RED SEA UNIVERSITY

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

Lecturer: Fuad Hassan Ali

ACADEMIC YEAR

2022-2023

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Course description:

This introductory sociology course provides students with a foundational understanding of the principles,
theories, and methods used in the study of human societies. Sociology is the scientific examination of
social structures, institutions, and the patterns of human interaction that shape individuals and
communities. Throughout the course, students will explore key concepts, historical developments, and
contemporary issues within the field of sociology.

Throughout the course, students will engage in critical thinking, analysis, and discussion to apply
sociological concepts to real-world situations. By the end of the course, students should be able to
recognize and understand the social forces that shape human behavior and contribute to a broader
sociological perspective. This foundational knowledge can serve as a basis for further exploration in
specialized areas of sociology.

Course Outline

Unit One: Introduction

Unit Two: Major Theoretical Perspectives.

Unit Three: Culture and Society

Unit Four: Social Groups and Organizations

Unit Five: Social Inequality

Unit Six: Social Institutions

Unit Seven: Government and Politics

Unit Eight: Social Research and Methodology

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 UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION

TOPIC 1: MEANING, DEFINITION AND NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY.

Sociology is the scientific study of Human Society.

Sociology is the scientific study of human social life, groups and societies.

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There was no sociology as a distinct discipline before the advent of 19 century. As a
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distinct discipline, it emerged about the middle of the 19 century when European
social observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas. It looks that three
factors led to the development of sociology.

A social science helps us to understand the world we live in. The key idea of Sociology
is that the lives of individuals cannot be understood apart from social context in which
they live. It focuses on:

I. Understanding the world and our place in that world.

II. Understanding ourselves and use that self-understanding to free ourselves.

The Study of Sociology.

Sociology aims at the understanding of social life and human interaction. Social life is
complex. Look at the following:

Sociology and Social Sciences.

All Social sciences are interested in patterned regularity in human beings’ social
behavior. However, each field of social science has its own specific interest. For

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 example, economics study human production, distribution and consumption. Political
science focuses on government and power. Psychology studies the sciences of mind.
History deals with past events.

Sociology is one of the social sciences studying human social interaction.

This means human interaction in all areas: interaction in production center, in political
parties, in the family, in schools etc. Thus, sociology touches upon nearly all social
science fields. In this respect, sociology is one of the broadest fields of study.

Sociology and Common Sense

Sociology is a science. This is because that it follows systematic procedures in studying

society. Part of the knowledge that we get through common sense is not considered as
scientific. Therefore, sociology does not consider common sense as a source of fact.

The knowledge that we get through common sense must be recorded, tested and
analyzed. Then, we can take them as one of the sources of facts.

SOCIOLOGY AS SCIENCE

Lesson Overview:

 Goals of Science

 Characteristics of Scientific Method

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 Science is knowledge but no kind of knowledge is science. Science is a method
for the discovery of uniformities in this universe through the process of
observation and re-observation; the results are organized, systematized, and
made part of the body of knowledge. In this way, science is a logical system
that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation. Following this method
creates scientific knowledge, which rests on empirical evidence, that is,
information that we can verify with our senses.

Goals of Science

The goals of science can be:

 To explain why something happens.

 To generalize. Discovery of uniformities/principles/laws.

 Look for patterns in the phenomenon under observation, or recurring

characteristics.

 To predict. To specify what will happen in the future in the light of current
knowledge.

For the attainment of the stipulated goals, the procedure followed is to collect
information through sensory experiences. Hence, we call it observations and
there is repetition of observations.

Researcher would like to be positive about his findings. Therefore, he would like
to be definite, factual, and positively sure. Hence, the researcher would develop
clear observational criteria i.e. measuring indicators for adequate explanations.
This approach is called Positivism.

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 Auguste Comte coined the term ‘positivism’, which means knowledge based
on sensory experience.

Characteristics of Scientific Method

1. Empirical The focus of attention is that phenomenon which is

observable by using five senses by the human beings. If one person
has observed others can also make that observation which implies that
it is repeatable as well as testable.

2. Verifiable Observations made by any one researcher could be open to

confirmation or refutation by other observers. Others could also use
their sensory experiences for the verification of the previous findings.
The replicability of the phenomenon is essential for repeating the
observation. In this way the intuitions and revelations are out of this
process because these are having been the privileges of special
individuals.

3. Cumulative The knowledge created by this method keeps on

growing. The researchers try to develop linkages between their
findings and the findings of previous researchers. The new findings
may support the previous researches, refute them, or may modify but
certainly there is an addition to the existing body of knowledge. The
new researchers need not start from scratch, rather they have a rich
reservoir of knowledge at their disposal and they try to further build on it.

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 4. Self-Correcting Possibility of error is always there but the good thing
is its identification and correction. The research findings are shared
with other professionals in seminars, conferences, and by printing
these in professional journals. The comments are received and errors,
if any, are corrected. Even the scientists are not categorical in their
statements. They would usually make a statement as is supported by
the evidence available at the time. Hence the statement is open to
challenge by the availability of new evidence.

5. Deterministic Through scientific method the scientists try to explain

why things happen? There could be number of factors producing a
particular effect but the researchers try to find out the contribution of
each factor as well as of different combinations of the same factors. In
this way he tries to identify the factor or combination of factors that
produce the maximum effect. In this way he tries to locate the
minimum number of causal factors that explain the variation in the
effect. This is the principle of parsimony. Such an exercise is an effort
to determine cause-and- effect relationship.

6. Ethical and ideological neutrality Researchers are human beings

who have values, beliefs, ideologies, and norms. Effort is made that
the personal values, beliefs, and ideologies do not contaminate the
research findings. If these influence then the purity of the information
is adulterated and the predictions made by the scientists will not hold
true. Hence, the scientific work should objective and unbiased. Since
the human beings are studying the human beings to what extent, they
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 can be unbiased?

7. Statistical Generalization Statistics is a device for comparing what is

observed and what is logically expected. They are subjecting
information to statistical analysis.

8. Rationalism The collected facts have to be interpreted with

arguments. Therefore, the scientists try to employ rigorous rule of
logic in their research work.

Any knowledge that is created by applying scientific method is to be called as

science. Sociology uses scientific method for the understanding, identifying
the patterns, and predicting the human behavior. Therefore, sociology is
science of human social life.

Historical Development of Sociology.

There are two significant social events that helped the emergence of sociology: The
French revolution and The Industrial Revolution.

