O. To Draw A Circle Tangent to a Line at a Given Point

Given: Given line AB and a point on the line.

Step 1: At P erect a perpendicular to the line.

Step 2: Set off the radius of the required circle on the perpendicular.

Step 3: Draw circle with radius CP.

P. To Draw a Tangent to A Circle through a Point

Given: Point P on the circle

37
Method-1

Move the T-square and triangle as a unit until one side of the triangle passes
through the point P and the center of the circle; then slide the triangle until the
other side passes through point P, and draw the required tangent.

Method-2

Given: Point P outside the circle

Move the T-square and triangles as a unit until one side of the triangle passes
through point P and, by inspection, is the tangent to the circle; and then slide the
triangle until the other side passes through the center of the circle, and lightly
mark the point of tangency T. finally move the triangle back to its starting position
and draw the required tangent.

Q. To Draw Tangents to Two Circles

Move the T-square and triangles as a unit until one side of the triangle is tangent,
by inspection, to the two circles; then slide the triangle until the other side passes
through the center of one circle, and lightly mark the point of tangency. Then
slide the triangle until the side passes through the center of the other circle, and
mark the point of tangency. Finally slide the triangle back to the tangent position,
and draw the tangent lines between the two points of tangency. Draw the
second tangent line in similar manner.

38
R. HOW TO CONSTRUCT AN ARC TANGENT TO an Angle

Given: A right angle, lines A and B and a required radius.

Step 1: Set the compass at the required radius and, out of the way, swing a radius
from line A and one from line B.

Step 2: From the extreme high points of each radius, construct a light line parallel
to line A and another line parallel to line B.

Step 3: Where these lines intersect is the exact location of the required swing point.
Set the compass point on the swing point and lightly construct the required radius.
Allow the radius swing to extend past the required area. It is important to locate
all tangent points (T.P) before darkening in.

Step 4: Check all work and darken in the radius using the correct line thickness.
Darken in connecting straight lines as required. Always construct compass work
first, followed by straight lines. Leave all light construction lines.

39
S. How to Construct an Arc Tangent to Two Radii or Diameters

Given: Diameter A and arc B with center points located, and the required radius.

Step 1: Set the compass at the required radius and, out of the way, swing a radius
of the required length from a point on the circumference of given diameter A.
Out of the way, swing a required radius from a point on the circumference of a
given arc B.

Step 2: From the extreme high points of each radius, construct a light radius out
side of the given radii A and B.

Step 3: Where these arcs intersect is the exact location of the required swing point.
Set the compass point on the swing point and lightly construct the required radius.
Allow the radius swing to extend past the required area.

Step 4: Check all work; darken in the radii using the correct line thickness. Darken
in the arcs or radii in consecutive order from left to right or from right to left, thus
constructing a smooth connecting line having no apparent change in direction.

40
T. To Draw an Ellipse (By Four-Centered Method)

Join 1 and 3, layoff 3-5 equal to 01-03. This is done graphically as indicated in the
fig. Below by swinging 1 around to 5 with O as center where now 03 from 05 is 3-
5; the required distance. With 3 as center, an arc from 5 to the diagonal 1-3
locates 6. Bisect 1-6 by a perpendicular crossing 0-1 at 9 and intersecting 0-4
produced (if necessary) at 10. Make 0-9’ equal to 0-9, and 0-10’ equal to 0-10.
Then 9, 9’, 10, and 10’ will be centers for four tangent circle arcs forming a curve
approximating the shape of an ellipse.

41
U. How to Draw an Ogee Curve

An ogee curve is used to join two parallel lines. It forms a gentle curve that reverses
itself in a neat symmetrical geometric form.

Given: Parallel lines A-B and C-D

Step 1: Draw a straight line connecting the space between the parallel lines. In
this example, from point B to point C.

Step 2: Make a perpendicular bisector to line B-C to establish point X.

Step 3: Draw a perpendicular from line A-B at point B to intersect the

perpendicular bisector of B-X, which locates the first required swing center. Draw
a perpendicular from line C-D at point C to intersect the perpendicular bisector
of CX, which locates the second required swing center.

Step 4: Place the compass point and adjust the compass lead to point B, and
swing an arc from B to X. Place the compass point on the second swing point and
swing an arc from X to C. This completes the ogee curve.

42
Review questions 1. The side of a certain triangle is 2 cm. Construct an equilateral
triangle based on the given side by using compass and ruler.

2. Show the procedure how to divide a line in to number of equal parts

3. Draw a line parallel to straight line AB at 2cm distance.

43
 CHAPTER FIVE: PROJECTION

Objective:

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

- Explain the purpose and theory of multi view projections

- Describe “Glass Box Method” of orthographic projection

- Mention the principal views and combination of views

- Convert pictorial drawings in to orthographic or multi view projection

- Describe representation of circular surfaces, hidden surfaces in orthographic

projection

- List the precedence of lines in multi view projection

- Explain the necessity of pictorial projection

- Discuss the procedure to construct box for isometric and oblique drawings

- Convert orthographic projection in to isometric projection

All forms of engineering and technical work require that a twodimensional

surface (paper) be used to communicate ideas and the physical description of
a variety of shapes. Here projections have been divided in to two basic
categories; pictorial and multi view. This simple division separates single view
projections (oblique, perspective and isometric) from multi view projections
(orthographic). Theoretically, projections can be classified as convergent and
parallel, or divided in to three systems of projection: perspective, oblique, and
orthographic. Division of types based on whether the drawing is a one view or
multi view projection sufficiently separate projection types in to those used for
engineering working drawings (orthographic) and those used for display
(architectural rendering, technical illustrations etc)

In short, one of the best ways to communicate one's ideas is through some
form of picture or drawing. This is especially true for the engineer. The purpose of
this chapter is to give you the basics of engineering sketching and drawing.

44
 We will treat "sketching" and "drawing" as one. "Sketching" generally,
means freehand drawing. "Drawing" usually, means using drawing instruments,
from compasses to computers to bring precision to the drawings.

Before we get started on any technical drawings, let's get a good look at
this strange block (figure 5.1) from several angles.

Isometric Drawing

The representation of the object in figure 5.2 is called an isometric drawing.

This is one of a family of three-dimensional views called pictorial drawings. In an
isometric drawing, the object's vertical lines are drawn vertically, and the
horizontal lines in the width and depth planes are shown at 30 degrees to the
horizontal. When drawn under these guidelines, the lines parallel to these three
axes are at their true (scale) lengths. Lines that are not parallel to these axes will
not be of their true length.

45
 Any engineering drawing should show everything: a complete
understanding of the object should be possible from the drawing. If the isometric
drawing can show all details and all dimensions on one drawing, it is ideal.

One can pack a great deal of information into an isometric drawing. Look,
for instance, at the instructions for a home woodworker in figure 5.2. Everything
the designer needs to convey to the craftsperson is in this one isometric drawing.

However, if the object in figure 5.2 had a hole on the back side, it would
not be visible using a single isometric drawing. In order to get a more complete
view of the object, an orthographic projection may be used.

Orthographic or Multi view Projection

Imagine that you have an object suspended by transparent threads inside

a glass box, as in figure 5.3.

Then draw the object on each of three faces as seen from that direction.
Unfold the box (figure 5.4) and you have the three views. We call this an
"orthographic" or "multi view" drawing.

