CHAPTER THREE

LEARNING AND THEORIES OF LEARNING

Independent reading
3.1.1. Definitions of learning
3.1.3. Characteristics of learning
3.1.3. Principles of learning
3.2. Factors Influencing Learning
3.3. Theories of Learning and their Applications
3.3.1. Behavioral Theory of Learning
➢ Stimulus response associations.

3.3.1.1. Classical conditioning theory of learning

➢ A neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response
after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings
about that response.
Basics of Classical Condition
Neutral stimulus
➢ Before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the
response of interest.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
➢ A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response
without having been learned.
Unconditioned response (UCR)
➢ A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g.,
salivation at the smell of food).
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
➢ Paired with UCS to bring about a response formerly caused
only by the UCS.
Conditioned response (CR)
➢ A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously
neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell).
Steps in Classical Conditioning
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition
➢ Previously neutral stimulus gets the ability to elicit response.
Acquisition process
Delayed Conditioning-
➢ The CS is presented first and remains at least until the onset of
UCS in which both the stimuli overlap.
Trace Conditioning-
➢ The CS is presented first and ends before then on set of UCS.
➢ It produces moderately strong conditioning.
Simultaneous Conditioning-
➢ CS and UCS are presented (begin) together.
➢ This produces weak conditioning
Backward Conditioning
➢ The onset of UCS precedes the onset of the CS.
➢ It has least conditioning because the reinforcement comes
before the CS
Stimulus generalization
➢ Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus
produce the same responses.
Stimulus discrimination
➢ The ability to differentiate between stimuli.
Extinction
➢ The CR will diminish and eventually stop occurring
Spontaneous recovery
➢ The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned
response after a period of rest.
Higher order conditioning
➢ Conditioned stimulus is used as unconditioned
stimulus in another experiment to conditioned
another conditioned stimulus
Application of Classical Conditioning
Aversive conditioning
➢ Unpleasant stimulation that trigger unwanted behavior
➢ Aim to induce such feelings as fear and dislike specifically
in relation to stimuli
Flooding
➢ Illuminate conditioned fears through fear producing
stimulus is presented by it over and over again.
Systematic desensitization
➢ This technique requires construction of a hierarchy of fears
from least-feared to most fear
Advertizing
➢ A neutral product is associated with people, objects, or
situations consumers like to elicit a positive response
Operant/Instrumental conditioning
➢ A voluntary response is strengthened or weakened,
depending on its consequences.
➢ An emphasis on environmental consequences
(Instrumental Conditioning).
➢ The organism's response operates or produces
effects on the environment.
➢ Organism performs deliberately to produce a
desirable outcome.
➢ The focus on the external causes of an action and
the action’s consequences.
Basic types of reinforcers
Primary reinforcers
➢ Naturally reinforcing because they satisfy
biological needs
E.g., Food, water. Light, stroking of the skin, and a
comfortable air temperature
Secondary Reinforcers
➢ They reinforce behavior because of their prior
association with primary reinforcing stimuli.
E.g., Money, praise, applause, good grades, awards,
and gold stars
Both primary and secondary reinforcers can be positive
or negative
Positive reinforcement
➢ Presentation of a stimulus makes behavior more
likely to occur again.
Negative reinforcement
➢ Termination of an aversive stimulus makes behavior
more likely to occur.
Escape learning
➢ Animals learn to make a response that
terminates/stops a noxious, painful or unpleasant
stimulus.
Avoidance Learning
➢ Learning to avoid a painful, noxious stimulus prior to
exposure.
Schedules of reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement
➢ The response is reinforced each time it occurs.

➢ Learning is usually most rapid.

