Today's lecture

1. Transactions
2. Views
3. Access Rights in SQL

Transactions
A logical unit of work consisting of one or more SQL statements
Atomic transaction
Fully executed or
Rolled back as if it never occurred
Isolation from concurrent transactions
Changes made by a transaction are not visible to other concurrently executing transactions until the transaction completes

Transaction model based on two SQL statements:

COMMIT
ROLLBACK
Transactions begin implicitly
Ended by commit work or rollback work
Default on most databases: each SQL statement commits automatically
Can turn off auto commit for a session (e.g. using API)

VIEWS
Definition
View Creation and Destruction
Updating Views
Types of Views

Views
One database often supports multiple applications
Slightly different pictures of the world.
Views help accommodate this variation without storing redundant data.

Views
In some cases, it is not desirable for all users to see the entire logical model (that is, all the actual relations stored in the database.)

Example:
Employee(ssn, name, department, project, salary)

Consider a person who needs to know the name and project of employees in the 'Development' department, but not the salary. This person
should see a relation described, in SQL, by
SELECT name, project
FROM Employee
WHERE department = 'Development'

Views
Provide a mechanism to hide certain data from the view of certain users.
Any relation that is not part of the conceptual model but is visible to a user as a “virtual relation” is called a view.
Not physically stored.

Levels of Abstraction
Multiple views
A single Conceptual (Logic) Schema
A single Physical Schema

Levels of Abstraction

Physical Level
Lowest level
How the data is physically stored
It includes
Where the data is located
File structures
Access methods
Indexes
Managed by the Database Administrator

Levels of Abstraction

Conceptual or Logical Level

Middle level
What data is in the DB
It consists of the schemas described
with CREATE TABLE statements
Has all the data in the DB
Has no information on what a
user views at external level
Managed by Database Designers

Levels of Abstraction

External or View Level

Highest Level
Combination of base tables and views
Views define how certain
Users/Groups see data:
Full or partial data based on the
business requirement
Users have different views, based
on their levels of access rights
Exposed to Users/Applications and
Database Designers.

Data Independence
A database model exhibits
data independence if:

Application programs are protected

from changes in the conceptual and
physical schemas.

Why is this important?

Everything changes.

Each higher level of the data architecture

is immune to changes of the next lower
level of the architecture.

Data Independence Types

Physical data independence
Can modify the physical schema
without causing application
programs to be rewritten.

Logical data independence

Can modify the logical schema
without causing application
program to be rewritten.

View Creation and Destruction

A view is defined using the create view statement which has the form
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
< QUERY >
[WITH CHECK OPTION]

where < query > is any legal SQL expression.

Once a view is defined, the view name can be used to refer to the virtual relation that the view generates.

View Creation and Destruction

CHECK OPTION
Ensures that all UPDATE and INSERTs operations satisfy the condition(s) in the view definition.
Otherwise, the UPDATE or INSERT returns an error.
Not implemented in SQLite

Destruction
DROP VIEW <view_name>

Views for Security

Example:
Student(studID, name, address, major, gpa)

This is a view of the Student table without the gpa field.

CREATE VIEW SecStudent AS
SELECT studID, name, address, major
FROM student

Views for Extensibility

Example:

A company's database includes a relation:

Part (PartID, weight,...)

Weight is stored in pounds

The Company is purchased by a firm that uses metric weights
Databases must be integrated and use Kg.
But old applications use pounds.

Views for Extensibility

Solution:
Base table with kilograms becomes MetricPart for the integrated company
CREATE VIEW MetricPart AS
SELECT PartID, 2.2046*weight, -- no other changes
FROM Part

Old programs still call the table Part

Data Partitioning
Sometimes the data of a database is partitioned.