46
Figure 5.5 shows how the three views appear on a piece of paper after unfolding
the box.

Which views should one choose for a multi view drawing? The views that reveal
every detail about the object. Three views are not always necessary; we need
only as many views as are required to describe the object fully. For example, some
objects need only two views, while others need four. The circular object in figure
5.6 requires only two views.

47
Theory of Multi view Projections

Multi view orthographic projection is the primary means of graphic

communication used in engineering work. Drawings are used to convey ideas,
dimensions, shapes, and procedures for the manufacture of the object or
construction of a system. Orthographic projection is the basis of all descriptive
geometry procedures. Multi view projection is a procedure that can be used to
completely describe an object’s shape and dimensions using two or more views
that are normally projected at 900 to each other, or at specified angles. In
general, engineering work is complete using this method of projection. The
finished drawing is then reproduced and sent to the shop or to the job site.

To design and communication every detail to manufacturing groups

(Engineers, technicians) descriptions must be prepared. This description must
show every aspect of the shape and size of each part and of the complete
structure. Because of this necessity graphics is the fundamental method of
communication only as a supplement, for notes and specifications, is the word
language used.

Shape is described by projection that is by the process of causing an

image to be formed by rays of sight taken in a particular direction from an object
to a picture plane. Methods of projection vary according to the direction in which
the rays of sight are taken to the plane. When the rays are perpendicular to the
plane, the projective method is Orthographic. If the rays are at an angle to the
plane, the projective method is called oblique. Rays taken to a particular station
point result in perspective projection. By the methods of perspective, the object
is represented as it would appear to the eye.

Theory of projection is the basis of background information necessary to

shape representation in graphics. Two fundamental methods of shape
representation are used.

48
1. Orthographic view consists of a set of two or more separate views of an object
taken from different directions, generally at right angles to each other and
arranged relative to each other in a definite way. Each of the views shows the
shape of the object for a particular view direction and collectively the views
describe the object completely.

2. Pictorial view, in which the object is oriented behind and projected up on a

single plane. Either oblique on perspective projection is used.

Orthographic Projection

A. Definition

Basically, Orthographic projection could be defined as any single projection

made by dropping perpendiculars to a plane. In short, orthographic projection is
the method of representing the exact shape of an object by dropping
perpendiculars from two or more sides of the object to planes, generally at right
angles to each other; collectively, the views on these planes describe the object
completely.

Descriptive geometry is basically the use of orthographic projection in order to

solve for advanced technical data involving the spatial relation ship of points,
lines, planes, and solid shapes. The most common means of understanding these
types of orthographic projection is The Glass Box method.

The Glass Box method, used primarily for descriptive geometry problems, requires
that the user imagine that the object, points, lines, planes etc are enclosed in a
transparent “box”. Each view of the object is established on its corresponding
glass box surface by means of perpendicular projectors originating at each point
of the object and extending to the related box surface. The box is hinged so that
it can be unfolded on to one flat plane (the paper).

The lines of sight representing the direction from which the object is viewed. In
figure 5.7, the vertical lines of sight (A) and horizontal lines of sight (B) are assumed
to originate at infinity. The line of sight is always perpendicular to the image plane,
represented by the surfaces of the glass box (top, front, and right side). Projection
lines(c) connect the same point on the image plane from view to view, always at
right angle.

A point is projected up on the image plane where its projector, or line of sight,
pierces that image plane. In the figure 5.8, point 1, which represents a corner of

49
the given object, has been projected on to the three primary image planes.
Where it is intersects the horizontal plane (top image plane), it is identified as 1 H,
when it intersects the frontal plane (front image plane), it is identified as 1F, and
where it intersects the profile plane (right side image plane), it is labeled 1P.

50
B. Orthographic views

It is the picture or view or thought of as being found by extending perpendiculars

to the plane from all points of the object. This picture, or projection on a frontal
plane, shows the shape of the object when viewed from the front but it does not
tell the shape or distance from front to real. Accordingly, more than one
protection is required to describe the object.

If transparent plane is placed horizontally above the object, the projection on this
plane found by extending perpendiculars to it from the object, will give the
appearance of the object as if viewed from directly above and will show the
distance from frontal plane. Then the horizontal plane is now rotated into
coincidence with the frontal plane. Now again a third plane, perpendicular to
the first two called profile plane are used to view an object from the side.

C. The Six Principal Views

Let us surround the object entirely by asset of six planes, each at fight angles to
each other. On these planes, views of the object can be obtained as is seen from
the top, front, and right side, left side, bottom and rear.

51
Think now of the six sides, or the plane of the paper. The front is already in the
plane of the paper, and the other sides are, as it were, hinged and rotated in
position as shown. The projection on the frontal plane is the front view vertical
projection, or front elevation, that on the horizontal plane, the top view, horizontal
projection, or plan, that on the side, profile view, side view, profile projection, or
side elevation. By reversing the direction of sight, a bottom view is obtained
instead of a top view, or a rear view instead of a front view.

52
In actual work, there is rarely an occasion when all six principal views are needed
on one drawing. All these views are principal views. Each of the six views shows
two of the three dimensions of height, width and depth.

In general, when the glass box is opened, its six sides are revolved outward so that
they lie in the plane of the paper. And each image plane is perpendicular to its
adjacent image plane and parallel to the image plane across from it. Before it is
revolved around its hinged fold line (reference line). A fold line is the line of
intersection between any hinged (adjacent) image planes.

The left side, front, right side, and back are all elevation views. Each is vertical. The
top and bottom planes are in the horizontal plane. But in most cases the top, front,
and right sides are required.

D. COMBINATION OF VIEWS

The most usual combination selected from the six possible views consists of the
top, front, and right side views sometimes the left- side view helps to describe an
object more clearly then the light side view.

N.B: The side view of the front face of the object is adjacent to the front view and
the side view of a point will be at the same distance from the front surface as its
distance from the front surface on the top view.

The six principal views of an object or the glass box have previously been
presented in the type of orthographic projection known as Third Angle
Orthographic Projection. This form of projection is used throughout this lecture
note and is primary form of projection found in all American Industry with the
exception of some special cases in the architectural and structural fields.

53
The type of projection used in most foreign countries and on many American
Structural and architectural drawings is called First Angle Orthographic
Projections.

In this form of projection, the object is assumed to be in front of the image plane.
Each view is formed by projecting through the object and on to the image plane.

5.2.2 Classification of surfaces and Lines in Orthographic Projections

Any object, depending upon its shape and space position may or may not have
some surfaces parallel or perpendicular to the planes of projection.

Surfaces are classified according to their space relationship with the planes of
projection i.e. horizontal, frontal and profile surfaces. When a surface is inclined to
two of the planes of projection (but perpendicular to the third, the surface is said
to be auxiliary or inclined .It the surface is at angle to all three planes, the term
oblique or skew is used.

Although uniform in appearance, the lines on a drawing may indicate three

different types of directional change on the object. An edge view is a line
showing the edge of a projection. An intersection is a line formed by the meeting
of two surfaces where either one surface is parallel and one at an angle or both
are at an angle to the plane of projection. A surface limit is a line that indicates
the reversal of direction of a curved surface.

A. Horizontal, Frontal and Profile Surfaces

54
The edges (represented by lines) bounding a surface may be in a simple position
or inclined to the planes of projection depending up on the shape or position, the
surface takes is name from the plane of projection. Thus, a horizontal line is a line
in a horizontal plane; a frontal line is a line in a frontal plane; and a profile line is a
line in a profile plane. When a line is parallel to two planes, the line takes the name
of both planes as horizontal frontal, horizontal- profile, or frontal – profile.