intermittent (partial)
➢ Involves reinforcing only some responses, not all
of them.
➢ More resistant to extinction.
Fixed-ratio schedules
➢ Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of
responses.
➢ Performance sometimes drops off just after
reinforcement.
Variable-Ratio Schedule
➢ Reinforcement occurs after some average
number of responses, but the number varies
from reinforcement to reinforcement.
➢ Produces extremely high steady rates of
responding.
➢ The responses are more resistant to extinction.
Fixed Interval Schedule
➢ Reinforcement occurs only if a fixed amount of
time has passed since the previous reinforcer.
Variable Interval Schedule
➢ Reinforcement occurs only if a variable amount of
time has passed since the previous reinforcer
Punishment
➢ A stimulus that weakens the response or makes it
less likely to recur.
Primary punishers
➢ Pain and extreme heat or cold.
Secondary punishers
➢ Criticism, demerits, catcalls, scolding, fines, and bad
grades.
➢ The positive-negative distinction can also be applied
to punishment.
Positive punishment
unpleasant may occur following some behavior
Negative punishment
➢ Something pleasant may be removed
Shaping
 Successive approximations of a desired response
are reinforced.
 responses that are more and more similar to the
final desired response are reinforced.
Application of the theory of operant conditioning
Conditioning study behavior
➢ Reinforcing student behavior through variety of incentives
E.g., prize, medal, smile, praise, affectionate patting on the
back or by giving higher marks.
Conditioning and classroom behavior
➢ Student may acquire unpleasant experiences w/c
becomes conditioned to the teacher, subject and the
classroom.
Managing Problem Behavior
➢ Positive contingencies are used as behavior modification
therapy technique
➢ Dealing with anxieties through conditioning
➢ Using desensitization techniques to break the habits of
fear.
Conditioning group behavior
➢ Reinforcement makes entire group learn and
complete change in behavior.
Conditioning and Cognitive Processes
➢ Reinforcement is given for the progress of
knowledge and in the feedback form.
Shaping Complex Behavior
➢ Complex behavior exists in form of a chain of
small behavior.
➢ This complex behavior can be controlled via
shaping.
Social Learning Theory
➢ Observational learning, which is learning by watching
the behavior of another person, or model.
Forms of Observational Behavior
➢ The observer may reproduce the behaviors of the model
and receive direct reinforcement.
➢ The reinforcement need not be direct (vicarious
reinforcement )
➢ self-reinforcement, or controlling your reinforcers.

➢ Students value and enjoy their growing competence

than external rewards.
➢ The thought processes of the learner is important.
❖ Four conditions that are necessary before an
individual can successfully model the behavior of
someone else:
Attention
➢ The person must first pay attention to the model.

Retention
➢ The observer must be able to remember the behavior
that has been observed.
Motor reproduction
➢ The observer has to be able to replicate the action.

Motivation
➢ Learners must want to demonstrate what they have
learned.
 Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other
people.
2. Describing the consequences of behavior is can effectively
increase the appropriate behaviors and decrease
inappropriate
3. Modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means for
teaching new behavior than shaping.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and
take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models
to break down traditional stereotypes.
6. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing
school tasks (self-efficacy) through confidence-building
messages and watch others be successful.
7. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for
their academic accomplishments (not setting too high and low
expectations).
Cognitive Learning Theory
➢ Learning theorist (ABC) model

➢ Focuses on how people acquire information, make

decisions, reason, and solve problems.
❖ Cognitive learning may take two forms:

1. Latent learning

2. Insight learning (gestalt learning or perceptual

learning)
➢ Tolman and Honzic (1930) placed three groups of rats
in mazes and observed their behavior each day for
more than two weeks.
Latent learning
➢ Learning that occurs but is not evident in
behavior until later, when conditions for its
appearance are favorable.
➢ Learning that is not immediately expressed.

➢ Insight Learning

➢ It is cognitive process whereby we reorganize our

perception of a problem.
➢ Human beings who solve a problem insightfully
usually experience a good feeling called an 'aha'
experience.
 CHAPTER FOUR
MEMORY AND FORGETTING

By: Zelalem Wondimu

School of Psychology
Addis Ababa University
Introduction
Learning and memory
➢ Often describe roughly the same processes

➢ The former is initial acquisition or encoding of

information,
➢ The latter more often refers to later storage and
retrieval of information
 4.1. Memory
 4.1.1 Meaning and Processes of Memory

 Retention of information/what is learned earlier

over time.

Processes of Memory
a) Encoding
➢ Refers to the form (i.e. the code) in which an item of
information is to be placed in memory.
b) Storage:
➢ It is the location in memory system in which material
is saved.
c) Retrieval
➢ Material in memory storage is located, brought into
awareness and used.
➢ Memory is the process by which information is
encoded (phase1), stored (phase 2) and later
retrieved (phase 3).
4.1.2 Stages/Structure of Memory
➢ How information is represented in memory and
how long it lasts and how it is organized.
➢ Models of memory is based on how the computer
works (takes in information, transforming the
information into an electronic language, and
storing information on disk),
➢ Models of memory based on this idea are
Information processing theories.
➢ Like computer, we also store vast amounts of
information in our memory storehouse.
❖ Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), developed memory
three structures of memory
1. Sensory Memory/Sensory Register
➢ It is the entry way to memory.
➢ visual images (Iconic memory) remain in the
visual system for a maximum of one second.
➢ Auditory images (Echoic memory) remain in the
auditory system up to two second.
➢ Information briefly held in the sensory memory
simply decays from the register.
➢ Information that has got attention and
recognition pass on short-term memory for
further processing.
2) Short-term Memory (working memory, immediate memory,
active memory, and primary memory)
➢ Consists of the by-products or end results of perceptual
analysis.
Characteristics of Short-term Memory
It is active
➢ workspace to process new information and to call up
relevant information from LTM.
Rapid accessibility
➢ Information in STM is readily available for use.
Preserves the temporal sequence of information
➢ Maintain the information in sequential manner for a
temporary period of time until it goes to further analysis
and stored in LTM in meaningful way.
Limited capacity
➢ George Miller (1956) estimated the capacity of STM to be
seven plus or minus 2.
➢ Strategies to hold information in short-term
memory
a. Rehearsal: maintenance and elaborative

