Assignment No.4.

Design of multi-impression drop forging die

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Most forgings require a series of forming stages, called preforms, to convert the initial stock
material into the finish-forged shape. Forging complexity is increased by several features,
including:
 The presence of thin sections in the part
 Large changes in the cross-sectional area of the part
 Part shapes that require the die parting line to be cranked
The term "closed-die" forging include
(i) blocker forgings
(ii) precision forgings.
Blocker forgings, compared to conventional forgings, have thicker sections and more generous
radii. They are termed blocker forgings because the pre-forming shape before the finishing
impression is traditionally called a blocker. Blocker forgings are easier to form than equivalent
conventional forgings, requiring fewer forming stages and lower loads. They are used sometimes
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when small quantities of parts are required, to reduce die costs, or in difficult-to-form materials,
when it is hard to obtain thin sections or there are other problems. Blocker forgings require more
subsequent machining to reach the final part shape than conventional forgings.

Precision forgings are parts formed with thinner sections and closer tolerances than the equivalent
conventional forgings, i.e., nearer to net shape. Such forgings require careful processing, and peak
loads during the final forming stages are 2.5 to 3 times higher than those experienced for equivalent
conventional forging. Thus, larger equipment and more precise die-to-die positioning is required.
Although the term precision forging implies closer precision than is normally obtained for any
material, in practice precision forgings are more often produced in light alloys (aluminum alloys,
magnesium alloys, etc.) than in other materials.
Metal flow during forging occurs in two basic modes:
● Parallel to the motion of the dies, that is, extrusion
● Perpendicular to the motion of the dies, that is, upsetting

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There are no fixed rules to design the dies for drop forging. The design method used mainly depends
on the geometry and processing of drop forging parts. But there are a series of recommended
guidelines and principles for design, which can be adopted based on a particular situation. They
are mostly empirical, and are developed from years of practical experience.
A. Determination of parting line and axis of products for drop forging manufacturing
B. Convert the finished machine part drawing into drop forging part drawing with the decided
parting line and applying various allownces – machining allownce, shrinakage allownce,
draft allowance. Consequently, some of the geometry needs to be simplified or modified
eg.,undercuts, recesses, threads, etc. Decided parting plane determine (i) draft (ii) holes
and cavities (iii) counterlock.
C. Determine the billet/stock size
D. Determine the sequence of operations and cavity sizes

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Hot working temperatures
Metal and alloys Hot working temp 0C
Aluminium alloys 400 - 500
Magnesium alloys 250 - 300
Copper alloys 600 - 900
Carbon and low alloy steel 850 – 1150
Stainless steel 1100 -1250
Lubrication
1.Inflences friction and die wear; affects forces required and metal flow in die cavities
2.Themal insulator. Act as a thermal barrier between the hot billet and relatively cool dies slowing
down the cooling of the billet and improving the metal flow.
3.Parting agent i.e., inhibits sticking of forging to the dies and helps the release of forging.

A rib is a thin part of the forging that is perpendicular /normal to the forging plane. A web is a thin
part of the forging that is passing through or parallel to the forging plane.

Fullering Edging Bending

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Trimming/ punching Finishing Blocking

Machining

Finished part

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Three degrees of forging severity

A. Determination of parting line and axis of products for drop forging

manufacturing
A parting plane is a plane in which the two die halves of the forging meet. It is the plane of
separation formed between the upper and lower halves of a closed die set. It could be a simple
plane or irregularly bent, depending on the shape of the forging. The choice of a proper parting
plane greatly influences the cost of the die as well as the grain flow in the forging. Decided parting
plane determine (i) draft (ii) holes and cavities (iii) counter-lock

The parting line should be pass through the maximum periphery of the forging. The parting plane
should be the largest cross-sectional area of the forging since it is easier to spread the metal than to

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force it into deep pockets. Putting the largest flat surface on the parting line is the other variation
of this criterion. A flat parting plane is more economical.

