Dr.

Prakash Mohan
Various platforms and sensors used for remote sensing
Why SAR?
Electromagnetic spectrum
 Electromagnetic spectrum
•Red: 610 - 700 nm
•Green: 500 - 570 nm
•Blue: 450 - 500 nm

•Near Infrared (NIR): 0.7 to 1.3 µm. (reflected)

•Short Wavelength Infrared (SWIR): 1.3 to 3 µm.
•Thermal Infrared (LWIR): 8 to 14 µm.

Microwave : 1 mm to 1 m
Nadir looking radar create ambiguity in locating objects
Electromagnetic waves
Scottish scientist named James Clerk Maxwell
developed a scientific theory to explain
electromagnetic waves. He noticed that electrical
fields and magnetic fields can couple together to form
electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic waves
The profile of a simple wave function:

𝛹 𝑧 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑧) -This describes the shape of an electromagnetic wave

𝛹 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin[𝑘 𝑧 − 𝑣𝑡 ] -This propagation of the electromagnetic wave

 The cross section of a simple wave function in x-y plane:

𝛹 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin[𝑘 𝑧 − 𝑣𝑡 ] 𝛹 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑧 − 𝝎𝑡
Sinusoidal wave form with amplitude E0

Modified equation incorporating initial phase

𝛹 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑧 − 𝝎𝑡 + 𝝓0
Amplitude
• Amount of signal returned to the sensor
Depends on Polarization, Dielectric constant, Wavelength

Amplitude + Phase Makes a complex image

Radar Geometry
SAR Data Acquisition

Object
SAR Processing
 RCS (radar cross section)
RCS is the area orthogonal to the incident signal. It describes how much power is extracted by the target
Satellite to target Isotropic case
Power density (P i )=

The power density for isotropic (directional) condition

Power density (P i )=

R
b

Target Target

The power density at a distance R from source

 RCS (radar cross section)
Power received on target Power received at the satellite after scattering from target

Power recievedat the receiver =

Target

Target
Power recieved on the target

Gt –Gain of the transmitting antenna, (b/R): Check previous slide for R and b
σ- is RCS of the target
 Sigma Naught

RCS is mainly applicable to discrete targets. For continuous targets RCS is expressed as average RCS per unit area (σ 0)

It also known as scattering coefficient which is the normalized value of 𝜎

𝑑𝜎
𝜎0 =
𝑑𝐴
Missions, Bands, Penetration

COSMO- Radarsat-2 ALOS-2 BIOMASS*

SkyMed Sentinel-1 PALSAR-2
PAZ SAR RCM SAOCOM
NISAR*
TANDEM-L
Polarization(Polarization is the orientation of the radar wave)
Polarization & Vegetation

A
Short Wave

B
 How do you expect
Radar scattering
intensity to differ
Polarization & Vegetation

between crown (C) and

trunk (T) in forest
structures with
horizontal or vertical
polarizations

Source: Walker, W. Introduction to Radar Remote Sensing for Vegetation Mapping and Monitoring
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
Geometric Distortions in SAR images
SNAP software
Real and imaginary parts

Imaginary
b

φ
a
Real
Amplitude
• Amount of signal returned to the sensor
Depends on Polarization, Dielectric constant, Wavelength

Amplitude + Phase Makes a complex image

Pixel Response
Radar Imaging geometry
The radar
Radar Imaging geometry (real aperture)
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝜆)
𝜃=
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 (𝑙𝑎)
Azimuth resolution(real aperture)
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝜆)
𝜃=
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 (𝑙𝑎 )

Eg: C Band 𝜃 =0.230

𝜆 = 0.05𝑚
𝑙𝑎 = 12 𝑚
0.05
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = = 0.00416 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0.230
12
𝑅 = 850 𝑘𝑚
3.5 km
Swept length=850000 x 0.00416
Swept length=3536 m ( 3.5 km)
Pulse
Range Resolution (with normal pulse)