b. Chunking: the grouping or packing of information

into higher order units that can be remembered
as single units.
3. Long Term Memory
➢ Used for relatively permanent storage of meaningful
information for longer period.
Subsystems
a. Declarative/ explicit memory
➢ The conscious recollection of specific facts or events that
can be verbally communicated.
i. Semantic memory: internal representations of the world,
independent of any particular context.
ii. Episodic memories: memories for events and situations
from personal experience.
b. Non-declarative/ implicit memory
➢ Behavior is affected by prior experience.
➢ One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is
procedural memory.
➢ It’s knowledge of procedures or skills.
➢ How to comb your hair, use a pencil, drive or swim
Serial Position Effect
➢ The three structures of memory requires to
explain the serial position effect.
➢ Retention of any particular item will depend on its
position in the list.
➢ Recall will be best for items at the beginning of
the list (the primacy effect) and at the end of the
list (the recency effect).
➢ The result will be a U-shaped curve.
➢ Primacy effect: short-term memory is relatively
empty when the information is entered and
processed to make into long-term memory.
➢ Recency effect: At the time of recall, they are still
sitting in STM.
4.1.3 Factors Affecting Memory
a. Ability to retain
b. Good health
c. Age of the learner
d. Maturity
e. Will to remember
f. Intelligence
g. Interest
h. Over learning
i. Speed of learning
j. Meaningfulness of the material
k. Sleep or rest
4.2 Forgetting
4.2.1 Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting
➢ The apparent loss of information already encoded
and stored in the long-term memory.
➢ German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus.

➢ He memorized lists meaningless (nonsense) sets of

two consonants with a vowel in between (FIW, BOZ).
➢ The most rapid forgetting occurs in the first hours,
and particularly in the first hour.
➢ After nine hours, the rate of forgetting slows and
declines little, even after the passage of many days.
➢ Relearning of previously mastered material is almost
always faster than starting from a scratch
4.2.2. Theories of Forgetting
4.2.2.1.The Decay Theory
➢ Memory traces or engram fade with time if they are
not accessed now and then.
➢ The trace simply fades away because of the passage
of time.
4.2.2.2. Interference
➢ Proactive Interference: information learned earlier
interferes with recall of newer material.
➢ Retroactive Interference: new information interferes
with the ability to remember old information
4.2.2.3. New Memory for Old/ Displacement Theory
➢ New information entering memory can wipe out old
information
➢ Mostly associated with the STM (limited capacity).
5.2.2.4. Motivated Forgetting
➢ Blocking from consciousness those memories
that are too threatening or painful through self-
protective process repression.
4.2.2.5. Cue Dependent Forgetting
➢ Lack of retrieval aids from long-term memory.

➢ Mental or physical state may also act as a

retrieval cue.
4.3. Improving Memory
➢ Pay Attention: encode the information

➢ Encode information in more than one way:

elaborate the encoding
➢ Add meaning: linking new information with the old

➢ Take your time: minimize interference by using

study breaks for rest or recreation
➢ Over learn: Studying information even after you
think you already know it.
➢ Monitor your learning: rehearsing and testing.
 CHAPTER FIVE
MOTIVATION AND EMOTIONS
5.1. Motivation
5.1.1. Definition and types of motivation
➢ Comes from Latin word “Mover” (to move).

➢ It’s what moves people to do the things they do.

➢ The physical need manifests itself in behavior

(actions).

1
Types
Intrinsic
➢ A person acts because the act itself is rewarding
or satisfying in some internal manner.
Extrinsic motivation
➢ Individuals act because the action leads to an
outcome that is external to a person.

2
5.1.2. Theories of motivation
➢ Sources of motivation are different

a) Instinct approaches to motivation

➢ Focused on the biologically determined and

innate patterns of both humans and animals
behavior.
➢ Some human behavior is controlled by hereditary
factors.