The parting plane should distribute the material equal amount into the two die halves so that deep
die cavities are avoided. If required, place more metal into the top die half, since metal would more
readily flow (bounce back) in the top half than in the bottom one. Avoid deep impressions in the
die to improve die life.
Minimize die side thrust to avoid die shift during the drop forging cycle. Whenever the counter
lock is provided, care should be taken to see that enough resisting area is provided, so that the
sideward thrust generated is properly counterbalanced. The thickness of the counter lock should at
least be 1.5 times the height for providing enough strength.
The other aspect to be considered in the choice of parting line is the punching of holes that are
perpendicular to the parting plane. The holes that are parallel to the parting line are not possible
and those inclined are avoided. Depending on the depth of the hole compared to the diameter, it
may be necessary to choose such a parting line that the hole is properly distributed, and the punch
used for making the hole has enough strength.
(i) Avoid deep impressions in the die to improve die life.
(ii) The parting line should be pass through the maximum periphery of the forging. Because, it is
easier to spread the metal laterally than to force it to fill deep, die impressions. (Fig. a).
(ii) It is always advantageous to form plane surface by flat upper die and counter of forging by
impression in lower die. (Fig. b).
(iii) If an inclined parting line is required, then it does not exceed 75°. Because the inclined flashes
may create problems in trimming and subsequent machining operation.
(iv) A parting line should be located such that it promotes alignment of the fibrous to fulfill the
strength requirement of a forged component. (Fig. 5.28 c). Achieve desired grain orientation for
the part to be drop forged
(v) When design the parting line for a component that has webs and ribs, it is desirable to have the
parting line either at the top or at bottom surfaces. (Fig. 5.28 d).

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The forging as oriented generates a side thrust in the die requiring the counter-lock to prevent the
lateral shift of the die. The counter-lock is subject to wear from the side loads. The forging can be
rotated in the die to balance the lateral loads and eliminate the counter-lock. However, the holes in
the bosses cannot be forged and must be fully machined.

Where production quantities justify two sets of impression dies, the forgings can be oriented
opposite to balance the side loads. This arrangement permits the holes in the bosses to be forged to
reduce the amount of machining required.

B. Convert the finished machine part drawing into drop forging part drawing
Cavities and ribs
A rib is a thin part of the forging that is perpendicular /normal to the forging plane. A web is a thin
part of the forging that is passing through or parallel to the forging plane.
The cavities and ribs including holes can be produced up to a certain depth in drop forging. The
main reason for the limitation is that the punch needs to have the necessary strength to withstand

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the forging load. Thin, long punches are likely to wear out quickly and need reconditioning of the
die. The common limits for the depth of rib-to-web enclosures and cavities are presented.
Materials ratio h: W
L=W L > 2W
Aluminium, Magnesium 1.0 2.0
Steel, Titanium 1.0 1.5

Webs are thin sections with a large projected area in the direction of die closure. Webs are often
designed into the parts for strength and other reasons, often accompanied by peripheral ribs
(spanner middle cross section). These webs add considerably to the load requirements during
forging operations because of the large die contact areas, which increase cooling rates, friction, and
so on. If the finished part has through holes to be forged in, then these must be filled with webs at
the die parting line and then these webs are removed by punching during the flash removal
(trimming) process. The material in these webs is additional waste material and adds to the material
cost per part.
Web thickness t w (mm) = 3.54 × A0.227
h
2
Ah is the area of the holes in cm
Recommended fillet and corner radii for drop forgings
Depth or Fillet Radius, Corner Radius,
Height, mm mm mm
15 5 2.5
25 8 4.0
40 12 4.5
50 15 5.0
65 18 5.5
75 20 6.0

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(i) It is recommended to keep the height-to-thickness ratio of a rib below 6, and preferably at 4.
(ii) Avoid thin-wedged ribs and small fillet radii.
(i) It is always desirable to keep the thickness of a web at the minimum, within the practical limits.
(ii) It is advisable to increase the values for web thickness for steel and other metals having poor
forge ability than aluminum.
Application of Allowances

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Machining allowance
Parts produced by hot forging require machining on surfaces that will be in contact with other parts
in a final product. Thus, the detailed shape features of forging are developed from the required-
machined part by adding various allowances to the machined surfaces, although some of these
allowances also form part of the forging design for surfaces that will not be machined. The first
allowance added to the machined surface is a finish or machining allowance. It is dependent on
several factors such as required accuracy, the depth of the decarburized layer inclusion of the
amount of oxidation that will result from heating the part to the forging temperature. The level of
oxidation is dependent on the material type, and the overall size of the forging.
Machining allowance for drop forgings
Greatest Dimension Minimum Allowance per Surface
(mm) (mm)
Up to 200 1.5
201 to 400 2.5
401 to 600 3.0
601 to 900 4.0
Above 900 5.0

Draft Allowance
Similar to castings, it is necessary to provide a draft on forging surfaces, which are perpendicular
to the parting plane (die movement). The draft is an angle allowance added to surfaces parallel to
the direction of die closure to facilitate the release of the part from the die after forging. Natural
draft is provided by cylindrical or tapered surfaces. Otherwise, it is necessary to provide a draft on
straight surfaces. In general, draft allowances on inside surfaces are greater than those on outside
surfaces, because of the tendency of the part to shrink onto projections in the die as cooling takes
place.Draft angles, to permit removal of forging from dies should be about 7° for the vertical sides
on the outside perimeter and 10° on inside pockets and holes.