 The French Revolution

The French Revolution was the bloodiest social movement that took the life of
thousands of people. It avoided the old political, social and economic order through a
lot of riots, and killings. The revolution, therefore, pushed many social scientists to

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 think about society. This includes analyzing social behavior, the cause and results of
revolution, alternative ways of social change etc.

 The Industrial Revolution

The discovery of electricity, telephone and the steam engine had brought rapid social
and economic change. It also resulted in many social problems. Peasants for examples
lost their land and migrated to towns. Few became rich but the majority remained poor.
Thus, many intellectuals determined to develop the scientific study of society.

The Founders of Sociology

Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406)

Ibn Khaldun, who is known as one of the 14th century leading theorists in Islamic
political thought, has highly influenced the scholars with his thoughts on economics,
history, sociology and philosophy.

Ibn Khaldun believes in the dynamic nature of civilizations. Societies move from
simple organization to more complex organization. According to Ibn Khaldun there are
two types of civilizations: the desert (badawu = bedouins) civilization, found in
outlying regions and mountains; and sedentary (hadarah) civilization, found in small
communities and cities.

Ibn Khaldun classified mankind into two groups, nomads and citizens, the nomadic life
preceding and producing the other

August Comte (1798-1857).

He was the French philosopher who used the word sociology for the first time. He is
called the father of sociology.
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 The idea of applying the scientific method to the social world, known as positivism,
was apparently first proposed by Auguste Comte (1798-1857)... He migrated from a
small town to Paris. The changes he himself experienced, combined with those France
underwent in the revolution, led Comte to become interested in the two interrelated
issues: social order (social static) and social change (social dynamics).

What holds the society together (Why is there a social order)? Moreover, once the
society is set then what causes it to change. Why its directions change?

Comte concluded that the right way to answer such questions was to apply the
scientific method to social life. There must be laws that underlie the society. Therefore,
we should discover these principles by applying

Max Weber (1864-1920).

He was a German philosopher. He wrote books about religion and social change.

Karl Marx (1818-1883).

He was a Jewish origin, but born in Germany. He was different from the other
Philosophers. According to him, society is based mainly on economic relation. Thus,
there is always conflict. Understanding conflict in all aspect of social life, therefore,
should be the core element.

According to him, the key to human history is Class Conflict.

Not really a sociologist but wrote widely about history, philosophy, economics,
political science.

Because of his insights into the relationship between the social classes, he is claimed
to be an early sociologist. He introduced one of the major perspectives in sociology –
conflict perspective.

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 UNIT TWO:

MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES.

Learning Objectives:
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 At the end of this lesson, students will be able to explain:

 The main difference between Macro & micro Approaches

 The major theoretical perspectives in society.
 The use of sociology in the formation of social policy.

Macro and Micro Approaches

Although this may be overly simplistic, sociologists’ views basically fall into two
camps: macrosociology and microsociology.

Macro sociologists focus on the big picture, which usually means such things as social
structure, social institutions, and social, political, and economic change. They look at the
large-scale social forces that change the course of human society and the lives of individuals.

Micro sociologists, on the other hand, study social interaction. They look at how families,
coworkers, and other small groups of people interact; why they interact the way they do; and
how they interpret the meanings of their own interactions and of the social settings in which
they find themselves. Often macro- and micro sociologists look at the same phenomena but do
so in different ways. Their views taken together offer a fuller understanding of the phenomena
than either approach can offer alone.

The different but complementary nature of these two approaches can be seen in the case of
armed robbery. Macro sociologists would discuss such things as why robbery rates are higher
in poorer communities and whether these rates change with changes in the national economy.

Micro sociologists would instead focus on such things as why individual robbers decide to
commit a robbery and how they select their targets. Both types of approaches give us a
valuable understanding of robbery, but together they offer an even richer understanding.

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 There are three important sociological approaches in sociology.

Structural Functional Theory

Emil Durkheim and Herbert Spencer are the most influential persons in this theory. The
theory focuses on the structure of the society. Moreover, it emphasizes how the
structure functions. To put it in an example, when a researcher studies the family the
focus would be on the structure of the family. Then, the function and the effect of the
structure is analyzed.

Conflict Theory

Karl Marx is the most known person in this theory. The key idea of the theory is
conflict. According to Marx, conflict always exists among society, among the family,

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 between friends, workmates and between workers and factory owners, etc. The most
important source of conflict is economic. It is common, particularly, between the rich
and the poor (the workers and the capitalist). In other words, conflict exists between
different social groups. According to Marx, the solution for such conflict is revolution.

Symbolic Interaction Theory.

According to this theory, the study of society should focus on everyday aspects of
social life. Particularly, inter personal relation in small groups of people help us to
understand the larger society. Social order is kept by the day-to-day interaction and the
shared behavior of groups of people.

Whereas the functionalist and conflict perspectives are macro approaches, symbolic
interactionism is a micro approach that focuses on the interaction of individuals and on
how they interpret their interaction

Sociology and Social Policy

The study of sociology and social policy are highly interrelated. Decision makers need
social problems that are investigated scientifically. Thus, researches conducted by
sociologists are the key inputs for designing social policy. For example, before starting
a heath extension program, the role of sociologists is crucial. The norms, the values and
the cultural practices of the community must be studied

UNIT THREE

CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to examine:

• Culture and society.

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 • Development of culture.

• Elements of culture.

• Culture integration and variation

• Culture and the dominant ideology.

Topic One: Culture

Culture is people’s way of life. It is their pattern of behavior, which has been
created by human beings. Culture includes: Intangible (non-material) items like
values, beliefs, norms, language, and ideas (ideologies: perception of reality) that
govern the way of life. The way we play our roles.

+ Tangible things – material objects. Human beings have created this way of
life, which includes both material and non-material objects. Hence some
Anthropologists call it as man- made part of the environment. Culture is the
patterns of behavior and the products of the patterns of behavior

Some specific features of culture:

 Universality: Culture is universal. There is no society without culture. As part of the

cultures there are many aspects that are found in almost all the societies. For example
the institutions like marriage and family, religion, education, polity, economy, and
sports are found all over the world. Societies have developed values, norms, beliefs,
and other patterns of behavior that govern the system of marriage and family. One

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 could find such a pattern all over the world, and the same is applicable to religion,
education, political behavior, economic behavior, and so on.

 Variability: There is variability in the universals of culture. Economic systems also

vary from the extremes of socialism and capitalism to any variation on the scale.