Horizontal: projection on certain attributes

Break up our table based on rows
Useful when some attributes are bulky or rarely used
Distributed databases

Vertical: selection on certain values (ClientsParis, ClientsLyon)

Splitting out extra columns into their own table(s)

Another Example
Consider the following relations
Person(name, city)
Purchase(buyer, seller, product, store)
Product(name, maker, category)

CREATE VIEW SeattleView AS

SELECT buyer, seller, product, store
FROM Person, Purchase
WHERE Person.city = 'Seattle'
AND Person.name = Purchase.buyer

We have a new 'virtual table':

SeattleView(buyer, seller, product, store)

Using (Querying) a View

Transparency for the user
Handled as tables in the database
Simplify the user's queries
Useful in architectures client-server

Using (Querying) a View

Query using SeatleView
SeattleView(buyer, seller, product, store)
Product(name, maker, category)

SELECT name, store

FROM SeattleView, Product
WHERE SeattleView.product = Product.name
AND Product.category = 'shoes'

When you enter a query that mentions a view in the FROM clause, the DBMS expands/rewrites your query to include the view definition.

View Expansion
Query using a view
SELECT name, SeattleView.store
FROM SeattleView, Product
WHERE SeattleView.product = Product.name
AND Product.category = 'shoes'

Expanded query
SELECT name, Purchase.store
FROM Person, Purchase, Product
WHERE Person.city = 'Seattle'
AND Person.name = Purchase.buyer
AND Purchase.product = Product.name
AND Product.category = 'shoes'

Another Example
Query using a view
SELECT buyer, seller
FROM SeattleView
WHERE product= 'gizmo'

Expanded query
SELECT buyer, seller
FROM Person, Purchase
WHERE Person.city = 'Seattle'
AND Person.name = Purchase.buyer
AND Purchase.product= 'gizmo'

Views Defined Using Other Views

One view may be used in the expression defining another view
A view relation v1 is said to depend directly on a view relation v2 if v2 is used in the expression defining v1
A view relation v1 is said to depend on view relation v2 if either v1 depends directly on v2 or there is a path of dependencies from v1 to v2
A view relation v is said to be recursive if it depends on itself.

Updating Views
How can we insert a tuple into a table that doesn't exist?

Employee(ssn, name, department, project, salary)

CREATE VIEW Developers AS

SELECT name, project
FROM Employee
WHERE department = 'Development'

Updating Views
How can we insert a tuple into a table that "doesn't exist"?

Example:
Employee(ssn, name, department, project, salary)
Developers(name, project)

The following insertion:

INSERT INTO Developers
VALUES('Joe', 'Optimizer')

becomes:
INSERT INTO Employee
VALUES(NULL, 'Joe', NULL, 'Optimizer', NULL)

Non-Updateable Views
Consider the relations
Person(name, city)
Purchase(buyer, seller, product, store)

and the view

CREATE VIEW SeattleView AS
SELECT seller, product, store
FROM Person, Purchase
WHERE Person.city = 'Seattle'
AND Person.name = Purchase.buyer

How can we add the following tuple to the view?

('Joe', 'Shoe Model 12345', 'Nine West')

We need to add 'Joe' to Person first.

How?!
One time?
Multiple times?

Updating Views
Most SQL implementations allow updates only on simple views.
The FROM clause has only one database relation.
The SELECT clause contains only attribute names of the relation.
No expressions, aggregates, or distinct specification.
Any attribute not listed in the SELECT clause can be set to NULL.
The query does not have a GROUP BY or HAVING clause.

Updating Views
SQLite views are read-only and thus you may not be able to execute a DELETE, INSERT or UPDATE statement on a view.
A workaround exists
Not in the scope of this class
This is why WITH CHECK OPTION is not implemented

Types of Views
Virtual views
Used in databases
Computed only on-demand – slow at runtime
Always up to date

Types of Views
Materialized views
A physical table containing all the tuples in the result of the query defining the view
Used in Data Warehouses (but recently also in DBMS)
Precomputed offline – fast at runtime
If relations used in the query are updated, the materialized view result becomes out of date
Need to maintain the view, by updating the view whenever the underlying relations are updated.