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Internal surfaces require more drafts than external surfaces. During cooling, a forging tends to
shrink towards its center and as a result, the external surfaces are likely to be released /separated,
whereas the internal surfaces tend to cling to the die more strongly. The forged part is likely to be
left in the die-half, which does the punching of the hole. In upset forgings, the draft problem is
minimized because the part is held securely by the gripper die during the punch withdrawal and the
gripper itself gets opened to release the component. Thus, in upset forgings, a very small draft is
normally used.

Draft Allowances for Forgings

Hammer dies Press dies
Materials External Internal External Internal
Steels 5 -7 7 -10 3-5 5 -7
Aluminium alloys
Titanium alloys
Ni-based alloys

Important guidelines in providing the draft on forging

(i) It is a good practice to use a constant draft all over the periphery of the forging.
(ii) It is also recommended to apply a smaller draft angle on the outside periphery than on the inside
one. This is justified as the outer surface will shrink away from the surface of the die cavity as a
result of the part’s colling down, and hence provide easy removal of the forging.

(iii) Try to make use of the natural draft inherent in some shapes, such as conical and curved
surfaces, when designing the forged product. Fig. 5.29 (a).
(iv) Sometimes, changing the orientation of the die cavity may result in the natural draft. Therefore,
eliminating any draft on the surfaces. Fig. 5.29 (b).
(v) Another recommended method for providing the draft, is to provide a greater draft on the
shallower die cavity. This draft is known as the matching draft. Fig. 5.29 (c).

Shrinkage Allowance
The forgings are generally made at a temperature of 1150 to 1300°C. At this temperature, the
material gets expanded and when it is cooled to the atmospheric temperature, its dimensions would
be reduced. It is very difficult to control the temperature at which the forging process would be

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complete, therefore we need to precisely control the dimensions. Hence a shrinkage allowance is
added on all the linear dimensions.
Length or Width, mm Commercial (mm) Close (mm)
Up to 25 0.08 0.05

26 to 50 0.15 0.08

51 to 75 0.23 0.13

76 to 100 0.30 0.15

101 to 125 0.38 0.20

126 to 150 0.45 0.23

Each additional 25 Add 0.075 0.038

For 400 1.2 0.83

Fillet and corners

Finally, all edges and corners in the part must have radii added. These radii are necessary to
facilitate the material flow and ensure good die filling. In addition, sharp corners in dies can lead
to premature die failure due to fracture as a result of associated stress concentrations, high stresses,
and so on. Typical minimum edge and fillet radii for rib/web type forgings is given in the table
Typical minimum edge and fillet radii
Material Corner radius (mm) Fillet radius (mm)
Aluminum alloys 2.3 9.7

Low alloy steels 3.0 6.4

Titanium alloys 4.8 12.7

Nickel-based superalloys 6.4 19

Iron-based superalloys 4.8 17

Molybdenum 4.8 12.7

Small corner radii should be avoided for two reasons. First, a small corner radius requires a sharp
fillet on the die, which acts as a stress riser. Second, the smaller the comer radius, the higher will
be the forging pressure required to fill the die cavity. Factors that are considered while selecting
corner radii are the distance of the corner from the parting line, forge ability of metal being work.
The larger the distance from the parting line, the larger the corner radius should be. A minimum
corner radius of 1.5 mm is generally considered for aluminum forgings and a radius of 3 mm is
used for titanium forgings of similar shape and size.
For corner radii of thin ribs, a thumb rule states that it is always desirable to have the rib thickness
equal to twice the value of the comer radius. A thicker rib may have a flat edge with two corner
radii, each equal to the recommended value Fig. 5.32.

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Recommendations Regarding Corner Radii for Ribs
Component features that are held to close tolerances should be formed in the same die member to
avoid additional cross-die tolerance.