 Learned: Culture is learned through the process of interaction with others. It is not
inherited through the biological process.

 Shared: Culture is not the property of one individual or of a group. It is shared with
other members of society with other members of society

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  Transmitted: Culture does not end with the death of a person or a
group

 Changing: Culture is continuously changing. The patterns of

behavior transmitted by one generation to another are continuously in
the process of modification for catering to the changing needs of time
and demands of people. New technologies are developed and are
borrowed from other groups and societies.

3.1.1 Culture and Society

It is very difficult to very separate culture from society. This is because that in
the absence of society there is no culture. In addition, without culture there is
no society. However, culture and society are not the same or identical. Society
is a large number of people who share similar culture and live in a certain
territory. Culture is the behavior of society; it is learned and transmitted. Thus,
culture and society are two different phenomena but strongly interconnected.

Three similar terms: Culture, Nation, and Society

Culture: Shared way of life.

Nation: A political entity within designated borders.

Society: The organized interaction of people in a nation or within some other

boundary.

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 3.1.2 Development of Culture.

The process of the development of culture begins when mankind began to use
stone tools. Human beings started art, paintings, ceremonies such as birth and
wedding 35,000 years ago.

One form of the Development of culture is innovation. That is, creating or

finding new things such as electricity. The other form is adoption. It is taking
and using norms, ideas, etc. from other cultures. The process is called culture
diffusion. Trade, war, mass media are some of the means that facilitate
diffusion.

3.1.3 Elements of Culture.

Culture is a very wide concept. The good way to understand culture is to see
the elements of culture. In this lesson, we will see only some of the elements,
Ideology, folklore, values and norms.

• Ideology it is a doctrine that justifies a course of action. For example,

the feudal ideology reflects the feudal culture. The capitalist ideology shapes
the capitalist social system. Competition, for example, is the ideology of
capitalism. Thus, competition is the basic cultural value of the society in
capitalist countries.

• Folklore is the traditions, stories, myth, customs, etc. of a community, or

the study of these aspects. Understanding the folklore of a certain society tells
us much about the people’s culture; In other words, folklore reflects the basic
cultural practices.
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 • Values are shared ideas of different communities about desirable goals.

• Norms: To achieve a certain value different societies follow different

means; that is what we call norms. In other words, norms are shared rules of
conduct that a society follows to achieve common goals (values).

Generally speaking there are two types of norms: folkways and mores.

Folkways: are simple, normal and habitual practices of a society.

● Ways of dressing or dancing.

● Food choices (such as eating anjera).

● Ways of thanks giving are examples of folkways.

When persons act against folkways society may not take it seriously. This is
because that they are simple types of norms.

Mores are strong norms of society.

Culture Variation and Integration.

Culture variation

Not all societies in our world have identical cultural practices. This means, each
culture has its own unique characters. This implies culture variation. Thus, it is
expected that values and norms conflict each other.

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 Culture integration

Different societies with different cultures live together peacefully. Why? It is

because that they are able to create different mechanisms. One way is the
willingness of the different societies. They accept their difference and live in
harmony and/or peace. The other is by enforcement. The dominant cultures
integrate minority groups without their consent. However, the introduction of
technology greatly facilitated the integration of different cultures of the world.
These days, all cultures are attracted toward the Western culture.

3.1.5 Culture and Dominant Ideology.

Dominant ideology maintains powerful social, economic and political interest.

According to some scholars, dominant ideology is a mechanism of culture
integration. It also stabilizes different societies to live together in harmony.
According to conflict theory, dominant ideology serves only one powerful
section of society; and it is a source of conflict. Ethnic and race conflict are
good examples that arise as the result of dominant ideology.

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 Topic 2: Socialization

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this topic, the student will be able to describe:

• The concept of socialization.

• The role of socialization.

• The self and socialization.

3.2.1 Socialization Defined.

The process of learning, which includes values, attitudes, knowledge, skill etc.
that we learn beginning from childhood, is called socialization. Children learn
socially acceptable and un- acceptable behaviors from their family. The
socialization process does not stop after childhood, but it continuous until we
pass away.

3.2.2 The Role of Socialization

Little children, though not conscious, are highly self-centered. They assume
that everything around them exist only to serve them. It is through socialization
that they learn the opposite. Moreover, as time goes, they learn their limits. In
schools and in peer groups, children learn the sense of friendship, competition
etc. Thus, the role of socialization is to help people conform to the established
cultural practices. It is through socialization that individuals become members
of a society.

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 3.2.3 The Self and Socialization.

Any person is different from others. In other words, an individual is unique.

The feeling (perception) that an individual has about her/himself is termed as
the self. The feeling that we have about ourselves depends upon the process of
socialization. This means, the way we consider ourselves could also come from
how others perceive us.

Example: The self-perception of a child can be influenced by others perception.

This means, if we understand a child positively, then, she/he could feel positive
about her/himself. According to sociology, therefore, the perception of the self
is mainly based on socialization that influences our self-image.

3.2.4 Socialization and the Life Cycle.

Socialization begins immediately after birth. In addition, it is a lifelong

transformation. Socialization takes place at the family level, at the school, at
work place, and at old age. At each stage, the content and intensity of the
socialization differ. This means, the norms and values that we learn in the
family and in the school is different. So is in the work place and at old age.

3.2.5 Agents of Socialization.

The socialization process takes places formally and informally by different

institutes. The task of socialization is carried out by agents of socialization.
Among others, the family, the school and peer group are the most important
agents of socializations.

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 The family: It is the basic agents of socialization. The family socializes
children:

• Manner of eating and drinking.

• Toilet training.

• Adapting sleeping time.

• Developing the sense of self.

• Race and gender deference.

• Determine basic behavior such as affection and/or

hatreds.

School: The school has a strong influence in socializing pupils. In schools, girls
and boys are socialized to:

• Conform the values and cultural practices of the society.

• Modify the old self-image and develop new ones.

• Acquire new skills and to have new worldview.

Peer Groups:-It is a group of young girls and/or boys of the same age. For
young people, peer group is the most significant than the family. Peer groups
socialize the young to:

● Practice independence.

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 ● Carry adult hood responsibilities.

● Emotional intimacy.

● Group loyalty etc.

Work place:-After child hood, young women /men enter in to occupation.

Then, the process of socialization takes place in the work area. The work place
socializes the young to:

● Conform to the adult status.

● Vocational/occupational training.

● Carry out new responsibilities.