3
b) Drive-reduction approaches to motivation
➢ This approach involved the concepts of needs and drives.
Need
➢ A requirement of some material (food or water) that is
essential for the survival of the organism.
Drive
➢ A psychological tension and physical arousal to fulfill the
need and reduce the tension due to the needs.
➢ There are two kinds of drives;
➢ Primary drives: involve survival needs of the body (hunger
and thirst),
➢ Acquired (secondary) drives: learned through experience or
conditioning, (need for money, and social approval).
➢ This theory also includes the concept of homeostasis.
➢ When there is a primary drive need, the body is in a state of
imbalance. 4
c) Arousal approaches: beyond drive reduction
➢ Seek to explain behavior in which the goal is to
maintain or increase excitement.
➢ Each person tries to maintain a certain level of
stimulation and activity.
➢ If our stimulation and activity levels become too
high, we try to reduce them.
➢ If levels of stimulation and activity are too low, we
will try to increase them by seeking stimulation.

5
d) Incentive approaches: motivation’s pull
➢ Motivation stems from the desire to attain external
rewards (grades, money, affection, food, or sex).
➢ The internal drives proposed by drive-reduction theory
work in a cycle with the external incentives of
incentive theory to push and pull behavior,
respectively.
➢ Hence, at the same time that we seek to satisfy our
underlying hunger needs (the push of drive-reduction
theory), we are drawn to food that appears very
appetizing (the pull of incentive theory).
➢ Rather than contradicting each other, then, drives
and incentives may work together in motivating
behavior. 6
e) Cognitive Approaches: the thoughts behind
motivation
➢ Motivation is a result of people‘s thoughts,
beliefs, expectations, and goals.

7
f) Humanistic approaches to motivation
1. Physiological needs: biological requirements for human
survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex,
sleep.
2. Safety needs: protection from elements, security, order,
law, stability, freedom from fear.
3. Love and belongingness needs: involves feelings of
belongingness (friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance),
➢ Receiving and giving affection and love.
➢ Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
4. Esteem needs: the need to be respected as a useful,
honorable individual;
(i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, and
independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect
from others (e.g., status, prestige).
5. Self-actualization needs: realizing personal potential, self-
fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.
➢ A desire to become everything one is capable of becoming. 8
5.1.3. Conflict of motives and frustration
➢ Difficulty choosing among the motives which creates
more internal conflict and indecision.
Approach-approach conflicts
➢ We must choose only one of the two desirable
activities.
Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
➢ Selecting one of two undesirable alternatives.
Approach-avoidance conflicts
➢ A particular event or activity has both attractive and
unattractive features.
Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts
➢ Exist when two or more alternatives each have both
positive and negative features. 9
5.2. Emotions
5.2.1. Definition of emotion
➢ Feeling aspect of consciousness.

➢ Characterized by certain physical arousal and

behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside
world, and an inner awareness of feelings.

10
Elements of emotion
The physiology of emotion
➢ Physical arousal created by the sympathetic
nervous system.
➢ Increases in heart rate, rapid breathing, the pupils
of the eye dilate, and the mouth may become dry.

11
The behavior of emotion
➢ Facial expressions, body movements, and actions
that indicate to others how a person feels.
➢ Facial expressions can vary across different
cultures, although some aspects of facial
expression seem to be universal.

12
Subjective experience or labeling emotion
➢ Interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a
label: anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness,
shame, interest, surprise and so on.
➢ Another way of labeling is cognitive component,
because the labeling process is a matter of
retrieving memories of previous similar
experiences, perceiving the context of the
emotion, and coming up with a solution- a label.

13
5.2.2. Theories of emotion
I. James- Lang Theory of Emotion
➢ Based on the work of William James and Carl
Lang.
➢ Fight-or-flight sympathetic nervous system
(wanting to run).
• Stimulus (e.g. • Physiological
snarling dog) arousal (High • Emotion (fear)
blood pressure,
high heart rate,
sweating)

14
II. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
➢ Walter Cannon and Philip Bard.
➢ Fear and the bodily reactions are experienced at the
same time.

Physiological
arousal (High blood
pressure, high heart
rate, sweating)
Stimulus (e.g. Sub-cortical brain -
snarling dog activity

Emotion (fear)

15
III. Schechter-Singer and Cognitive Arousal Theory
➢ Two things have to happen before emotion occurs
(physical arousal and labeling of the arousal
based on cues from the surrounding
environment).
➢ These two things happen at the same time,
resulting in the labeling of the emotion.