C. Determine the billet/stock size

The factors in estimating the stock size include the size and shape of the forging, the method of
heating, and the method of forging. The consideration which draws the attention of the designer is
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the volume (weight) of the final forging i.e., the volume of the forging finished to the drawing
dimensions. The gross volume is the sum of the net weight and the losses due to flash, scale, tong
hold, sprue, and shear waste.
Vt = V0 + Vf + Vs + Vsh
Vt = total volume of stock required for forging
V0 = volume of forging
Vf = volume of flash
Vs = volume of scale loss in heating
Vsh = shear allowance

The volume of forging is calculated from the drawing and includes all its allowances.
Flash loss is a function of linear centimeters of flash, its width, and thickness. The machine-forged
components generally will not have any flash and in such cases, the flash loss should not be taken
into account. This holds good for some of the press forged components where very little or no flash
is formed. But in the case of drop forging, the flash loss is unavoidable and is determined by flash
thickness and area. In practice, a flash loss ranging from 15 to 20% of the net weight is taken into
account.
The volume of flash is calculated using the formula:
Vf = p × wf × tf
p = the perimeter of the forging along which the flash
wf = average width of flash
tf = average thickness of flash
t f (mm) = 1.13 + 0.0789 √V0 − 0.000134 V0 mm
V0 = volume of the final forging in cm3
wf
= flash land ratio
tf

= 3 + 1.2 × 𝑒 −0.00857 V0
Example
Part volume V0 = 49.9 cm3
Projected area Ap = 78.6 cm2
Forging perimeter P = 31.4 cm

t f = 1.13 + 0.0789 √V0 − 0.000134 V0

= 1.13 + 0.0789 × √49.9 − 0.000134 × 49.9

= 1.68 mm
wf
= 3 + 1.2 × e−0.00857 V0 = 3 + 1.2 × 𝑒 −0.00857 × 49.9
tf

= 3.78

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wf = 3.78 × t f = 3.78 × 1.68 = 6.35 mm
the projected area of the flash land = 0.635 x 31.4 =19.9 cm2
Vf = p × wf × tf = 31.4 × 0.635 × 0.168 = 3.34 cm3
The volume of flash per unit length of flash line, 𝑉fl , is given by

𝑉fl = 0.1234 × √V cm3 /cm

𝑉fl = 0.1234 × √49.9 cm3 /cm
= 0.87 cm3 /cm
the total volume of flash generated is
Vf = 0.87 × 31.4 = 27.3 cm3
In practice, a flash loss ranging from 15 to 20% of the net weight is taken into account.
Recommended flash thickness as per weight for carbon and alloy steel

Forging wt (kg) 0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0 10

Flash thickness 1.0 1.8 2.2 3.5 4.5

A thin flash running out between parallel die surfaces would lead to very large breadth/thickness
ratio and thus requires high die pressures. Therefore, the length of the flash is reduced by cutting a
flash gutter. This allows free flow of the flash and limits the minimum flash thickness to only a
small width. The width of the flash land is given as
Flash land ≈ (3 to 5) hf
Design arrangement:
1. Most of the gutter impression is in top die and it is used to hammer forging with deeper
impression sunk in the top die (shown in above figure).
2. Gutter impression is symmetrical i.e., half of it is in top die and remaining half is in the
bottom die.
3. Gutter is sunk deeper in the bottom die when impression of die cavity lies in the bottom
die. It is mainly used with crank or screw presses.
(ii) Scale loss: Scale loss is due to oxidation of the material and is a function of the surface area
exposed, the temperature of the heated piece, and the length of time exposed. In practice, the scale
loss is considered as a percentage of the volume of the forging. The percentage decreases with the
size of the forging, typically 7.5 % for small forgings (< 5 kg) and 5 % for larger forgings (>10
kg).
(iii) Tong and sprue
In die forging, a projection is provided at one end of the forging to facilitate handling. In practice,
about 50 to 60 mm projection is found ample. As a portion of this is also used up in the sprue, for
calculation purposes, only 50% of this is taken into account.

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(iv) Shear waste:
The waste that occurs while the bar is cut, is termed as shear waste and this is equal to:

Size of round (Ø) or square bar Waste, %

Up to 5 cm 3
5 cm to 7.5cm 4
7.5 to 10cm 5
Above 10cm 6

Stock size determination

As a rule, drop forgings do not get upset and therefore the billet size to be chosen depends on the
largest cross-sectional area of the component. The stock to be used is either round, rectangular, or
any other section depending on the nature of the component. The total volume Vt is used to
determine the length and cross-sectional area of the bar stock. The tong and sprue having 50 to 60
mm projection is added.