B. Inclined Surfaces

An edge appears in true length when it is parallel to the plane of projection, as a

point when it is perpendicular to the plane and shorter than true length when it is
inclined to the plane. Similarly, a surface appears in trey shape when it is parallel
to the planes of projection, as alien when it is perpendicular to the plane, and
fore shortened when it inclined to the plane. An object with its face parallel to the
plans of projection as figure 5.12; a top, front, and right side surfaces are shown in
true shape and the object edges appear either in true length or as points. The
inclined surface of the object as figure 5.13 does not show true shape in any of
the views but appears as an edge in front view. The front and rear edges of the
inclined surface are in true length in the front view and fore shortened in the top
and side views. The top and bottom edges of the inclined surface appear in true
length in top and side views and as points in the front view.

55
C. Oblique Surfaces

A line that is not parallel to any plane of projection is called an oblique skew line
and it does not show in true shape in any of the views, but each of the bounding
edges shows interval length in one view and is fore shortened in the other two
views,

56
D. Hidden Surfaces

To describe an object with complex internal features completely, a drawing

should contain lines representing all the edges, intersections, and surface limits of
the objects In any view there will be some parts of the object that can not be
seen from the position of the observer, as they will be covered by station of the
object closer to the observer’s eye. The edges, intersections, and surface limits of
these hidden parts are indicated by a discontinuous line called a dashed line. In
figure 5.15, the drilled hole that is visible in the top-side view is hidden in the front
and right side views, and therefore it is indicated in these views by a dashed line
showing the hole and the shape as left by the drill.

Particular attention should be paid to the execution of these dashed lines. It

carelessly drawn, they ruin the appearance of a drawing. Dashed lines are drawn
lighten full lines, of short dashes uniform in length with the space between there
very short, about ¼ of the length of the dash.

This view shows the shape of the object when viewed from the side and the
distance from bottom to top and front to rear. The horizontal and profile planes
are rotated in to the same plane as the frontal plane. Thus, related in the same
plane, they give correctly the three dimensional shape of the object.

E. Curved Surfaces

To represent curved surfaces in orthographic projections, center lines are

commonly utilized. All the center lines, which are the axes of symmetry, for all
symmetrical views are a part of views.

1. Every part with an axis, such as a cylinder will have the axis drawn as center line
before the part is drawn.

2. Every circle will have its center at the intersection of two mutually perpendicular
center lines.

57
The standard symbol for center lines on finished drawings is a fine line made up of
alternate long and short dashes.

Precedence of lines

In any view there is likely to be a coincidence of lines. Hidden portions of the

object may project to coincide with visible portions Center lines may occur where
there is a visible or hidden out line of some part of the object.

Since the physical features of the object must be represented full and dashed
lines take precedence over all other lines since visible out line is more prominent
by space position, full lines take precedence over dashed lines. A full line could
cover a dashed line, but a dashed line could not cover a full line. It is evident that
a dashed line could not occur as one of the boundary lines of a view.

When a centerline and cutting- plane line coincide, the one that is more
important to the readability of the drawing takes precedent over the other.

Break lines should be placed so as not to coincide with other lines of the drawing.

The following line gives the order of precedence of lines.

1. Full line

2. Dashed line

3. Careful line or cutting – plane line

4. Break lines

58
5. Dimension and extension lines.

6. Crosshatch lines.

Pictorial Projections

By means of multi view drawing, it is possible to represent accurately the most

complex forms by showing a series of exterior views and sections. This type of
representation has, however, two limitations: its execution requires a through
understanding of the principles of multi view projection, and it’s reading requires
a definite exercise of the constructive imagination.

Frequently it is necessary to prepare drawings that are accurate and scientifically

correct, and that can be easily understood by persons with out technical training.
Such drawings show several faces of an object at once, approximately as they
appear to the observer. This type of drawing is called pictorial drawing. Since
pictorial drawing shows only the appearances of objects, it is not satisfactory for
completely describing complex or detailed forms.

As we have seen in the previous chapters, the four principal types of projection
are:

♦ Multi view projection

♦ Axonometric projection

♦ Oblique projection

♦ Perspective projection

All except the regular multi view projection are pictorial types since they show
several sides of the object in a single view. In all cases the view or projections are
formed by the piercing points in the plane of projection of an infinite number of
visual rays or projectors. In this chapter, we will focus on the common types of
pictorial projection i.e. isometric projection.

59
In both multi view projection and axonometric projection, the observer is
considered to be at infinity, and the visual rays are perpendicular to the plane of
projection. Therefore, both are classified as Orthographic Projections.

In Oblique projection, the observer is considered to be at infinity, and the visual

rays are parallel to each other but oblique to the plane of projection.

In Perspective, the observer is considered to be at a finite distance from the

object, and the visual rays extend from the observer’s eye, or the station point
(SP), to all points of the object to form a so-called “cone of rays.”

The distinguishing feature of axonometric projection, as compared to multi view

projection, is the inclined position of the object with respect to the plane of
projection. Since the principal edges and surfaces of the object are inclined to
the plane of projection, the lengths of the lines, the sizes of the angle, and the
general proportions of the object vary with the infinite number of possible positions
in which the object may be placed with respect to the plane of projection. Three
of these are shown below.

In these case, the edges of the cube are inclined to the plane of projection, and
therefore foreshortened. The degree of foreshortening of any line depends on its
angle with the plane of projection; the greater the angle the greater the
foreshortening. If the degree of the foreshortening is determined for each of the
three edges of the cube which meet at one corner, scales can be easily
constructed for measuring along these edges or any other edges parallel to them.

60
It is customary to consider the three edges of the cube which meet at the corner
nearest to the observer as the axonometric axes.

In these case, the edges of the cube are inclined to the plane of projection, and
therefore foreshortened. The degree of foreshortening of any line depends on its
angle with the plane of projection; the greater the angle the greater the
foreshortening. If the degree of the foreshortening is determined for each of the
three edges of the cube which meet at one corner, scales can be easily
constructed for measuring along these edges or any other edges parallel to them.
It is customary to consider the three edges of the cube which meet at the corner
nearest to the observer as the axonometric axes.

Axonometric projections are classified as

a) Isometric projection

b) Dimetric Projection

c) Trimetric Projection, depending up on the number of scales of reduction

required.

Since the most widely used method of axonometric projection is Isometric, we will
only see isometric projection in detail.

Isometric Projection

To produce an isometric projection (Isometric means “equal measure”), it is

necessary to place the object so that its principal edges or axes, make equal
angles with the plane of projection, and are therefore foreshortened equally. In
this position the edges of a cube would be projected equally and would make
equal angles with each other (1200 ).

61
In the figure above, the projections of the axes OX, OY and OZ make angles of
1200 with each other, and are called the isometric axes. Any line parallel to one
of these is called an Isometric line; a line which is not parallel is called a
nonisometric line. It should be noted that the angles in the isometric projection of
the cube are either 1200 or 600 and that all projections of 900 angles. In an
isometric projection of a cube, the faces of the cube or any planes parallel to
them are called Isometric planes.

Isometric Drawing

When a drawing is prepared with an isometric scale or otherwise as the object is

actually projected on a plane of projection, it is an isometric projection. But when
it is prepared with an ordinary scale, it is an isometric drawing. The isometric
drawing is 22.5% larger than the isometric projection, but the pictorial value is
obviously the same in both.