Cognitive appraisal

Stimulus (e.g. Emotion (fear

snarling dog)
Physiological
arousal (High blood
pressure, high heart
rate, sweating) 16
 Chapter Six
6. PERSONALITY
6.1. Meaning of Personality
➢ Derived from the word ‘persona’, which has Greek
and Latin roots.
➢ It refers to the theatrical masks worn by Greek
actors.
Universally accepted definition
➢ It the unique pattern of enduring thoughts,
feelings, and actions that characterize a person.
6.2. Theories of Personality
The psychoanalytic theory of personality
➢ In Freud's view personality has three parts:
Id: If It Feels Good, Do It
➢ ID is a Latin word that means “it “
➢ The first and most primitive part of the personality in the
infant.
➢ Containing all of the basic biological drives (hunger, thirst,
sex, aggression).
➢ When these drives are active, the person will feel an
increase in physical and psychological tension called libido.
➢ When the libidinal energy is high, the goal is to reduce
libido by fulfilling the drive; Eat when hungry, drink when
thirsty, and satisfy the sex when the need for pleasure is
present.
➢ The desire for immediate satisfaction of needs with no
regard for the consequences.
Ego: The Executive Director
➢ Latin word for “I”, is mostly conscious and is far
more rational, logical and cunning.
➢ Satisfy the demands of the id and reduce libido
only in ways that will not lead to negative
consequences.
➢ Sometimes the ego decides to deny the id’s drives
because the consequence would be painful or too
unpleasant.
➢ “If it feels good, do it, but only if you can get away
with it.”
Superego: The Moral Watchdog
➢ The superego (also Latin, meaning “over the self”)
➢ It’s the rules, customs, and expectations of
society.
➢ There are two parts to it:
ego-ideal (measuring device)
➢ The sum of all the ideal or correct and acceptable
behavior that the child has learned about from
parents and others in the society.
Conscience
➢ Makes people pride when they do the right thing
and guilt, or moral anxiety when they do the wrong
thing.
Defense mechanisms
Repression
➢ Banishing threatening thoughts, feelings, and
memories into the unconscious mind.
➢ E.g., an Ethiopian husband who is defeated by his
wife will not remember/ talk it out again.
Denial
➢ Refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening
situation.
➢ E.g., Mr. Ben is an alcoholic who denies/ doesn’t
accept being an alcoholic.
Regression
➢ Involves reverting to immature behaviors that have
relieved anxiety in the past.
➢ E.g., a girl/a boy who has just entered school may go
back to sucking her/his thumb or wetting the bed.
Rationalization
➢ Giving socially acceptable reasons for one's
inappropriate behavior.
➢ E.g., make bad grades but states the reason as
having to work through college.
Displacement
➢ Involves expressing feelings toward a person who is
less threatening than the person who is the true
target of those feelings.
➢ E.g., Hating your boss but taking it out on family
members.
Projection
➢ Involves attributing one's undesirable feelings to
other people.
➢ E.g., a paranoid person uses projection to justify
isolation and anger.
Reaction formation
➢ Involves a tendency to act in a manner opposite of
one's true feelings.
➢ E.g., a person who acts conservation but focuses
on violence in their behavior.
Sublimation
➢ Involves expressing sexual or aggressive behavior
through indirect, socially acceptable outlets.
➢ E.g., an aggressive person who plays football.
❖ It may not be possible to get through life without
such defenses.
❖ But, excessive use may create more stress than it
alleviates.
The trait theory of personality
Assumptions
➢ Personality traits are relatively stable, and
therefore predictable, over time.
➢ Personality traits are relatively stable across
situations, and they can explain why people act in
predictable ways in many different situations.
➢ People differ in how much of a particular
personality trait they possess; no two people are
exactly alike on all traits.
The five-factor model or the Big Five theory
Openness
➢ Willingness to try new things and be open to new
experiences.
Conscientiousness
➢ Careful about being places on time and careful with
belongings.
Extraversion
➢ Is a term first used by Carl Jung.
➢ Two personality types:
➢ Extraverts (outgoing and sociable)
➢ Introverts (solitary and dislike being the center of
attention).
Agreeableness
➢ Easygoing, friendly and pleasant.
Neuroticism
➢ Excessive worriers, overanxious, and moody.
Humanistic theory of personality
➢ Emphasize people’s inherent goodness and their
tendency to move toward higher levels of
functioning.
➢ Focuses on the things that make people uniquely
human, such as subjective emotions and the
freedom to choose one’s destiny.
Carl Rogers and Self-concept
➢ Human beings are always striving to fulfill their innate
capacities and capabilities and to become everything
that their genetic potential will allow them to become.
➢ This striving for fulfillment is called self-actualizing
tendency.
➢ An important tool in human self-actualization is the
development of an image of oneself or the self-
concept.
➢ The self-concept is based on what people are told by
others and how the sense of self is reflected in the
words and actions of important people in one’s life,
such as parents, siblings, coworkers, friends, and
teachers.
Components of the self-concept
➢ Real self (one’s actual perception of characteristics,
traits, and abilities that form the basis of the striving
for self-actualization)
➢ Ideal self (the perception of what one should be or
would like to be).
➢ The ideal self primarily comes from those important,
significant others in one’s life, most often the
parents.
➢ When the real self and the ideal self are very close or
similar to each other, people feel competent and
capable
➢ It is when a person’s view of self is distorted or the
ideal self is impossible to attain that problems arise.
Conditional and Unconditional Positive Regard
Conditional positive regard
➢ Love, affection, respect and warmth comes from the
significant others that depend, or seem to depend,
on doing what those people want.
Unconditioned positive regard
➢ Love, affection and respect with no strings attached.
➢ It’s necessary for people to be able to explore fully all
that they can achieve and become.
➢ Fully functioning people are in touch with their
feelings and abilities and can trust their innermost
urges and intuitions.
➢ To become a fully functioning, a person needs
unconditional positive regard.
Self-actualization and fully functioning
➢ Self-actualization is a goal that people are always
striving to reach.
➢ Only a person who is fully functioning is capable
of reaching the goal of self-actualization.
➢ To be fully functioning is a necessary step in the
process of self-actualization.
 CHAPTER Seven
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND TREATMENT
TECHNIQUES
➢ Mood, thinking and behavior get affected.
Mental illness
➢ Depression,
➢ anxiety disorders,
➢ schizophrenia,
➢ eating disorders and
➢ addictive behaviors
➢ Becomes a concern when ongoing signs and
symptoms cause frequent stress and affect ability
to functioning. 1
7.1. Nature of Psychological Disorders
1. Abnormality