To get the stock size, the necessary flash allowance is to be added over and above the stock volume
as shown in the table. It is to be ensured that the cross-sectional area of the stock is 10 to 15%
greater than that of the finished forging.

A. Determine the sequence of operations and cavity sizes

Fullering Edging Bending

Trimming/ punching Finishing Blocking

Machining

Finished part

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Fullering

 The amount of drawing-out depends on the differences in the maximum and minimum
cross-sections of the component. If the drawing-out is large, an auxiliary helve hammer is
used with standard round and square dies for drawing-out. After this drawing-out operation,
the stock is then taken to the drop-forging die.
 The stock is fullered to the required shape in approximately 4 to 5 blows in the fullering
impression.
 The consideration in designing is to keep the two die-halves away from completely closing
and to allow for the smooth flow of metal.
 The gap between the crests of the fullering impressions in the two die halves is kept apart
a distance of 1.5 to 5.0 mm less than the minimum area of the component.

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Edging Impression
Edging is also called ‘preform and is the most important impression in a die. It distributes the
material as required in the final forging. It helps in the proper flow of metal and complete filling of
the die cavities in the later impressions. In an edging impression, the area at any cross-section
should be the same as that of the corresponding section in the component and the flash allowance.
A graphical approach is used to determine the cross-section at the various section for complex
shapes or with continuous variation in cross-section.

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Blocking Impression
 Also called ‘semi-finishing impression, blocking is a step before finishing.
 No gutter is provided in blocking.
 The areas of the various blocker cross-sections are augmented from those of the finisher by
the flash allowance.
 The area at each section is roughly 15 to 20% greater. The height of the blocked forging is
large and breadth is smaller by an amount of the order of 0.8 to 1.5 mm. The blocking
impression is slightly narrower than the finishing impression by about 0.5 to 1 mm on each
side and has larger fillet and corner radii. This helps enhanced metal distribution. It
facilitates the blocked component to fit the finishing impression. The web thickness in the
blocking impression is larger than that in the finishing impression.
 To forge high ribs in the finisher, those in the blocker are, at times, shorter. Additionally,
the web thickness in the blocker is larger than that in the finisher.
 The length of the blocking impression remains the same and the centers correspond to that
of the finishing impression.
 More than one blocking impression is used where very complicated shapes with rapid
changes in section, deep pockets, or thin ribs are present.
 The edge and fillet radii are generously provided to aid the flow of metal in the blocking
impression.
In forging steel parts, a correct preform can be designed by using the following three general design
rules.
 The area of cross-section of the preform equals the area of cross-section of the finished product
plus the flash allowance (metal flowing into flash). Thus, the initial stock distribution is
obtained by determining the areas of cross-sections along the main axis of the forging.
● All the concave radii, including the fillet radii, on the pre-form, must be greater than the
corresponding radii on the finished part.

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● In the forging direction, the thickness of the preform should be greater than that of the finished
part so that the metal flow is obtained mostly by upsetting rather than extrusion. During the
finishing stage, the material is then squeezed laterally toward the die cavity without additional shear
at the die-material interface. Such conditions minimize friction and forging load and reduce wear
along the die surfaces.
Trimming (Flash removal)

The final stage in hot forging is the removal of the flash to yield the finish forging. The flash
removed is scrap material and can be more than 50% of the material used for some forgings. The
flash is usually removed with a trimming die, which shears the flash off at the parting line of the
forging. The webs in any through holes will also be punched out at the same time.
(i) Flash trimming will usually be done on a mechanical press adjacent to the main forging machine,
with the forging still hot. In some cases, flash trimming may be done later when the part is cold.
The operation and the dies used are similar for both hot and cold flash trimming, but the press loads
are higher for cold flash trimming.
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(ii) Trimming and punching dies have a shearing edge corresponding to the parting line of the
forging.
Die Layout
The various forging impressions should be located in the die block in such a way that the forging
force is as nearer to the center as possible. This will minimize the likely mismatch of the two die
halves, reduce the wear on the ram guides of the drop hammer, and will help to maintain the
thickness dimensions of the forging. To do this, the operation requiring the maximum forging force
(usually blocking or finishing) should be placed at the center with the other impressions distributed
as nearly equal on either side of it in the die.
It is the normal practice to provide the fullering impression on the left-hand side and the edging
impression on the right-hand side with the blocking and finishing impressions at the center.