Since the isometric projection is foreshortened and an isometric drawing is full size,
it is customary to make an isometric drawing rather than an isometric projection,
because it is so much easier to execute and, for all practical purposes, is just as
satisfactory as the isometric projection.

The steps in constructing an isometric drawing of an object composed only of

normal surfaces, as illustrated in figure 5.20. Notice that all measurements are
made parallel to the main edges of enclosing box, that is, parallel to isometric
axes. No measurement along a diagonal (non-isometric line) on any surface or
through the object can be set off directly with the scale. The object may be

62
drawn in the same position by beginning at the corner Y or any other corner,
instead of at the corner X.

The method of constructing an isometric drawing of an object composed partly

of inclined surface (and oblique edges) is shown in figure 5.20. Notice that inclined
surfaces are located by offset measurements along isometric lines.

For example, dimensions E and F are setoff to locate the inclined surface M, and
dimensions A and B are used to locate surface N.

Box Construction

Objects of rectangular shape may be more easily drawn by means of box

construction, which consists simply in imagining the object to be enclosed in a
rectangular box whose sides coincide with the main faces of the object. For
example, in fig below, the object shown in two views is imagined to be enclosed
in a construction box.

This box is then drawn lightly with construction lines, I, the irregular features are
then constructed, II, and finally, III, the required lines are made heavy.

63
Lines in Isometric Drawing

♦ Hidden Lines

The use of hidden lines in isometric drawing is governed by the same rules as in all
other types of projection: Hidden lines are omitted unless they are needed to
make the drawing clear. If a projecting part cannot be clearly shown with out the
use of hidden lines, then hidden lines are needed.

♦ Center Lines

The use of center lines in isometric drawing is governed by the same rules as in
multi view drawing: center lines are drawn if they are needed to indicate
symmetry, or if they are needed for dimensioning. In general, center lines should
be used sparingly, and omitted in cases of doubt. The use of too many center
lines may produce a confusion of lines, which diminishes the clearness of the
drawing.

Review question

1. Explain the purpose and theory of multi view projections

2. Construct a box for isometric and oblique drawings based on the technical
drawing procedure.

3. Describe “Glass box method“ of orthographic projections.

64
 CHAPTER SIX: DIMENSIONING

Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

♦ Discuss the purposes of dimensioning

♦ Explain the differences between dimension line, extension line, leaders etc.

♦ Draw the dimension of technical drawings as per the standard

Introduction

The purpose of dimensioning is to provide a clear and complete description of an

object. A complete set of dimensions will permit only one interpretation needed
to construct the part. Dimensioning should follow these guidelines.

1. Accuracy: correct values must be given.

2. Clearness: dimensions must be placed in appropriate positions.

3. Completeness: nothing must be left out, and nothing duplicated.

4. Readability: the appropriate line quality must be used for legibility.

Definitions

Dimension line is a thin line, broken in the middle to allow the placement of the
dimension value, with arrowheads at each end (figure 8.1).

65
♦ An arrowhead is approximately 3 mm long and 1 mm wide. That is, the length is
roughly three times the width.

♦ An extension line extends a line on the object to the dimension line. The first
dimension line should be approximately 12 mm (0.6 in) from the object. Extension
lines begin 1.5 mm from the object and extend 3 mm from the last dimension line.

♦ A leader is a thin line used to connect a dimension with a particular area (figure
8.2).

A leader may also be used to indicate a note or comment about a specific area.
When there is limited space, a heavy black dot may be substituted for the arrows,
as in figure 8.1. Also in this drawing, two holes are identical, allowing the "2x"
notation to be used and the dimension to point to only one of the circles.

Steps in Dimensioning

There are two basic steps in dimensioning objects, regardless of the type of
object.

STEP 1: Apply the size dimensions. These are dimensions, which indicate the overall
sizes of the object and the various features, which make up the object.

STEP 2: Apply the location dimensions. Location dimensions are dimensions, which
locate various features of an object from some specified datum or surface.

66
Where to Put Dimensions

The dimensions should be placed on the face that describes the feature most
clearly. Examples of appropriate and inappropriate placing of dimensions are
shown in figure 9.4.

In order to get the feel of what dimensioning is all about, we can start with a
simple rectangular block. With this simple object, only three dimensions are
needed to describe it completely (figure 8.5). There is little choice on where to
put its dimensions.

67
We have to make some choices when we dimension a block with a notch or
cutout (figure 9.6). It is usually best to dimension from a common line or surface.
This can be called the datum line of surface. This eliminates the addition of
measurement or machining inaccuracies that would come from "chain" or "series"
dimensioning. Notice how the dimensions originate on the datum surfaces. We
chose one datum surface in figure 9.6, and another in figure 9.7. As long as we
are consistent, it makes no difference. (We are just showing the top view).

In figure 9.8 we have shown a hole that we have chosen to dimension on the left
side of the object. The Ø stands for "diameter".

68
When the left side of the block is "radiuses" as in figure 9.9, we break our rule that
we should not duplicate dimensions. The total length is known because the radius
of the curve on the left side is given. Then, for clarity, we add the overall length of
60 and we note that it is a reference (REF) dimension. This means that it is not really
required.

69
Somewhere on the paper, usually the bottom there should be placed information
on what measuring system is being used (e.g. inches and millimeters) and also the
scale of the drawing.

This drawing is symmetric about the horizontal centerline. Centerlines (chain-

dotted) are used for symmetric objects, and also for the center of circles and
holes. We can dimension directly to the centerline, as in figure 9.10. In some cases
this method can be clearer than just dimensioning between surfaces.

Review questions

1. Explain the difference among dimension line, extension line and leaders

2. Discuss the purpose of dimensioning

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 CHAPTER SEVEN: PROJECTION OF POINTS, LINES AND PLANES

Objectives: At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

♦ Discuss reference line, picture planes and views

♦ Classify lines based on direction, type etc.

♦ Explain the orthographic projection of points and lines ( principal, vertical and
inclined lines etc)

♦ Draw the true length of an oblique lines

♦ Explain how to draw a point view of a line

♦ Define principal planes

♦ List out the main difference between types of principal planes

♦ Explain the use of edge view and steps to draw an edge view of a plane

♦ Discuss the procedures how to draw true shape/size of oblique or inclined

planes

A major problem in technical drawing and design is the creation of

projections for finding the true views of lines and planes. The following is a brief
review of the principles of descriptive geometry involved in the solution of such
problems. The designers working along with an engineering team can solve
problems graphically with geometric elements. Structures that occupy space
have three-dimensional forms made up of a combination of geometric elements.

The geometric solutions of three-dimensional forms require an

understanding of the space relations that points, lines, and planes share in forming
any given shape. Problems which many times require mathematical solutions can
often be solved graphically with accuracy that will allow manufacturing and
construction. Thus, basic descriptive geometry is one of the designer’s methods
of thinking through and solving problems.

All geometric shapes are composed of points and their connectors, lines. In
descriptive geometry points are the most important geometric element and the
primary building block for any graphical projection of a form. All projections of

71
lines, planes, or solids can be physically located and manipulated by identifying
a series of points that represent the object.

A point can be considered physically real and can be located by a small

dot or a small cross. It is normally identified by two or more projections. In fig below,
points A and B are located on all three-reference planes. Notice that the
unfolding of the three planes forms a two-dimensional surface with the fold lines
remaining. The fold lines are labeled as shown to indicate that F represents the
Front view, T represents the Top views, and S represents the Profile or Right side
view. The planes are replaced with reference lines HF and FP, which are placed
in the same position as the fold lines.