Note: Religious and political institutions, the media, among others, are agents
of socializations.

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 UNIT FOUR:

SOCIAL GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS

Topic 1: Understanding Groups

No individual is an island. We spend much of our time within groups: with

family, neighbors, friends, workmates, and travelers (in a bus, taxi etc.). Thus,
understanding groups helps us in determining our ideas, views and behaviors.
A number of people with similar norms, values and expectations who regularly
and consciously interact are called groups.

Types of groups

There are two types of groups: primary and secondary groups. Examples of
primary groups are the family, best friends, gang members. Secondary groups
include classmates, club/ association members.

Characteristics of primary and secondary groups.

Primary Secondary

● Small in number. ● Large in number.

● Cooperative, friendly. ● Superficial

● Strong sense of loyalty. ● Based on self-interest.

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 In-Groups and Out-Groups

In-group is social group commanding a member’s esteem and loyalty. My

pronouns: I feel I belong to them. Others: I am outside them. In-group exists in
relation to an out-group.

Out-group is a social group toward which one feels in competition or

opposition. In modern societies the membership may overlap.

In the National Assembly members are elected on the tickets of different

political parties. They have competed against each other (out-group to each
other) but after the election they are members of the one group i.e. National
Assembly. Exclusion from in-group may be brutal in simple society—Social
boycott. In-group expects loyalty, recognition, and helpful to its members.
These groups are important because they affect our behavior.

Group Size

Size of the group plays an important role in how group members interact. In
small size groups the members can have highly intense relationships but such
groups are less stable. Look at the group of two persons having a highly
emotional interaction, but if one of them leaves, the group comes to an end.
The Dyad is social group with two members.

The Triad is a social group with three members.

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 It is more stable than the dyad. As groups grow beyond three people, they
become more stable and capable of withstanding the loss of even several
members. At the same time, increase in-group size reduces the intense personal
interaction, which is possible only in the smaller groups.

Studying Small Groups

Studying small groups is very important. This is because that their influence on
our view and behavior is so strong. Large groups on the other hand have little
effect on our lives. In Small groups, individuals could play unique role.
However, as group members increase in number, the role that a person plays
become lesser and insignificant.

Understanding Organizations

As discussed earlier understanding groups is very important. Similarly,

studying organizations has an equal importance. This is because those
organizations such as health centers, schools, churches /mosques, production
centers, etc. directly or indirectly affect our lives.

Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies

Formal organization: It is a group designed for large-scale operation to achieve

maximum efficiency. Formal organization includes schools, health centers, the

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 courts, the police and other institutes. Such organizations strongly shape our
behavior and affect our lives.

Example:

• The quality of school curriculum.

• The efficiency of health centers.

• The democratic nature of the courts and the policy of the parliament
have significant impact on our behaviors and lives.

Types of Formal Organizations

Formal organizations fall into three categories.

Normative organizations, also called voluntary organizations, are based on

shared interests. As the name suggests, joining them is voluntary and typically
done because people find membership rewarding in an intangible way.

Coercive organizations are groups that we must be coerced, or pushed, to join.

These may include prison or a rehabilitation center. A total institution is one in
which inmates or military soldiers live a controlled lifestyle and in which total
socialization take place.

The third type is utilitarian organizations, which, as the name suggests, are
joined because of the need for a specific material reward. High school and the
workplace fall into this category—one joined in pursuit of a diploma, the other
in order to make money

Table of Formal Organizations This table shows three types of formal

organizations

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 Normative or Coercive Utilitarian
Voluntary

Benefit of Intangible Corrective benefit Tangible benefit

membership benefit

Types of membership Volunteer Required Contractual basis

basis

Feeling of Shared affinity No affinity Some affinity

Connectedness

Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy is an element of formal organization in which rules and

hierarchical authority structure is used to achieve efficiency.

Characteristics of Bureaucracy

• Division of labor: All workers are given specific duties such as job titles
and job descriptions.

• Hierarchy of authority: There is a chain of command. Each position is

under the control/ supervision of higher position.

• Rules and regulations: All activities are governed by rules and

regulations. In other words, personal feelings have no place. Avoiding personal
feeling helps to follow the set rules and regulations.

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 • Technical qualifications: Workers hold position based on their
qualifications. This includes educational background and work experience etc.

Note: -All formal organizations do not strictly follow the above criteria.

Voluntary Association.

Voluntary associations are organizations that are established on the basic

common interest of the members. Such associations are usually non-profit
organizations. People join voluntary associations due to different personal
objectives. The following are, among others, examples.

• For charity purpose.

• To help various sectors such as the health, the educational, and the
religious.

Topic 4: Deviance and Social Control

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to discuss the concepts:

● Conformity and obedience

● Informal and formal social control

● Law and society.

● Deviance and crime

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 Topic 2: Social Control

Most of us conform or accept the norms and values of our respective society.
For example we respect elders, ask excuse for our wrong doings, condole
mourners. Social control guides us to do such things. Social control is the force
and process that encourage us to conform the norms and values of the society.
Social control has three levels:

• Self-control: It refers to our self-concept. In other words, we do not act

against our norms because it does not come to our mind.

• Informal control: sometimes due to fear or shame, we restrain ourselves

from unacceptable behavior. This is termed as informal control.

• Formal social control: Formal rules, such as laws, restrict us from

violating unacceptable norms. For example, we do not steal or kill people. This
may be because of fear of the law.

Conformity and obedience

As discussed above, self-control, informal and formal social controls are

mechanisms that help us to behave according to the norms and values of our
society.

• If we act or behave due to self-control and informal control it is

conformity

• If we act or behave due to formal control it is obedience.

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 3.4.2 Law and Society

Law and society art interrelated. Laws are formal social control of society.
Some violation of norms and values are dangerous to the society or to the
interest of the authorities. Thus, they are included into laws. Laws are rules
made by a government, interpreted by the court and backed by the power of the
state. Theft, murder, rape, tax evasion, etc. are serious and are unacceptable
norms and values. Thus, society treats such behaviors by formal laws.

3.4.3 The Concept of Deviance

Deviance is a behavior against the standards of conduct or expectation of a

group/ society. It refers to both formal and informal social control.

Example:

● cheating in an exam is a deviance, but simple violation of University

norms.

● prescribing wrong medicine purposely for a patient is a serious deviance.

Crime

Crime is a violation of norms and values set by the formal social control. Crime
(like deviance) should be seen within the social context.

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 Types of crime

There are four categories of crime.