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1. For small and medium-sized hammer forgings, all these impressions will be laid out on a single
die block. For larger forgings, the various stages may be carried out on separate machines with
reheating of the forging stock between the stages. (roll forging- edging + fullering)
2. For multiple impression dies the various impressions must be laid out on the die surface to enable
successful forging with a minimum-sized die block. In general, the finisher and blocker impressions
are placed in the center of the die block, with the fullers to one side and the edger and/or bending
impression to the other. The finisher is positioned such that the center of loading.
(ii) If more than one forging is to be made at once, the finisher and blocker impressions can
sometimes be nested to conserve space.
(iii) The fuller dies are usually inclined at 10 to 150 across the left-hand corner of the die block,
again to conserve space.
3. The die block depth should be sufficient to enable several re-sinks of the cavities as wear occurs.
Several factors must be taken into account in the layout of die impressions, including the minimum
spacing between cavities, which depends among other things on the cavity depth.
hc = cavity depth = 0.5 h
h = the part thickness
sd = cavity spacing = 3.1 (hc )0.7
se = cavity spacing = 3.4 (hc )0.74
Die block depth = 5 hc
It is necessary to provide enough clearance of the order of 10 to 15 mm between the impressions
in the die.
4. Die locks or registers are provided on some dies to prevent mismatch during forging for parts
with cranked parting lines. Die locks absorb the side loads produced, but add to the size of the die
block and increase the machining costs of the die blocks. To be effective the die lock must engage
just before the top die comes into contact with the forging stock. An overlap of 10 to 12 mm is
recommended, and to allow adequate strength the width of the lock should be at least 1.5 times the
depth.

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Die inserts are of two types (i) plug-type inserts (ii) full‑die inserts. A plug-type inserts specific
portions where parts are worn out quickly such as deep pockets. A full insert is one where the
complete forging impression is sunk into a harder insert which is then arranged in a softer die steel
block. These are generally used for shallow impressions. The main advantage of the full insert is
that the same die block could be used for different forgings by changing the inserts.

The role of flash in forging

Upsetting-type deformation is the most natural form of deformation between dies and the material
flows sideways, to form a flattened shape. However, if the material is to be forced to move into the
extremities of the die cavity, this sideways material flow must be restricted. This is the role of flash
formation. A narrow flash land around the parting line of the dies restricts the sideways flow of the
material. In the final stages of die forging, closure material is extruded through the flash land into
the flash gutter around the forging cavity. As the deformation proceeds, the narrowing gap between
the flash lands begins to restrict the sideways flow of material, through increased friction and other
forces. The forging load begins to rise and the pressure inside the die increases. This increased
pressure causes the material to flow backward in the direction of die closure and into the extremities
of the die cavity. At the final stage of die closure, the forging load reaches its peak and this
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corresponds to complete die filling. At this point the last part of the flash is being squeezed through
the flash land.

The excess metal added to the stock to ensure complete filling of the die cavity in the finishing
impression is called flash. Flash acts as a cushion for impact blows from the finishing impression
and also helps to restrict the outward flow of metal, thus helping in the filling of thin ribs and bosses
in the upper die. The amount of flash depends on the forging size and may vary from 10 to 50
percent.
The forging load can thus be decreased by increasing the flash thickness. The forging load
decreases with an increase in the average thickness of the component. Thus, it is more difficult to
forge thin components than thicker ones.

The flash produced during closed-die forging is scrap material and may in many cases have a
volume that is more than 50% of the final part volume. The amount of flash produced increases
with the complexity of the part. However, the production of flash is a necessary part of the process,
and its control is essential to ensure good die filling, particularly for tall, thin shape features.

In addition to the flash, provision should be made in the die for additional space so that any excess
metal can flow and help in the complete closing of the die. This is called the gutter. Without a
gutter, the flash may become excessively thick, not allowing the dies to close completely.

The gutter must be large enough to accommodate the flash produced. The choice of the appropriate
width and thickness of the flash land is an important part of the forging process design. If the
geometry is wrong, the dies may not fill or the forging loads may become excessive. (2) In addition,
the projected area of the flash in the flash lands is usually included in the total projected area of
the part for estimation of the forging loads required and therefore is a determining factor in
equipment selection for processing.
Load determination in forging
In estimating the forging load empirically, the surface area of the forging, including the flash zone,
is multiplied by an average forging pressure known from experience. The forging pressures
encountered in practice vary from 275 to 950 MPa (20 to 70 tons/in.2), depending on the material
and the geometry of the part.