Reference Planes

Unfolding of the reference planes forms a two-dimensional surface, which

a drafter uses to construct and solve problems. The planes are labeled so that T
represents the top or horizontal reference plane, F represents the front or vertical
reference plane, S or P represents the side (end) or profile reference plane. Thus
a point 1 on the part, line or plane would be identified as 1F on the top reference
plane, and 1T on the top reference plane, and 1S on the profile reference plane.
The folding lines shown on the box are required to as reference lines on the
drawing. Other reference planes (auxiliary planes) and reference lines (auxiliary
lines) are drawn and labeled as required.

Projection of Point

Since a point is a location in space and not a dimensional form, it must be

located by measurements taken from established reference line. The two figures
below show the glass box method of orthographic projection illustrated pictorially
and orthographically. These two figures represent the projection of point 1 in the
three principal planes, frontal (1F), horizontal (1H), and profile (1P). In glass box
method, it is assumed that each mutually perpendicular plane is hinged so as to
be revolved in to the planes of the paper. “The intersection line of two successive
(perpendicular) image planes is called fold line/ reference line.” All
measurements are taken from fold lines to locate a point is space. A fold
line/reference line can be visualized as the edge view of a reference plane.

A point can be located by means of verbal description by giving dimensions from

fold/ reference lines. Point 1 is below the horizontal plane (D1), to the left of the
profile plane (D2), and behind the frontal plane (D3). D1 establishes the elevation

72
or height of the point in front and side view, D2 the right, left location or width in
the front and top view, and D3 the distance behind the frontal plane (depth) in
the top and side view.

Lines in Space

Lines can be thought as a series of points in space, having magnitude

(length) but not width. It will be assumed that a line is straight unless otherwise
stated. Though a line may be located by establishing its end points and may be
of a definite specified length, all lines can be extended in order to solve a
problem. Therefore, a purely theoretical definition of a line could be: “Lines are
straight elements that have no width, but are infinite in length (magnitude); they
can be located by two points which are not on the same spot but fall along the
line.”

When two lines lie in the same plane they will either be parallel or intersect.
Lines can be used to establish surfaces, or solid shapes. In a majority of illustrations
the view of a line and its locating points are labeled with a subscript
corresponding to the plane of projection, as fig below where the end points of
line 1-2 are denoted 1H and 2H in the horizontal views, 1F and 2F in the frontal
view, and 1P and 2P in the profile plane.

73
Classification of Lines in Orthographic Projections

In orthographic projections lines can be classified based on their parallelism with

the picture planes, type and direction.

A. Classification based on Parallelism

A line that is parallel to a principal plane is called a principal line, and is true length
in the principal plane to which it is parallel. Since there are three principal planes
of projection, there are three principal lines: horizontal, frontal and profile.

A horizontal line: is a principal line which is parallel to the horizontal plane and
appears true length in the horizontal view

A frontal line: is a principal line which is parallel to the frontal plane and appears
true length in the frontal view.

A profile line: is a principal line which is parallel to the profile plane and appears
true length in the profile view.

74
Besides the above definitions, the following terms are used to describe lines
according to the direction and type.

B. Classification Based on Direction

Vertical line: A vertical line is perpendicular to the horizontal plane, and appears
true length in the frontal and profile views and as a point view in the horizontal
views.

Level line: any line that is parallel to the horizontal plane is a level line. Level lines
are horizontal lines.

Inclined lines: Inclined lines will be parallel to the frontal or profile planes and at
angle to the horizontal plane and appears true length in the views where it is
parallel to a principal plane.

C. Classification based on Type

Oblique: oblique lines are inclined to all three principal planes and therefore will
not appear true length in a principal view.

♦ Foreshortened: lines that are not true length in a specific view appear shortened
than their true length measurement.

♦ Point view: a point view is a view of a line in which the line is perpendicular to
the viewing plane (the line of sight is parallel to the line).

♦ True length: a view in which a line can be measured true distance between its
end points shows the line as true length and appears true length in any view
where it is parallel to the plane of projection

75
Orthographic Projection of a Line

Lines are classified according to their orientation to the three principal planes of
projection or how they appear in a projection plane. They can also be described
by their relationship to other lines in the same view. All lines are located from the
fold lines/ reference lines, which represent the intersection of two perpendicular
planes of projection. In fig. above, line 1-2 is pictorially represented. Line 1-2
(dashed) is projected on to each principal projection plane and located by
dimensions taken from fold lines.

In figure above, each end points of line 1-2 is located from two fold lines in each
view, using dimensions or projection lines that originate in a previous view.
Dimensions D1 and D2 establish the elevation of the end points in the profile and
frontal view, since these points are horizontally in line in these two views. D3 and
D4 locate the end points in relation to the F/P fold line (to the left of the profile
plane), in both the frontal and horizontal views, since these points are aligned
vertically. D5 and D6 locate each point in relation to the H/F and the F/P fold line,
since these dimensions are the distance behind the frontal plane and will show in
both the horizontal and profile views.

A. Level and Vertical Lines

A line that is parallel to the horizontal projection plane is a “level” line and
appears true length in the horizontal view. A level line is a horizontal line (principal

76
line) since it is parallel to the horizontal projection plane. In figure below the three
variations of level (horizontal) lines are illustrated. In example (1), line 1-2 is parallel
to the horizontal plane and inclined to the frontal and profile planes. It appears
true length in the horizontal view and foreshortened in the other two views.
Example (2) shows level line line1-2 parallel to both the frontal and horizontal
projection planes and is a point view in the profile view. Line 1-2 is true length in
two principal views and is therefore both a horizontal line and a frontal line where
as in example (3), line1-2 is parallel to both the profile and horizontal projection
planes and appears as a point view in the frontal view, and true length in both
other principal views. Hence, line 1-2 is a profile line, and a horizontal line.

Vertical lines are perpendicular to the horizontal plane (view) and

appear true length in both the frontal and profile views and as a point in the
horizontal view. Thus, a vertical line is parallel to the profile and frontal projection
planes.

B. Inclined Lines

Lines that appear true length in the frontal or profile view (but not both) are
inclined

77
 Lines. Inclined lines will be parallel to the frontal plane, or parallel to the
profile plane. Hence, inclined lines will appear foreshortened in two principal
views and true length in the other principal view. In example (1), line 1-2 is true
length in the frontal view i.e. parallel to the frontal projection plane and
foreshortened in the H (T) and P (S) views. In example (2), line1-2 is true length in
the profile view i.e. parallel to the profile projection plane and foreshortened in
the H and F views. Note that line1-2 in example (1) is the same distance behind
the frontal plane in both the horizontal and profile view, dimension D1.

C. Frontal Lines

A line that is parallel to the frontal projection plane is a frontal line. Frontal
lines are principal lines and always appear true length in the frontal view. A frontal
line can be inclined, level, or vertical, but must be true length. A vertical frontal
line appears as a point view in the horizontal view and true length in both the
frontal and profile views, therefore a vertical line is both a frontal and profile line
since it is true length in both of these views. If a level frontal line appeared as a
point in the profile plane, it would be true length in the frontal and horizontal views
and is therefore a horizontal as well as a frontal line.

78
Line 1-2 lies behind the frontal plane the same distance in the horizontal and
profile views, dimensions D1.Note that it is not possible to tell if a line is a frontal
line given the front view alone. Only in the profile and horizontal views can it be
established that a line is a frontal line

D. Horizontal Lines

A line that is parallel to the horizontal projection plane is a horizontal line.