∆𝑟

Pulse

𝑐𝜏
Corresponding slant range distance = 𝑟𝑟 = m
2
𝑐𝜏
Corresponding ground range distance = 𝑟𝑔 = m
2 sin 𝜃
The lower limit of ∆𝑡 is τ (pulse width/ length)
 Range Resolution (with normal pulse)

𝑐𝜏
𝑟𝑔 = m
2 sin 𝜃
1. There is no spatial resolution if ϴ = 0 ( i.e. nadir looking)
2. Ground range is independent of platform altitude
3. Ground range resolution varies across swath as ϴ varies.
Range Resolution (with normal pulse)

𝑐𝜏
𝑟𝑟 = m
2 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = 10𝜇𝑠 𝜏 = 100𝑛𝑠
𝜭 = 300 𝜭 = 300
𝑟𝑟 = 3000 𝑚 𝑟𝑟 = 30 𝑚

The energy carried by a pulse is proportional to the product of its duration and the square of its
amplitude. ( It has limit and it leads to less sensitivity)
Why SAR Not Real Aperture
Improved Range Resolution (by CHIRP)
CHIRP (S)- Signal with increasing frequency

ℬ𝑐
t

𝑐
Slant range distance = 𝑟𝑟 = m
2ℬ𝑐
𝑐
Ground range distance = 𝑟𝑔 = m
2ℬ𝑐 sin 𝜃
Improved Range Resolution (by CHIRP)

CHIRP (S)- Signal with increasing frequency

𝛽𝑐 = 15.5 MHz
𝑡 = 37.12𝜇𝑠

ℬ𝑐 = 15.5 MHz
𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 , τ= 1/15.5 MHz = 64 x 10 -9 sec= 64 ns

𝑐 𝑐τ
𝑟𝑟 = 𝑜𝑟 = = 9.6 m
2ℬ𝑐 2
Improved Azimuth Resolution
𝑣 𝑙𝑎
𝑟𝑎 = = v- velocity of satellite- 7km/sec (approx.)
ℬ𝑐 2

(Derivation in Book: Remote sensing with imaging radar by John A Richards ……No need to learn now )
Geometric Distortions
 Flood map of Rhine River (Parts of the German states of
Flood Rhineland-Palatinate and North Rhine Westphalia as well as the
Walloon Region in Belgium

Acquisitions captured by the Sentinel-1

mission on 3 July and 15 July 2021, and
it shows the extent of the flooding in red.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4YH_gLRdRFw
Ice monitoring

Radar data from the

Copernicus Sentinel-1,
ERS mission, NASA’s
MEaSUREs data record
used to calculate how fast
the glaciers have been
moving over the 25-year
study period.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q3XcrRCBYvk
Ice monitoring

The giant A-68A iceberg

near the waters of the
South Georgia Island.
Since its ‘birth’ in 2017, the
iceberg has travelled
thousands of kilometres
from the Larsen C ice shelf,
in Antarctica. In 2020
December it was broken ito
small pieces.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WcHoK3W0pvM
Ship monitoring

Illustration of vessels observed between

Gibraltar and Algesiras
on September 2017
Oil spill monitoring

Oil spill observed off the Belgian coast near Zeebrugge on

08/10/2015 after a collision between two vessels.
Copernicus Sentinel data
Marine winds

Wind speed derived from Sentinel-1 data over the

Typhoon Megi, Contains modified Copernicus Sentinel
data [2016].
Coesmic Study
SAR coseismic interferogram on
the 2016 central Italy
earthquake

Colour cycle (red-blue-yellow)

represents approximately 3 cm
of motion in the radar line of sight

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o8fX3Ii_kLw&t=12s
Volcanic deformation Study

SAR interferogram of the volcano

Piton de la Fournaise (Reunion
Island) in May 2015. The
complete colour cycles red-blue-
yellow (fringes) in the image
indicate surface motion. Each
fringe represents approximately 3
cm of ground motion gradient.