Data Warehouse
A relational database designed for query and analysis rather than for transaction processing.
Usually contains historical data derived from transaction data.
Separates analysis workload from transaction workload.
Enables an organization to consolidate data from several sources.

Advantages/Disadvantages of Views
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Data independence Update restriction
Currency Structure restriction
Improved security Performance
Reduced complexity
Convenience
Customization
Data integrity

Summary
A view is a stored query definition
Views can be very useful
Privacy
Easier query writing
Extensibility
Not all views can be updated unambiguously
Three levels of abstraction in a relational DBMS
Yields data independence, logical and physical

Access Rights in SQL

The SQL security model
Granting and revoking privileges

Discretionary Access Control

Each user is given appropriate access rights (privileges) on specific DB objects
Explicit grant of rights on objects to individuals.
Users obtain certain privileges when they create an object
Can pass some or all of these privileges to other users at their discretion
Although flexible, can be circumvented by devious unauthorized user tricking an authorized user into revealing sensitive data.

Terminology
Privacy Users should not be able to see and use data they are not supposed to.

e.g., A student can't see other students' grades.

Security No one should be able to enter the system and / or impact its behavior without being authorized to do so.

e.g., Delete or change data without being authorized

Integrity Authorized users should not be able to modify things they are not supposed to.

e.g., Only instructors can assign grades.

Availability Users should be able to see and modify things they are allowed to.

e.g. The DB should always be operational

SQL Security Related Terminology

User
Not the schema object, just a name for a session of an individual user
Identification by Authorization ID (user name)
Role
Name for a role, to which rights may be assigned
May be granted to users / applications
Privileges (Rights)
System privileges
Object (data) privileges: creator has all privileges
Operations
GRANT < privilege >
REVOKE < privilege >

Roles and Users

Roles define a set of privileges for a (potentially) large set of Users
CREATE ROLE sales_people;
-- grant some privileges to sales_people
-- grant sales_people role to users

Much more economic than direct privileges

Roles may be assigned to roles
Often assigned to applications instead of individual users

Privileges
Right to perform SQL statement type on objects
Assigned to users or roles (authorization IDs)
Creator of object: all privileges for that object
Administrator: management of system privileges

Privileges
The privileges defined by the ISO standard:
SELECT - retrieve data from a table
INSERT - insert new rows into a table
UPDATE - modify rows of data in a table
DELETE - delete rows of data from a table
REFERENCE - reference columns of a named table in integrity constraints
USAGE - use domains, collations, character sets, and translations

Grant Privileges
Syntax
GRANT <privileges> ON <object>
TO [<users>|<role>]
[WITH GRANT OPTION]

GRANT OPTION: Right to pass privilege on to other users

Only owner can execute CREATE, ALTER, and DROP

Example: Privilege to INSERT particular columns in a table

GRANT INSERT
ON <tablename(<attributenames>)>
TO <users>
[WITH GRANT OPTION]

Access matrix : < user > has < right > on < object >

Examples
GRANT INSERT, SELECT ON Movie TO Klaus

Klaus can query 'Movie' or insert tuples into it.

GRANT DELETE ON Movie TO shop_owner WITH GRANT OPTION

Anna can delete 'Movie' tuples, and also authorize others to do so

GRANT UPDATE (price_Day) ON Movie TO movie_staff

Staff can update (only) the price field of 'Movie' tuples

GRANT SELECT ON MovieView TO Customers

This does NOT allow the customers to query 'Movie' directly!

Revoke Privileges
Syntax
REVOKE <privileges>
ON <object>
FROM <users>
[RESTRICT | CASCADE]

RESTRICT: only revoke if none of the privileges have been granted by these users.
CASCADE: revoke from all users that have been granted the privilege by these users.
Privilege given from different users must be revoked from all users to loose privilege.

Summary
Security of DB and their applications is extremely important.
Roles make privileges with many users manageable.
Views also play an important role.
Fine granular access restriction on objects is very important.

https://www.xkcd.com/327/