Horizontal lines appear true length in the horizontal view and are therefore
principal lines. A horizontal line will always be level in the frontal and profile views.
If a horizontal line is perpendicular to the frontal plane (and parallel to the profile
view) it appears as a point views in the frontal view and true length in the profile
view and is a combination horizontal and profile line. Likewise, if a horizontal line
is parallel to the frontal plane it appears as a point view in the profile view and
true length in the frontal view and thus is a combination horizontal and frontal line.

79
 In order to tell if a line is in or parallel to the horizontal plane, it is necessary
to have either the frontal or profile views of the line. Only the frontal and profile
views show the line as a point view or parallel to the horizontal plane.

E. Profile Lines

horizontal view of a profile line always shows the line as a point view or
foreshortened, in either case the line is parallel to the profile plane. Vertical lines
are both profile and frontal lines since they appear true length in the frontal and
profile views and as a point in the horizontal view. Where a profile line appears as
a point in the front view, the line is both a frontal and profile line.

80
Line 1-2 is true length in the profile view and appears foreshortened in the other
two principal views. Dimensions D1 and D2 locate the end points of the line from
the F/P fold line and the H/F fold line. These measurements represent the distance
of point 1 and point 2 behind the frontal plane. The angle that the profile line 1p-
2p makes with the F/P fold line is the angle between the line and the frontal plane
(angle F).Angle H is the angle that line 1p-2p makes with the horizontal plane.

F. Oblique Lines

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 Oblique lines are inclined to all three principal planes: horizontal, frontal,
and profile. An oblique line is not vertical, parallel or perpendicular to any of the
three principal planes, and therefore does not appear true length in the frontal,
horizontal, or profile views. All three principal views of an oblique line appear
foreshortened.

In order to solve for true length of an oblique line, an auxiliary view with a line of
sight perpendicular to a view of the oblique line must be projected from any
existing view. The fold line between these two views will be parallel to the oblique
line.

Line 1-2 is an oblique line since it is not parallel to any principal planes of projection
and appears foreshortened in every view. In order to locate an oblique in space,
dimensions must be taken from fold lines and projection lines extended from an
existing view. Dimension D1 and D2 locate the end points of line 1-2 from the H/F
and F/P fold line and represent the distance line1-2 behind the frontal plane.

82
So, the true length of an oblique line can be measured in a view where the line is
parallel to the projection plane of that view. And if the line of sight for a view is
not perpendicular to the line, the line will be foreshortened.

Since oblique lines are not true length in a principal plane, it is necessary to project
an auxiliary view in which the given line appears true length. An oblique line
appears foreshortened in all three principal views: frontal, horizontal, and profile.
In order to have a true length of a line, the line must be parallel to the projection
plane in the adjacent view.

A true length view of an oblique line can be projected from any existing view by
establishing a line of sight perpendicular to a view of the line and drawing a fold
line parallel to the line (perpendicular to the line of sight). The following steps
describe the procedure for drawing a true length projection of an oblique line
from the frontal view,

1. Establish a line of sight perpendicular to oblique line 1-2 in the frontal view.

2. Draws fold line F/A perpendicular to the line of sight and parallel to the oblique
line 1F-2F

83
3. Extend projection lines from point 1F and 2F perpendicular to the fold line and
parallel to the line of sight.

4. Transfer dimensions D1 and D2 from the horizontal view to locate point 1A and
2A along the projection lines in auxiliary view A.

5. Connect points 1Aand 2A. This is the true length of line1-2.

The true length of an oblique line can also be projected from the horizontal views
and profile views using the same basic steps as described above

G. Point View of a Line

A line will project as a point view when the line of sight is parallel to a true length
view of the line; in other words the point view is projected on a projection plane
that is perpendicular to the true length. Finding the true length and the point view
of a line will be required for many situations involving the application of
descriptive geometry to engineering problems. The first requirement for a point
view is that the line be projected as a true length.

The point view of a principal line is established by the use of a primary auxiliary
view as shown below. The steps are:

Step 1: Establish a line of sight parallel to the true length line 1H-2H.

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Step 2: Draw the fold line perpendicular to the line of sight (H/A or H/B). Note that
the fold line is also perpendicular to the true length line.

Step 3: Draw a projection line from line 1H-2H perpendicular to the fold line and
therefore parallel to the line of sight.

Step 4: Transfer dimension D1 from the front view to locate both points along the
projection line, in either auxiliary view A or B.

Line 1-2 is projected as true length in two separate primary auxiliary views, A and
C. To establish the point view, a secondary auxiliary view (B or D) is projected
perpendicular to the true length line. For auxiliary view B transfer the distance
between H/A and line 1H-2H along the projection line from fold line A/B to locate
point view 1B-2B. For auxiliary view D, transfer the distance between F/C and line
1F-2F along the projection line from fold line C/D to locate the point view of line
1D-2D.

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Planes

A plane can be defined as a flat surface that is not curved or warped.

And a plane can be fixed in space by locating any three points that lie in its
surface and are not in a straight line. A line and a point, two intersecting lines, or
two parallel lines also define a plane.

Classification of Planes

When a plane is parallel to a principal projection plane, it is a principal

plane. A principal plane can be a horizontal plane, a frontal plane, or a profile
plane depending on its relation ship to a principal projection plane. All lines in a
horizontal plane, frontal plane, or profile plane are true length lines; therefore
principal planes are made up of principal lines. Principal planes can be classified
as:

A. Principal Lines

A horizontal plane: it is parallel to the projection plane. It is true size or

shape in the horizontal view since all of its lines are principal lines, therefore they
project true length. The frontal and profile views of a horizontal plane always show
the plane as edge view.

♦ A frontal plane: it lies parallel to the frontal projection plane where it shows as
true size. In the horizontal and profile views the plane appears as an edge view.
All lines show true length in the frontal view, since they are principal lines (frontal
lines).

♦ A profile plane: it is true size in the profile view and appears as an edge in the
frontal and horizontal views. Every line in the plane is true length in the profile view
since they are profile lines. Profile planes are perpendicular to the frontal and
horizontal projection planes.

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B. VERTICAL PLANES

Vertical planes are perpendicular to the horizontal projection plane. The

horizontal view of all vertical planes shows the plane as an edge view. The
following figures show the three basic positions for a vertical plane.

C. OBLIQUE AND INCLINED PLANES

The classification of planes is determined by their relationship to the three

principal projection planes: frontal, horizontal, and profile. Principal planes
appear as a true size in one of the three principal projections and as edges in the
other two. Oblique planes and inclined planes do not appear true size in any of
the three principal views. Oblique and inclined planes are not vertical or
horizontal (level), and will not be parallel to a principal projection plane.

Oblique plane: An oblique plane is inclined to all three principal projection planes,
which results in each view being foreshortened (distorted). The true size of an
oblique plane cannot be seen in the three principal projections.

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Inclined plane: An inclined plane does not appear true size in any of the principal
projections. This form of plane is seen as an edge in the profile view or in the frontal
view and foreshortened (distorted) in the other two views

Edge View of a Plane

An edge view of a plane is seen in a view where the line of sight is parallel
to the plane. The line of sight is parallel to the plane when it is parallel to a true
length line that lies on the plane. Since a projection plane is always perpendicular
to the line of sight, it follows that a view drawn perpendicular to a plane
(perpendicular to a true length line that lies in the plane) shows the plane as an
edge. This can be seen in a vertical plane, which appears, as an edge in the
horizontal view, since it is perpendicular to the horizontal projection plane. A
horizontal plane is perpendicular to the frontal and profile projection planes and
thus appears as an edge in these two views.