Load - Stroke Curves

A typical load-versus- stroke curve for a closed-die forging operation indicates that loads are
relatively low until the more difficult details are partly filled and the metal reaches the flash
opening. This stage corresponds to point P1 in Fig. 17. For successful forging, two conditions must
be fulfilled when this point is reached

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  A sufficient volume of metal must be trapped within the confines of the die to fill the
remaining cavities.
 The extrusion of metal through the narrowing gap of the flash opening must be more
difficult than the filling of the more intricate detail in the die.
As the dies continue to close, the load increases sharply to point P2 , the stage at which the cavity
is filled completely. During the stroke from P2 to P3, all the metal flow occurs near or in the flash
gap, which in turn becomes more restrictive as the dies close. Thus, the detail most difficult to fill
determines the minimum forging load required to produce a fully filled forging.
The dimensions of the flash determine the final load required to close the dies. The formation of
flash, however, is greatly influenced by the amount of excess material available in the cavity
because that amount determines the instantaneous height of the extruded flash and therefore the die
stresses.

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Die Materials
Die materials used for hot forging include hot-work tool steels (AISI H series), some alloy
steels such as the AISI 4300 or 4100 series, & a small number of proprietary, lower-alloy
materials. The AISI hot-work tool steels can be loosely grouped according to composition. Die
materials for hot forging should have good hardenability as well as resistance to wear, plastic
deformation, thermal fatigue heat checking, and mechanical fatigue.
Factors in the Selection of Die Materials
Selection of materials as die materials for hot forging based on its ability to:
 harden uniformly.
 to resist abrasive action of hot metal during forging (wear resistance)
 withstand pressure and resist deformation under load (resistance to plastic deformation
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  Toughness
 resist thermal fatigue & heat checking
Ability to Harden Uniformly:
The higher hardenability means the greater the depth to which it can be hardened. Hardenability
depends on the composition of tool steel. In general, the higher the alloy content of tool steel, the
higher is its hardenability, as measured by hardenability factor D1 (in inches). The D1 of steel is
the diameter of the infinitely long cylinder which would just transform to a specific microstructure
(50% martensite) at the center if the heat transfer during cooling were ideal, that is surface attained
the temperature of the quenching medium instantly. A larger hardenability factor D1 means that
steel will harden to a greater depth of quenching, not that it will have higher hardness.
Foreg- the approximate nominal hardenability factor D1 (inches) for a few die steels are as follows-
ASM6G, 0.6; ASM 6F2,0.6; ASM 6F3, 1.4;AISI H10,5 ;AISI H12,3.5.
Wear Resistance:
Wear is a gradual change in the dimensions or shape of a component caused by corrosion,
dissolution, or abrasion and removal, or transportation of the wear products. Abrasion resulting
from the friction is the most important of these mechanisms in terms of die wear. The higher the
strength and hardness of the steel near the surface of the die, the greater its abrasion resistance.
Thus in hot forming, the die steel should have high hot strength.
Die Materials
Hot-work die steels are commonly used for hot forging dies subjected to temperatures ranging from
315 - 650 0C. These materials contain chromium, tungsten, and in some cases vanadium or
molybdenum, or both. These alloy elements induce deep hardening characteristics and resistance
to abrasion and softening. These steels are usually hardened by quenching in air or molten salt
baths. The chromium-based steel contains about 5% Cr. High molybdenum gives these materials
resistance to softening; vanadium increases resistance to abrasion & softening. Tungsten improves
toughness & hot hardness; tungsten-containing steels, are not resistant to thermal shock & cannot
be cooled intermittently with water. The tungsten-base hot-work die steel contains 9-18%W, 2-
12% Cr, and a sometimes small amount of vanadium. The high tungsten content gives resistance
to softening at high temperatures while maintaining adequate toughness, but it also makes water
cooling of these steels impossible. Low-alloy proprietary steels are also used frequently as die
materials for hot forging. Steels with ASM designations 6G, 6F2,& 6F3 have good toughness &
shock resistance, with good resistance to abrasion & heat checking. These steels are tempered at
lower temperatures (usually 450-500degC); therefore they are more suited for applications that do
not result in high die surface temperatures, forge die holders for hot forging or hammer die blocks.