Professional crime: - professional criminals commit t. For example, some

thieves are engaged only in pick pocketing. In other words, they master the
technique of stealing money from peoples’ pocket.

Organized crime: It is a crime run by organized groups. Particularly it is found

in the developed countries. Organized criminals are involved in drug business,
gambling, and prostitution, etc.

White-collar crime: A crime committed by responsible people of high social

status is termed as white color crime. Head of states, ministers, managers, and
association leaders are some of the social groups who are involved in white
color crime.

Victimless crime: Behaviors such as smoking drugs and gambling that are
exchanged between willing persons is called victimless crime. Gambling, for
example, is crime. However, no one of the players is a victim of the crime. This
is because that the participants are willing to play the game.

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 UNIT FIVE:

SOCIAL INEQUALITY

Topic One: Social Stratification and Social Mobility

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to discuss:

● Systems of stratification.

● Perspectives on stratification

● Stratification by social class

● Social mobility

Understanding Stratification

Society is divided in many ways: Some are rich others are poor; some are
young others are old; some are from the dominant group while others are from
minority. Stratification is an expression of inequality. Thus, when inequality is
based on a hierarchal of social groups it is referred as stratification. Sociology
tries to explain the reason behind these stratifications/divisions. Thus,
understanding social stratification is one of the core issues in sociology.

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 Systems of Stratification.

Stratification is universal. Every society has its own ways of stratification based
on inequality. Stratification has different forms: System of slavery, estate, cast
and class.

A) Slavery: It is a system where society is divided in to slave owner and

salves. Slavery is one of the worst forms of stratification.

B) Estate: It is a system where society is divided into land lords and

peasants.

C) Cast System: It is a hereditary oriented rank system. In cast system,

stratification is based on parents’ position.

A good example of cast system is practiced in India. The cast called

“untouchables” are not allowed access to social, economic and political
position. In some parts of our country potters and blacksmiths are considered as
cast.

D) Class Systems: This system is also dominant throughout the world. It is

very difficult to put clear division in class system. Hard work, talent and
chance, among others, determine the social category of persons. In class
system, there are two ways that influence the social category: ascribed status,
and achieved status.

Ascribed Status: It is a social position assigned to a person without the

person’s unique character or talent. Gender, age, race could also be the source
of ascribed status. By virtue of being female, or disabled a person can occupy
lower status.

Example:
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 • Children of a prime minister most likely inherit prestige and wealth.

• A blind with a good talent may occupy a lower status.

Achieved Status: It is a social position that people attain through their own
talent or effort.

Perspective on Social Stratifications

There are many theories concerning social stratification. However, we will

discuss only two of them: the Functionalist and the Conflicts view.

Conflict theory: According to Marx, the reason for the existence of social
classes is, basically, economic. Society is mainly divided in to exploiters and
exploited. Thus, the two classes have different culture. The solution for such
inequality is social revolution.

Functionalist: According to Max Weber, class, status and power are the
components of stratification.

• Class refers to economic i.e. people with similar income.

• Status refers to position regardless of income or prestige.

• Power comes from the opportunity of holding position in the

bureaucracy or political party etc.

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 Stratification by Social Class.

Sociologists measure stratification from the angel of social classes. This means,
individuals are assigned to social class based on different criteria. This includes
education, occupation and income. Education can give us high prestige. Many
known intellectuals are good examples. Occupation and income are also the
other factors.

Example: By virtue of occupation an engineer or a lecturer may have higher

prestige. However, a merchant with similar educational background may have
lesser prestige than the engineer or the lecturer.

Social Mobility

The movement of individual/groups from one social status (power, prestige,

wealth) to another is termed as social mobility.

Is it always possible to shift from one status to another? Do all people get equal
chance for social mobility? These are important questions to understand the
concept of social mobility. In a society where there is relatively static social
and political system, there will be little chance for social mobility. This is also
true if the social mobility requires ascribed status. Such system is referred as
closed class system.

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 In some societies, relatively, there is a continuous social and economic
dynamism. This means, there is wide construction of infrastructures and rapid
movement of capital etc. In such situation, social mobility is rapid and
satisfying. This is also true if the social mobility requires achieved status. Such
system is referred as open class system.

Types of social mobility.

There are two types of social mobility.

Horizontal mobility: This refers to the movement of a person/group from one

social position to another of the same rank.

Example: A heath extension worker may become an elementary school teacher.

This is a relatively similar social position. Thus, it is a horizontal mobility.

Vertical mobility: It implies a shift from one social position to a better or

higher rank/position. Vertical mobility indicates an upward movement in the
social stratification.

Example: When a heath assistant becomes a nurse, it is a vertical mobility.

Topic 2: Stratification by Gender.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to discuss the concepts on:

• Gender and gender roles.

• The influence of gender on women.

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 • Aging and society, locally and globally.

• Role transition in later life.

Gender Identity and Gender Role.

The difference between women and men can be seen from two angles. The first
is biological: their significance difference is the chromosomes, reproductive
capacity and sexual organs. Second, culturally women and men have different
social roles: women are responsible for household affair and child care while
men are income earners.

The term sex refers to male and female that is directly related to the biological
differentiation. The concept gender on the other hand implies the cultural
behavior that both sexes show.

Gender role socialization

The family socializes girls and boys differently. In most societies girls are
socialized to act softly. On the other hand, boys are expected to be tough and
act daringly. This process is decisive in fixing gender roles. While other
institutions also re-inference this mode of socialization, educational institutions
try to reverse the situation.

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 Women as Oppressed Majority

In general and across the world, women are victims of oppression. Although
the number of women is significantly big, they play little role in decision-
making. For example, the number of women in the higher ranks is very small.

Topic Three: Social Stratification by Age

At the end of the topic, the student will be able to explain:

• Aging and society

• Role transition in later life

Aging and Society.

Aging is an aspect of socialization; moreover, age stratification is the other

aspect of in equality. This means, like other stratifications there is also age
stratification that affects the elderly. Many societies highly respect old people.
However, the aged are among the disadvantaged groups and are victims of in
equality.

Aging is a relative matter. Aging depends not on our physical/ mental

deterioration; but also on how the society perceives. Age limit, particularly in
the modern world, is institutionalized. According to a common consensus, old
age begins at 65. People may be strong and efficient but could be retired. Thus,
age related roles are socially constructed and rearranged.