Social norm criteria

➢ Behavior deviates from the norm of the society

➢ Violates the norm, standards, rules and

regulations of the society
➢ Considering the context in which a person‘s
behavior happens.

2
Maladaptiveness
➢ Creates a social, personal and occupational
problems.
➢ Disrupt the day-to-day activities of individuals
Personal Distress
➢ Our subjective feelings of anxiety, stress, tension and
other unpleasant emotions determine whether we
have a psychological disorder.
➢ The negative information arise either by the problem
itself or by events happen that on us.
➢ Behavior that is abnormal, maladaptive, or personally
distressing might indicate that a person has a
psychological disorder.
➢
3
2. Causes of Psychological Disorders
7.2.1 The Biological Perspective
➢ Abnormalities in the working of chemicals in the
brain, called neurotransmitters.
➢ Over activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine,
perhaps caused by an overabundance of certain
dopamine receptors in the brain (bizarre
symptoms of schizophrenia).

4
7.2.2 Psychological Perspectives
A. Psychoanalytic perspective
➢ The human mind consists of three interacting
forces: the id (a pool of biological urges), the ego
(which mediates between the id and reality), and
the superego (which represent society‘s moral
standards).
➢ The ego‟s inability to manage the conflict
between the opposing demands of the id and the
superego.

5
B. Learning perspective
➢ Inadequate or inappropriate learning.
➢ People acquire abnormal behaviors through the
various kinds of learning.
C. Cognitive perspective
➢ The quality of our internal dialogue.
➢ Self-defeating thoughts lead to the development
of negative emotions and self-destructive
behaviors.
➢ A disturbance in on our thinking, it may manifest
in our display of emotions and behaviors.
➢ Environmental and cultural experiences play a
major role in the formation of thinking style.
6
7.3. Types of Psychological Disorders
➢ Characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors.
➢ Psychopathology is the study of psychological
disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (i.e.,
their causes), and treatment.
➢ It can also refer to the manifestation of a
psychological disorder.

7
Mood Disorder
➢ Characterized by a serious change in mood from
depressed (major depression) to elevated feelings
(mania or hypomania).
➢ Cycling between both depressed and manic
moods (bipolar mood disorders)
Types
➢ Major Depression,

➢ Dysthymic Disorder,

➢ Bipolar Disorder, and

➢ Cyclothymia.

8
1) Major Depression
➢ Characterized by depressed mood.
➢ Diminished interest in activities previously
enjoyed,
➢ weight disturbance,
➢ sleep disturbance,
➢ loss of energy,
➢ difficulty concentrating, and
➢ often includes feelings of hopelessness and
thoughts of suicide.

9
2) Dysthymia
➢ A lesser, but more persistent form of depression.

➢ Symptoms are similar to major depression.