Broadly, the steel forgings go through: (a) hot forging, (b) warm forging, or (c) cold forging. These
are briefly described as follows:

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a.
Hot forging of steel: The forging temperatures are above the recrystallization temperature, and are
typically between 950°C–1250°C. Usually, one experiences good formability (i.e., filling of die-
cavity in the context of forging), low forming forces, and an almost uniform tensile strength of the
workpiece.
b.
Warm forging of steel: Forging temperatures are still above the recrystallization temperature:
between 750°C and 950°C. The scale-loss is lower at the work-piece surface and the tolerance is
narrower compared to hot forging. One experiences limited formability and higher forming forces
than in hot forging, but lower forming forces than in cold forming.
c.
Cold forging of steel: Forging temperatures are around room conditions; adiabatic self-heating
might bring the temperature up to 150°C. One experiences the narrowest tolerances achievable and
no scaling at the work-piece surface. Further, an increase in strength and drop in ductility due to
strain hardening might take place. The formability is rather low, and high forming forces are
necessary.

In terms of the volume of industrial forgings, hot forging is the preferred process since a wide range
of steels and components are amenable to this route. Again, in the broad area of hot forging, the
present chapter will be concentrating on closed-die forging (rather than on drop forging) which is
used for producing finished products with close dimensional tolerance.
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While looking at hot forging the important aspect that comes to notice is that the bar is reheated,
typically in an induction furnace, to a temperature of ~1200°C, and then taken through the forging
press. At the press, it may go through a multistage forging before being subjected to trimming.
Thereafter, the formed component may be air-cooled or heat-treated depending upon the target
properties.

While looking at hot forging the important aspect that comes to notice is that the bar is reheated,
typically in an induction furnace, to a temperature of ~1200°C, and then taken through the forging
press. At the press, it may go through a multistage forging before being subjected to trimming.
Thereafter, the formed component may be air-cooled or heat-treated depending upon the target
properties.
The majority of hot-forged steel forgings are made using plain carbon or low alloy steels with a
carbon content selected to yield an acceptable combination of strength, toughness, and forgeability.
High strength forgings conventionally contain carbon levels of about 0.2–0.5 weight percent, which
allows forgings to be heat treated to the required strength following the forging operation. The heat
treatment, primarily quenching and tempering (Q+T), consumes considerable energy (and hence is
expensive) and adversely affects productivity. Additionally, quenching also induces the risk of high
tensile residual stresses, distortion, and at times, cracks in the components. A straightening
operation followed by stress relieving annealing is therefore required to minimize the tensile
residual stresses. These operations add to the total cost of processing.
Steel Warm Forging Lubricants:
It is common practice to forge steels over a wide range of temperatures. Cold forging is carried out
at an ambient temperature, warm forging from about 200 to 700ºC and hot forging from 900 to
1250ºC. The choice of temperature employed depends on a balance between sufficient ductility for
required formability and the dimensional tolerance required in the forged workpiece. Ductility
increases with temperature, whereas dimensional tolerance decreases with increasing temperature.
Warm forging often gives an acceptable compromise between ductility and dimensional tolerance.
When forging is performed at room temperature, the billet is commonly subjected to
phosphating, in which a zinc phosphate film that aids retention of a soap lubricant is produced.
Stainless steels cannot be phosphate, and oxalate films are often used.
At forging temperatures between 400 and 850ºC, phosphate coatings are ineffective
because of oxidation and are not used. Because molybdenum disulphide begins to oxidize at these
temperatures, graphite is the lubricant of choice. Graphite is commonly dispersed in either water
or oil carriers, and is held in suspension by agitation, as well as by either emulsifiers or polymers.
Other materials, such as finely divided oxides of tin or lead, can also be present. The lubricant is
normally applied to the dies and billet by spraying as a fine mist to ensure complete coating.

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 Several factors are important for consistent lubrication. The structure, purity, and particle
size of the graphite affect results. Large particles have poor film-forming properties, whereas small
particles reduce the threshold temperature of graphite oxidation. Particles below about 0.1 μm
(4μin.) become ineffective, because of the loss of graphite structure. Other important factors that
require control are the consistency of suspension and the total percent solids.

The method used for the application of lubricant is spraying or swabbing. Colloidal graphite
suspensions in either oil or water are frequently used. Synthetic lubricants can be used for light
forging operations. The water-based and synthetic lubricants are extensively used primarily
because of cleanliness.

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