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 Role Transition in Later Life

The common aspect of the elderly is the difficulties they face when they change
their roles. Old age requires new form of role adjustment. Moreover, old people
receive new form of responses from children, the young and the adult. All these
are the result of entering a new phase. This new experience again results in
dependency, loneliness, biological and psychological health problems etc.

Topic Four: Race and Ethnicity.

At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to explain:

● Minority, race and ethnical groups

● Race and ethnicity.

● Prejudice and inter group relations.

Minority, Racial and Ethnic Groups.

The concept minority group, for sociologists, is beyond number. It is highly

related with in-equality. People who have less influence and power over their
lives (compared to the majority) are termed as minority group.

Features of minority group.

• Membership in minority group is by birth.

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 • Members are significantly similar in race, religion, ethnicity and
language etc.

• Minority groups, in many societies, are victims of social inequality or

discrimination.

Studying Race and Ethnicity.

A race is a category of distinct people on account of physical characteristics

that have social importance. An ethnic group is a category of people who
share important elements of a common culture. Both race and Ethnicity are
bounded to us from our parents. However, race refers to the genetic
transmission of physical characteristics whereas, ethnicity refers to
socialization in to cultural characteristics. Although a physical difference exists
among races, the differences that count are those with social not physical
importance. In other words, race difference has no relation with intelligence.
Seeing race as biological category should not lead to claim the superiority of
one race over the other.

Human beings are of the same origin –homosapiens. There is a genetic

variability among humans. Interestingly, the variability among the same race is
greater than the variability between two different races. Note that:

• Different races could form one ethnic group.

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 • One racial group may be from one ethnic group.

• One racial group may be given to different ethnic groups.

Particularly this time, ethnic difference is becoming blurred. This is due to a

growing interaction of different ethnic groups. The diffusion of norms/values,
the interaction of races/ ethnic groups is becoming un-avoidable phenomena.
Race and ethnicity, however, are still the expression of social inequality.

Prejudice and Discrimination.

Prejudice and discrimination go hand in hand.

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward an entire category of people (the worst

form of prejudice is racism). The source of prejudice is the belief that one’s
cultural value, religion, language etc. is superior to others. Prejudice is
commonly practiced among literates and illiterates. It results in discrimination.

Discrimination is denying equal rights and opportunities to individuals/ groups

based on prejudice. When prejudice and discrimination are institutionalized, the
consequence is destructive.

Example:

● The former apartheid (South Africa).

● The case of the Hutu and the Tutsi.

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 3.4.4 Patterns of Inter Group Relation.

There are three forms of inter groups relations.

• Amalgamation: It arises due to intermarriages of different races and

ethnic groups. Amalgamation results in the formation of new unique racial
group with new values and cultural practice.

• Assimilation: It is a relation created when a certain group of people

surrenders its culture /identity to another different culture. Those who are
assimilated take new religion, cultural practice, personal names etc.

• Pluralism: It refers to co-existence based on mutual respect

between/among different groups. In this, pattern racial/ethnic

Groups sustain their respective value language and etc. This helps them to live
together peacefully.

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 UNIT SIX

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Topic One: The Family

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson the students will be able to discuss:

● the concept of the family.

● the function of the family.

● Marriage and the family.

● Factors associated with divorce.

The Concept of the Family.

The family is a relatively permanent group of persons. They are linked in social
roles by ties of blood, marriage or adoption.

Members are living together; they cooperate economically and in the rearing of
children. Broadly speaking there are two forms of families. The nuclear and the
extended:

A family that contains of the husband, the wife and their children is termed as
nuclear family.

In addition to the husband the wife and their children a family may consists
relatives such as the in-laws. This kind of family is termed as extended family.

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 The Function of the Family.

The most important of all institution is the family. The socialization of children
(by the family) is so significant in the future life. The most important functions
of the family include:

• Reproduction, for the continuation of generation.

• Protection of children such as caring, affection etc.

• Socializing values, norms belief system etc.

• Regulation of sexual behavior.

• Providing social status: provide ascribed status such as race, ethnicity,

language etc.

Marriage and the Family.

Marriage and the family are strongly related. Marriage and the family are
common to all human societies; and it is part of human culture. Marriage is the
means by which a man and a women form a union for the purpose of
reproduction. In all societies, marriage is legalized but in different forms. Each
partner has to perform specific duties. Broadly speaking.

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 There are two forms of marriage:

Monogamous: Marriage between two persons only.

Polygamous: Either the husband or the wife (in some communities) has more
than one spouse.

Factors Associated with Divorce.

Divorce results in the end of marriage and the separation of family. A factor
associated with divorce varies across culture and time. In some societies it
involves legal process. In others it is both formal and informal. Divorce is
complex and culture specific. In many countries divorce result in the suffering
of women. After divorce, the burden of caring for children becomes more
difficult for women.

Particularly in Somalia there are different factors associated with divorce.

• Adultery and unfaithfulness.

• When one of the spouses is infertile.

• Marriage which involve under ages (particularly the women).

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 • Extreme poverty/resources scarcity.

Topic Two: Religion

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson the students will be able to explain:

● Sociological approach to religion.

● The function of religion.

● The dimension of religion.

Sociological Approach to Religion

Religion can be defined as the system of beliefs and practices related to sacred
things that unites believers in to a moral community.

Religions are equal and neither is superior to others. Religion is cultural but
universal among human beings. No society exists without one or another form
of belief system. The interest of sociologists is to see religion from two angles:
from the angel/ feeling/ of the believers and from the perspective of the
function of religion.

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 The Function of Religion.

• Integrative: Religion integrates people. It brings the believers together

and creates the sense of oneness and cooperation.

• Social control: Religion server to promote stability, peace and order.

• Social Support: Religion develops the sense of hope or comfort. For

instance illness, life hardship and misfortune etc.

Dimension of Religion.

The function of religion in all societies is nearly the same. There are two
concepts that help us see the dimension of religion: belief and ritual.

Belief: Each religion has its own belief system. It can be explained in two
forms.

A) The way/view that the society perceives (understands) the entire

universe (cosmology). For example how God, god/gods created the universe.

B) The cultural practice/value that results from the religious faith.

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 Rituals: It is the means that help reach/ communicate the Devine. Rituals can be
expressed in the form of ceremonial process. To celebrate events such as births
or deaths.

Topic Three: Health and Medicine.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson the students will be able to describe:

● the perspective on health and illness.

● Social epidemiology and health.

● Role of physicians, nurses and patients.

● Alternatives to the present health care system.