When the given plane is oblique, an auxiliary (secondary projection plane)

plane is needed. In order to establish a line of sight parallel to the plane, a true
length line needs to be drawn which lies on the plane. An auxiliary view where
the line appears as a point view shows the plane as an edge. So the following are
the genera steps that are required to create an edge view. In figure below, plane
1-2-3 is given and an edge view is required.

Step 1: Draw line 1H-2H on plane 1H-2H-3H, parallel to the H/F, and complete the
frontal view by projection. Line 1F4F is true length.

Step 2: Project auxiliary view a perpendicular to plane 1F-2F3F. The line of sight for
this projection is parallel to the plane and parallel to the true length line 1F-4F.
Draw F/A perpendicular to 1F-4F and complete auxiliary view A by projection.

Step 3: Auxiliary view a shows the line 1A-4A as a point view and therefore plane
1A-2A-3A appears as an edge view.

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True Size (Shape) Of an Oblique Plane

When the line of sight is perpendicular to the edge view of a plane, it projects as
true size (shape). The true size view is projected parallel to the edge view of the
plane. Therefore, the fold line between the views is drawn parallel to the edge
view. An oblique plane does not appear as true size in any of the principal
projection planes. Therefore, a primary and secondary auxiliary view is needed to
solve for the true shape of an oblique plane.

In figure 8.6, oblique plane 1-2-3 is given and its true shape is required.

Step 1: Draw a horizontal line 1F-4F parallel to the H/F and show it as true length in
the horizontal view.

Step 2: Draw H/A perpendicular to line 1H-4H and complete auxiliary view B. Line
1A-4A is a point view and plane 1A-2A-3A an edge.

Step 3: Project secondary auxiliary view B parallel to the edge view of plane 1A-
2A-3A. Draw A/B parallel to the edge view.

Step 4: Complete auxiliary B; plane 1B-2B-3B is true size (shape)

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Note that: In a true size/shape view of a plane, all lines are true length and all
angles are true angle.

Review questions 1. Describe the difference among reference line, picture planes
and views. 2. Explain the orthographic projections of points and lines ( principal,
vertical and inclined lines etc) 3. Discuss the procedure how to draw the true
shape/ size of oblique or inclined planes. 4. Enumerate the use of edge view and
steps to draw edge of a plane.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT: SECTIONING

Objectives:

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

- Describe the purpose of sectioning in technical drawings

- Define cutting plane lines, direction of sight, section lining etc

- Mention and explain the different kinds of sectioning

SECTIONAL VIEWS

Sectioning

It is defined as an imaginary cut made through an object to expose the interior

or to reveal the shape of a portion.

Sectional view

It is a view in which all or a substantial portion of the view is sectioned. There are
many times when the interior details of an object cannot be seen from the
outside (figure 6.1).

We can get around this by pretending to cut the object on a plane and
showing the "sectional view". The sectional view is applicable to objects like
engine blocks, where the interior details are intricate and would be very difficult

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to understand through the use of "hidden" lines (hidden lines are, by convention,
dotted) on an orthographic or isometric drawing. Imagine slicing the object in
the middle (figure 6.2)

Take away the front half (figure 6.3) and what you have is a full section view
(figure 6.4).

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The cross-section looks like figure 6.4 when it is viewed from straight ahead.

In short, when the interior of the object is complicated or when the component
parts of a machine are drawn assembled, an attempt to show hidden portions
by the customary dashed lines in regular or graphic views often results in a
confusing networks, which is difficult to draw and almost impossible to read
clearly.

In case of this kind, to aid in describing the object, one or more views are drawn
to show the object as if a portion has been cut away to show the interior.

For some simple objects where the orthographic un sectioned views can be
easily read, sectional views are often preferable because they show clearly and
emphasis the solid portions, the voids, and the shape.

Cross-Sectional Views

A cross-sectional view portrays a cut-away portion of the object and is another

way to show hidden components in a device.

Imagine a plane that cuts vertically through the center of the pillow block as
shown in figure 6.5 (a) and (b). Then imagine removing the material from the
front of this plane, as shown in figure 6.5 (b).

This is how the remaining rear section would look. Diagonal lines (cross-hatches)
show regions where materials have been cut by the cutting plane.

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This cross-sectional view (section A-A, figure 6.6), one that is orthogonal to the
viewing direction, shows the relationships of lengths and diameters better. These
drawings are easier to make than isometric drawings. Seasoned engineers can
interpret orthogonal drawings without needing an isometric drawing, but this
takes a bit of practice.

The top "outside" view of the bearing is shown in figure 6.7. It is an orthogonal
(perpendicular) projection. Notice the direction of the arrows for the "A-A"
cutting plane.

HOW SECTIONS ARE SHOWN

To clearly draw the sectional views, we have to understand the following

terminologies.

A. Cutting Plane Lines

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The cutting plane line indicates the path that an imaginary cutting plane follows
to slice through an object. Think of the cutting plane line as a saw blade that is
used to cut through the object. The cutting-plane line is represented by a thick
black dashed line.

B. Direction of Sight

The drafter must indicate the direction in which the object is to be viewed after
it is sliced or cut through. This is accomplished by adding a short leader and
arrowhead to the ends of the cutting-plane. And these arrows indicate the
direction of sight.

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C. Section Lining

Section lining shows where the object is sliced or cut by the cutting plane line.
Section lining is represented by thin, black lines drawn at 450 to the horizontal.
Section lining is spaced by eye from 1.5mm to 6mm apart, depending up on the
overall size of the object. The average spacing used for most drawings is 3mm.
Section lines must be of uniform thickness (thin black) and evenly spaced by
eye.

If the cutting plane passes through more than two parts, section lining of each
individual part must be drawn at different angles. Where an angle other than
450 is used, the angle should be 300 or 600 . Section lining should not be parallel
with the sides of the object to be section lined.

MULTISECTION VIEWS

The different kinds of sections used today are:

♦ Full section

♦ Offset section

♦ Half section

♦ Broken-out section

♦ Revolved section

♦ Auxillary section etc.

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In this part, we only consider the most commonly used types of sections.

Full Section

It is simply a section of one of the regular multi-views that sliced or cut

completely in two.

Offset Section

Many times, important features do not fall in a straight line as they do in a full
section. These important features can be illustrated in an offset section by
bending or offsetting the cutting-plane line. An offset section is very similar to a
full section, except that the cutting plane line is not straight.

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98
Half-Sections

A half-section is a view of an object showing one-half of the view in section, as

in figure 6.13 (a) and (b)

The diagonal lines on the section drawing are used to indicate the area
that has been theoretically cut. These lines are called section lining or cross-
hatching. The lines are thin and are usually drawn at a 45-degree angle to the
major outline of the object. The spacing between lines should be uniform.

A second, rarer, use of cross-hatching is to indicate the material of the

object. One form of cross-hatching may be used for cast iron, another for
bronze, and so forth. More usually, the type of material is indicated elsewhere on
the drawing, making the use of different types of cross-hatching unnecessary.

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 Usually hidden (dotted) lines are not used on the cross-section unless they
are needed for dimensioning purposes. Also, some hidden lines on the non-
sectioned part of the drawings are not needed (figure 6.13) since they become
redundant information and may clutter the drawing.