3) Bipolar Disorder (previously known as Manic-

Depression)
➢ Characterized by periods of extreme highs (mania)
and extreme lows (Major Depression).
Subtyped
➢ Either I (extreme or hypermanic episodes) or II
(moderate or hypomanic episodes).

10
4) Cyclothymia
➢ A lesser form of Bipolar Disorder.

11
2) Anxiety Disorders
➢ Involve excessive fear or anxiety.

➢ Can cause people into trying to avoid situations

that trigger or worsen their symptoms.
➢ To be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder, the fear
or anxiety must:
➢ Be out of proportion to the situation or age
inappropriate
➢ Hinder ability to function normally

12
Types
➢ Panic Disorder,

➢ Agoraphobia,

➢ Specific Phobias,

➢ Social Phobia,

➢ Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder,

➢ Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and

➢ Generalized Anxiety Disorder.

13
a) Panic Disorder
➢ It is an inappropriate intense feeling of fear or
discomfort.
Symptoms
➢ Heart palpitations, trembling, shortness of breath,
chest pain, dizziness.
➢ These symptoms are so severe that the person may
actually believe he or she is having a heart attack
b) Agoraphobia (fear of market places)
➢ The person fears, and often avoids, situations where
escape or help might not be available, such as
shopping centers, grocery stores, or other public
place.
➢ Often a part of panic disorder if the panic attacks
are severe enough to result in an avoidance of these
types of places.
14
c) Specific (Simple Phobia) and Social Phobia
➢ Represent an intense fear and often an avoidance of
a specific situation, person, place, or thing.
➢ To be diagnosed with a phobia, the person must have
suffered significant negative consequences because
of this fear and it must be disruptive to their everyday
life.
d) Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
➢ Is characterized by obsessions (thoughts which seem
uncontrollable) and compulsions (behaviors which
act to reduce the obsession).
➢ Disruptive to the person's everyday life,
➢ Hours being spent each day repeating things, which
were completed successfully already such as
checking, counting, cleaning, or bathing. 15
e) Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
➢ Occurs only after a person is exposed to a
traumatic event where their life or someone else's
life is threatened.
➢ E.g., war, natural disasters, major accidents, and
severe child abuse.
➢ The disorder develops into an intense fear of
related situations, avoidance of these situations,
reoccurring nightmares, flashbacks, and
heightened anxiety.
f) Generalized Anxiety Disorder
➢ When a person has extreme anxiety in nearly
every part of their life.
16
3) Personality Disorders
➢ An enduring rigid pattern of thinking, feeling, and
behaving which is significantly different from the
person's culture and results in negative
consequences.
➢ This pattern must be longstanding and inflexible
for a diagnosis to be made.

17
Types
1. Paranoid: a pattern of distrust and suspiciousness.
2. Schizoid: a pattern of detachment from social norms
and a restriction of emotions.
3. Schizotypal: pattern of discomfort in close
relationships and eccentric thoughts and behaviors.
4: Antisocial: pattern of disregard for the rights of
others, including violation of these rights and the
failure to feel empathy).
5. Borderline: pattern of instability in personal
relationships, including frequent bouts of clinginess
and affection and anger and resentment, often
cycling between these two extremes rapidly.
18
Types…
6. Histrionic: pattern of excessive emotional
behavior and attention seeking.
7. Narcissistic: pattern of grandiosity, exaggerated
self-worth, and need for admiration.
8. Avoidant: pattern of feelings of social
inadequacies, low self-esteem, and
hypersensitivity to criticism.
9. Obsessive-Compulsive: pattern of obsessive
cleanliness, perfection, and control.

19
7.4 Treatment Techniques
❖ Communalities in the treatment modalities

1. A positive, healthy relationship between a client

or patient and a trained psychotherapist
2. Recognizable mental health issues, whether
diagnosable or not
3. Agreement on the basic goals of treatment
4. Working together as a team to achieve these
goals

20
Psychotherapy
➢ Providing psychological treatment to individuals
with some kind of psychological problems.
Issues
Empathy
➢ Understand client's feelings, thoughts, and
behaviors.
Being non-judgmental
➢ If therapist judges the client’s, then he don't feel
safe talking about similar issues again.
➢ Therapist must have experience with issues
similar to yours, be abreast of the research, and
be adequately trained. 21
Cognitive Approach
➢ Dysfunctions and difficulties as arising from irrational
or faulty thinking.
Behavioral models
➢ Look at problems as arising from behaviors which we
have learned to perform over years of reinforcement.
Dynamic or psychodynamic camp
➢ Issues beginning in early childhood which then
motivate us as adults at an unconscious level.
➢ Cognitive approaches appear to work better with
most types of depression, and behavioral treatments
tend to work better with phobias.
Eclectic (integrationists)
➢ Treating people integrating different approaches.
22
Treatment Modalities
Individual Therapy
➢ A one-on-one relationship between a client or patient
and a therapist.
Group therapy
➢ Individuals suffering from similar illnesses or having
similar issues meet together with one or two
therapists.
➢ Group sizes differ, ranging from three or four to
upwards of 15 or 20.
➢ Group is needed to foster feeling of belonging,
understanding, and hope.
➢ The group comes to the therapy with different
feelings.
23
Couple or family therapy
➢ Centered around the relationship.