Anthropological Perspective on Health and Illness

Health cannot be seen in isolation from culture. Health, illness, or disorders are
shaped by social context. Health disorders have a biological as well as a socio-
cultural aspect.

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 Disease is viewed as a biological disturbance in the body. And illness refers to
the cultural and social meaning to disorder. Health is also part of the
worldview.

Healing process in the traditional sector.

In the traditional sector, doctors are termed as healers and the process of curing
is called healing

Healers in the traditional sectors considered as persons with divine powers, not
as ordinary people. To heal patients, they use herbs, roots of plants or “invisible
energy”.

The patients who visit the traditional sector include: seriously ill people, unable
to be cured in the modern sector; mostly women; poor people, uneducated and
superstitious.

There is a shared understanding between the healer and the patient. Both of
them seem very close. Thus, the patients feel as if she/ he are treated humanely.
Healers usually look confident. The patient, therefore, develops healing
confidence.

Social Epidemiology and Health

Epidemiology is the scientific study of the distribution of disease and general

health status across a population. In studying epidemiology the important
concepts are: incidence, prevalence, morbidity and mortality. They are so
important particularly for health workers who conduct survey/ research.

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 Incidence: It is the number of new occurrences of disease/ illness with in a
given population during a year /specific time.

Prevalence: The total number of cases of specific disorders that existed at a

given time.

Morbidity: When incidents (occurrence of disease/illness) explained as rate,

per 100,000 people, it refers to morbidity.

Mortality: The incidence of death prevalent as rate in a particular situation.

Factors that affect the distribution of disease/illness.

The distribution of disease/illness is affected by a number of factors, among

others; gender, social class and ethnicity are significant.

Gender

In general women suffer from a number of disease/illness. However, there is

lower mortality rate among women. One of the reasons is that men suffer from
serious disease that could shorten their life. Some of the causes include taking
alcohol, smoking cigarettes and working in difficult environment.

Social Class

Disease occur more among the poor than among the rich/wealthy people. This
is because those lower class people:

• don’t adequately use preventive method

• are more exposed to contamination, stress, and lack of nutritious food.

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 • get little opportunity to health centers.

Thus, teaching the poor about preventive method is one of the best ways to
decrease the distribution of disease.

Race and Ethnicity.

In a society where there is ethnic and race discrimination, the distribution of

health/illness could vary significantly. Social values and norms of a certain
racial or ethnic group could also affect or cause to vary social epidemiology.
According to researchers, change of behavior in choice of food, personal
hygiene and avoiding harmful practice could be part of the solution.

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 UNIT SEVEN

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

7.1: Power and Authority

Sociologists have a distinctive approach to studying governmental power and

authority that differs from the perspective of political scientists. For the most part,
political scientists focus on studying how power is distributed in different types of
political systems.

Sociologists also examine how the use of power affects local, state, national, and
global agendas, which in turn affect people differently based on status, class, and
socioeconomic standing.

Many scholars adopt the definition developed by German sociologist Max Weber,
who said that power is the ability to exercise one’s will over others Power affects
more than personal relationships; it shapes larger dynamics like social groups,
professional organizations, and governments. Similarly, a government’s power is not
necessarily limited to control of its own citizens.

Authority refers to accepted power—that is, power that people agree to follow.
People listen to authority figures because they feel that these individuals are worthy of
respect. Generally speaking, people perceive the objectives and demands of an
authority figure as reasonable and beneficial, or true.

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Types of Authority

Traditional Authority

According to Weber, the power of traditional authority is accepted because that has
traditionally been the case; its legitimacy exists because it has been accepted for a
long time. Britain’s Queen Elizabeth, for instance, occupies a position that she
inherited based on the traditional rules of succession for the monarchy.

People adhere to traditional authority because they are invested in the past and feel
obligated to perpetuate it.

In this type of authority, a ruler typically has no real force to carry out his will or
maintain his position but depends primarily on a group’s respect.

A more modern form of traditional authority is patrimonialism, which is traditional

domination facilitated by an administration and military that are purely personal
instruments of the master.

In this form of authority, all officials are personal favorites appointed by the ruler.
These officials have no rights, and their privileges can be increased or withdrawn
based on the caprices of the leader.

Traditional authority can be intertwined with race, class, and gender. In most
societies, for instance, men are more likely to be privileged than women and thus are
more likely to hold roles of authority.

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Charismatic Authority

Followers accept the power of charismatic authority because they are drawn to the
leader’s personal qualities. The appeal of a charismatic leader can be extraordinary,
and can inspire followers to make unusual sacrifices or to persevere in the midst of
great hardship and persecution. Charismatic leaders usually emerge in times of crisis
and offer innovative or radical solutions.

Rational-Legal Authority

Rational-Legal Authority According to Weber, power made legitimate by laws,

written rules, and regulations is termed rational-legal authority.

In this type of authority, power is vested in a particular rationale, system, or ideology

and not necessarily in the person who implements the specifics of that doctrine. A
nation that follows a constitution applies this type of authority.

Forms of Government

Most people generally agree that anarchy, or the absence of organized government
does not facilitate a desirable living environment for society, but it is much harder for
individuals to agree upon the particulars of how a population should be governed.
Throughout history, various forms of government have evolved to suit the needs of
changing populations and mindsets, each with pros and cons. Today, members of
Western society hold that democracy is the most just and stable form of government

A. Monarchy

Even though people in the United States tend to be most aware of Great Britain’s
royals, many other nations also recognize kings, queens, princes, princesses, and other
figures with official royal titles. The power held by these positions varies from one
country to another. Strictly speaking, a monarchy is a government in which a single
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person (a monarch) rules until he or she dies or abdicates the throne. Usually, a
monarch claims the rights to the title by way of hereditary succession or as a result of
some sort of divine appointment or calling. As mentioned above, the monarchies of
most modern nations are ceremonial remnants of tradition, and individuals who hold
titles in such sovereignties are often aristocratic figureheads

Types of Monarchy

Absolute monarchies.

A few nations today, however, are run by governments wherein a monarch has
absolute or unmitigated power. Such nations are called absolute monarchies. Although
governments and regimes are constantly changing across the global landscape, it is
generally safe to say that most modern absolute monarchies are concentrated in the
Middle East and Africa.

Constitutional monarchies

In today’s global political climate, monarchies far more often take the form of
constitutional monarchies, governments of nations that recognize monarchs but
require these figures to abide by the laws of a greater constitution.