Review questions

1. Describe the purpose of sectioning in technical drawings

. What is “direction of sight” in sectioning?

3. Mention the difference between offset section and full section.

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 ACTIVITY #1
TITLE BLOCKS AND SPECIFICATION

101
  Instructions:
 Make you own plate using “Cartolina only” with a minimum dimension of 580mm x 360mm.
 Create your title block and margin using the dimensions provided above, see final output.
 Write the name of your of instructor, (your instructor will contact you).
 Use engineering drawing tools as needed (T-square, Triangle/s straight edge/ruler)
 All succeeding activity/activities will use the same template for title block. Create total of 9 title block for this
subject
 Use pencil for your guidelines, and ball point pen or technical pen for final output.
 Strictly no using of correction tape, correction ink. Instead of using correction tape, just redraw the plate.
 Make sure to update the plate number and do not abbreviate (Mechanical Engineering, Saint Louis
University and the problem or plate title).
 Strictly no free hand drawing

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SAMPLE FINAL OUTPUT

DEPARTMENT SUBJE PROBLEM PLATE DRAFTED BY:

CT ENGGDRAW TITLE: NO:
TITLE BLOCK
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCHEDU HERO, SHOCK T.
LE 7:30 – 10:30 M

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 ACTIVITY # 2
ENGINEERING LETTERING

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Use pencil in all guidelines
 Letter size of 15mm, and spacing of 14mm, maximize space per line.
 Follow strictly the rules and guidelines in writing engineering letterings.
 Use standard template for the title block, refer to plate no. 1. Make sure to update the plate number
and do not abbreviate (Mechanical Engineering, Saint Louis University and the problem or plate title).

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  Strictly no free hand drawing
ACTIVITY # 3
GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Divide your plate into three equal parts,
 Use the following engineering tools (T-Square, Triangle/s (30-60) and (45-45), Protractor, Ruler),
secure black, blue, red ball pen. Recommend Uni pin, G-tech. (0.3 – red, 0.5 – blue, 0.8 – black)

105
 Strictly follow dimensions, line weight and line color required.
 All units are in millimeters (mm)
 Use the correct pen in each exercise
 Use standard template for the title block (refer to plate 1)
 Strictly no free hand drawing

106
107
 ACTIVITY 4
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

108
INSTRUCTIONS:

 Follow the guidelines/dimension given in the activity

 Use engineering tools
 Use the center of your template, at the center measure 25 mm on top, bottom, left and right.
See figure on the first page.
 Use alphabets of lines for this activity
 Note: All dimension ends with 0 and 5 only
 Black (thick line), all visible lines (outer line)
 Blue (thin line), all details lines.
 Red ( broken lines) all hidden lines
 Pencil (guidelines)
 Use our standard title block template (refer to plate 1)
 Provide the necessary labels like front view, top view etc. (4 mm letter height, use black, 0.8 pen)
 No need to draw the dimension lines
 Strictly no free hand drawing

109
110
 ACTIVITY #5
ISOMETRIC VIEW

INSTRUCTION:

 From your activity # 4 draw the isometric view, use another plate paper with title block (refer to
plate 1) for this activity.
 Use alphabets of lines in this activity.

111
 Use standard drawing template (refer to plate 1)
 Use the center of your plate follow instructions in activity number 4.
 Provide the necessary label (Isometric View) with 4 mm letter height (0.8 black pen)
 Labels should be written following guidelines and rules in writing Engineering Letterings
 Black (thick line), all visible lines (outer line)
 Blue (thin line), all details lines.
 Red ( broken lines) all hidden lines
 Strictly no free hand drawing

112
 ACTIVITY # 6
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION #2

113
INSTRUCTIONS:
 For this activity you are going to draw the isometric view of the cylinder that is cut diagonally
with an angle of 50 degrees.
 Follow the required dimensions

114
 Use standard drawing template (refer to plate 1)
 For simple tutorial to draw isometric circle, please watch the video on this link.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EaTwlLaMYao)
 Use Drawing tools and French curves for this activity,
 Divide your plate paper into two (2), on the left side draw the top view, right side view and the
front view.
 On the right side, draw the isometric view of the cylinder
 Provide the necessary label (Isometric View, Front View etc.) with 4 mm letter height (0.8 black
pen
 Labels should be written following guidelines and rules in writing Engineering Letterings
 Black (thick line), all visible lines (outer line)
 Blue (thin line), all details lines.
 Red (broken lines) all hidden lines
 Strictly no free hand drawing

115
 ACTIVITY # 7
FULL SECTION VIEW

116
INSTRUCTION:
 Scale is 1:1
 Use standard drawing template (refer to plate 1)
 Draw the top, section A-A , Right side view and isometric view of the sectioned object
 Divide your plate paper into two (2), on the left side draw the top view, right side view and the front view.
 On the right side, draw the isometric view of the cylinder
 Provide the necessary label (Isometric View, Front View etc.) with 4 mm letter height (0.8 black pen
 Divide your plate paper into two (2), on the left side draw the top view, section A-A and the front view.
 On the right side of the plate, draw the Isometric Sectional View
 Labels should be written following guidelines and rules in writing Engineering Letterings (4 mm letter height)
 Provide necessary dimensions (refer from the discussions in module 4)
 Black (thick line), all visible lines (outer line)
 Blue (thin line), all details lines.
 Red (broken lines) all hidden lines
 Use Red color for section lining
 Strictly no free hand drawing

117
 ACTIVITY #8
HALF SECTION VIEW

118
INSTRUCTION:
 SCALE IS 1:1
 Use standard drawing template (refer to plate 1)
 Draw the Top, Half Section, Right Side View and the Isometric View of the Sectioned Object.
 Use engineering tools
 Divide your plate paper into two (2), on the left side draw the top view, section A-A and the front view.
 On the right side of the plate, draw the Half Section View
 Labels should be written following guidelines and rules in writing Engineering Letterings (4 mm letter height)
 Provide necessary dimensions (refer from the discussions in module 4)
 Black (thick line), all visible lines (outer line)
 Blue (thin line), all details lines.
 Red (broken lines) all hidden lines
 Use Red color for section lining
 Strictly no free hand drawing

119
 ACTIVITY #9
FINAL EXAM

INSTRUCTION:
 Draw the following figure/s. follow the dimension given. Use the correct pen color and line weight to properly show the
drawing.
 Divide the plate into nine (9) portions and use the center of the portion as the center of the object.
 Use standard drawing template (refer to plate 1)
 Strictly no free hand drawing, provide complete dimensions, units are in mm

120
REFERENCES:

1. Wuhhet Taffesse, Laikemarian Kassa, Engineering Drawing, Haramaya

University, 2005.

2. Jenson,Cecil Howard,Engineering drawing and design,1925,4th

ed.,Macmillan/McGram-Hill.

3. Louis Gary Lamit, Descriptive Geometry,1981,1st ed.,Prentice-Hall.

4. Frederick E.,Technical Drawing,1958,4thed.,The Macmillan Company.

5. David L.Goetsch et al, Technical drawing,1994,3rd ed., Delmar Publishers Inc.

6. A text book of engineering drawing, B.Gupta. Nasaka Pashakar publisher

7. V.B. Sikka ,A course in civil engineering drawing ,1998,4th ed.

8. T. Jeyapoovan, Engineering Drawing with autocad 2000,

Vikas publishing

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Thank You

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