Many countries that are now constitutional monarchies evolved from governments
that were once considered absolute monarchies. In most cases, constitutional
monarchies, such as Great Britain and Canada, feature elected prime ministers whose
leadership role is far more involved and significant than that of its titled monarchs.

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 B. Oligarchy

The power in an oligarchy is held by a small, elite group. Unlike in a monarchy,

members of an oligarchy do not necessarily achieve their statuses based on ties to
noble ancestry. Rather, they may ascend to positions of power because of military
might, economic power, or similar circumstances.

C. Dictatorship

Power in a dictatorship is held by a single person (or a very small group) that wields
complete and absolute authority over a government and population. Like some
absolute monarchies, dictatorships may be corrupt and seek to limit or even eradicate
the liberties of the general population. Dictators use a variety of means to perpetuate
their authority.

Economic and military might, as well as intimidation and brutality are often foremost
among their tactics; individuals are less likely to rebel when they are starving and
fearful. Many dictators start out as military leaders and are conditioned to the use of
violence against opposition.

D. Democracy

A democracy is a form of government that strives to provide all citizens with an equal
voice, or vote, in determining state policy, regardless of their level of socioeconomic
status. Another important fundamental of the democratic state is the establishment and
governance of a just and comprehensive constitution that delineates the roles and
responsibilities of leaders and citizens alike.

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 UNIT EIGHT

SOCIAL RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY:

Learning Objectives:

After the end of the lesson, the students will be able to discuss:

-The goals of research

-The steps in conducting research

-Types of data collection

Topic One: Concepts in Social Research

Definition of Social Research

Social research is the systematic examination of (reexamination) of empirical data,

collected by someone first hand, concerning the social or psychological forces
operating in a situation.

The Goals of Social Research: There are four goals in social research.

Descriptive research: Discovers facts or reality. Descriptive research answers

questions such as the following: How many people have access to health centers?
How wide spread is tapeworm among children?

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Predictive research: Guessing what will happen in the future. Based on earlier or
current situation (facts, realities and statistics) one can predict what will happen.
For example, you can predict the number of children who could be attacked by
malaria after two years. The source of the data can be previous statistics. This
includes: the number of household and children, the number of victims of malaria,
rate of birth per household etc.

Explanatory research: It tells us why or how something occurred. The objective

of explanatory research is to answer the question “why?”. For example, why do
people prefer to listen information about the opening of new clinics to preventive
health program?

Evaluation research: It serves us to know how effectively programs achieve their

goals. It also gives information about the negative (un-intended) result of a certain
program. For example, of the 100 women who learnt about family planning how
many of them made it practical? How many failed?

Steps in Conducting Research

The first two important steps in conducting research are formulation of problems
and research design.

Problem formulation if there is no problem, no need of research. Problems

are everywhere, particularly in the country like Somalia. Thus, finding problems
is very simple. What is difficult is to decide on a workable problem. In all social
research identifying a problem is the first step.

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Social Research Design: It is a detailed plan. After identifying a researchable
problem, we must develop research design. It focuses on the following and other
related points:

Which social group of people will be studied?

What information is needed?

When, where and how is the information collected? Answering these types of
questions would lead us to a good research design.

Topic Two: Research Methodology

Data collection: There are different types of data collection techniques. For our
purpose we will deal on the following only: survey method, observation and
participant observation.

Survey: It is a collection of data by asking individuals/groups of people. There are

two ways of techniques in survey method. Questionnaire and interview

Questionnaire is a written question that people respond on the paper without the
help of the researcher. Writing good questionnaire leads to collect reliable data.
Look at the following points.

A written question must be very clear, short and to the point

Closed ended questions (mostly important for extension workers) such, as sex,
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age and marital status of the respondents must appear on the paper

For open-ended questions (opinion or views) allow enough space on the

questionnaire.

The questions and the cultural behavior of the respondents must go hand in hand.
In other words, be aware of sensitive questions and taboo words.

Write questions in their proper order. Interesting and opinion questions should
come first. It is preferable to put personal information (closed indeed questions)
such as age, sex etc. at the end.

Interview refers to oral question/ by reading/ and receiving answer from the
respondent. You can interview people by reading your questions and record the
response on a tape.

Accept the respondent’s choice of place and time for the interview.

Be aware that some people want to be interviewed alone. But there are times where
the type of the research requires you to conduct group interview.

Unless you are forced by a situation conclude your interview on the same day.

Consider the respondents’ age, sex, status, and religious background etc.

Explain the objective and the beneficiaries of the interview. If possible, inform the
total time that the interview would take.

Inform the respondent the confidentiality of the interview.

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Learn how to take short notes quickly but efficiently.

Use tape recorder, if available. However, some respondents may reject to be

recorded. Don’t ask a respondent whether

She/he is willing to be recorded or not. Let she/he take the initiative and say-no.

Make the interview lively. Start with something that could make the respondent
relax your voice must be audible and the questions understandable.

Observation

Observation is a data collection through direct visual or auditory experience of

behavior. In other words the researcher collects data by watching/ seeing and
listening the people studied.

A researcher can observe in two ways: By informing the studied people about the
observation; or observing without the awareness of the studied person/ group. The
two ways have their own advantages and disadvantages. Moreover, the kind of
data (research objective) determines which method to use. Observation in places
such as markets, churches/mosques, hotels/ bars and other similar areas involve
many people. Therefore, informing the observed people is not necessary. This may
include in homes where the researcher has close relationship.

Mastering the technique of observation needs a lot of experience. Look at the

following points.

If available use camera/video camera.

As much as possible take detailed notes.

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Sometimes it may be impossible to use tape recorder/video and note taking. Thus,
good concentration and the ability to remember are essential. After the observation,
take note immediate.

Choose a good position and place for observation.

Avoid bias, as much as possible. This is one of the good qualities of a researcher.

Participant Observation

It is a particular feature of anthropological study. It is a method of data collection in

which the researcher is part of, and participates in, the activities of the people who
are studied. In participant observation the researcher immerse her/himself in the
daily activities of the people. Moreover the researcher eats, drinks, chats and
enjoys with the studied people. Thus, it is possible to get the real feeling of the
people. This is the advantage that we don’t get from questionnaire, interview and
may be from observation. In participant observation data is collected not only from
what people say but what actually they feel (their real behavior).

Example: In an interview/questionnaire people may say that they don’t support

girls’ circumcision. However, in participant observation they may be found
circumcising their own daughters.

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