Educational component of family therapy

➢ Communication training

➢ Couples and families are encouraged to work

together as a team.
Therapist's role
➢ Facilitate healthy interaction,

➢ Encourage the couple or family to gain insight into

their own behaviors, and
➢ Teach the members to listen to and respect each
other. 24
Two treatment modality
➢ Used for individual who suffers from depression,
social anxiety, and low self-esteem.
➢ Individual therapy may be used to reduce depressive
symptoms, work some on self-esteem and therefore
reduce fears about social situations.
➢ Once successfully completed, this person may be
transferred to a group therapy
➢ In the setting he or she can practice social skills,
feel a part of a supportive group, therefore improving
self-esteem and further reducing depression.
➢ Despite the different modalities, the goal is
improving the life of the client.
25
CHAPTER EIGHT
INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SKILLS
8.1. Nature and Definition of Life skills
➢ “Abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that
enable individuals to deal effectively with the
demands and challenges of everyday life.” (WHO).
➢ “Behavioral changes or behavioral development
approach designed to address a balance of three
areas: knowledge, attitude, and skills”
(UNICEF’s).
➢ The abilities help to promote mental well-being
and competence in young people as they face the
realities of life.
8.2. Components of Life Skills
Critical thinking
➢ Thinking more effectively within curricular subject areas,
understanding the reasoning employed, assessing
independently and appropriately, and solving problems
effectively.
➢ Also involves improved thinking skills in dealing with real life
problems-in assessing information and arguments in social
contexts and making life decisions.
Self-confidence
➢ Individual’s trust in his or her own abilities, capacities, and
judgments.
Self-awareness
➢ It is the quality or trait that involves conscious awareness of
one’s own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
Self-concept
➢ Incorporates traits, preferences, values, beliefs, and interests
the person believes to be true about himself/herself.
Self-esteem
➢ The degree to which we perceive ourselves
positively or negatively
➢ Our overall attitude toward ourselves, which can
be measured explicitly or implicitly.
Decision-making
➢ Combining and integrating available information
to choose, implement, and evaluate one out of
several possible courses of actions.
Interpersonal relationships
➢ Social associations, connections, or affiliations
between two or more people having various levels
of intimacy and sharing, and implying the
discovery or establishment of common ground.
Reflective communication
➢ Attending communications with thoughtful and
due attention to reflect on one’s own thinking,
behaviors and interaction with others.
Peers pressure resistance
➢ Individual’s abilities and skills to confront
negative influences from his/her group members.
Knowing rights and duties
➢ One’s knowledge and understanding of rights and
duties of individuals, groups, institutions and
nations allowed to do or not to do by law and/or a
culture.
8.3. Goals of Life Skills
➢ Knowing and applying life skills is to lead smooth and
successful life at home, work place, and in social
interpersonal relationship.
➢ Lessened violent behavior;
➢ Increased pro-social behavior
➢ Decreased negative, self-destructive behavior;
➢ Increased the ability to plan ahead and choose effective
solutions to problems;
➢ Improved self-image, self-awareness, social and emotional
adjustment;
➢ Increased acquisition of knowledge;
➢ Improved classroom behavior;
➢ Gains in self control and handling of interpersonal
problems and coping with anxiety; and
➢ Improved constructive conflict resolution with peers,
impulse control and popularity.
Chapter Nine
9. INTRA-PERSONAL AND PERSONAL SKILLS
9.1. Self-Concept and Self-Awareness
➢ Self-awareness influences self-concept.

➢ It is the quality or trait that involves conscious

awareness of one’s own thoughts, feelings,
behaviors, and traits (Cherry, 2018A).
➢ To have a fully developed self-concept (and one
that is based in reality), a person must have at
least some level of self-awareness.

1
Features of Self-concept
➢ Accumulation( totality) of knowledge about the self.
➢ Includes everything the person believes to be true
about himself/herself
➢ Incorporates traits, preferences, values, beliefs, and
interests.
➢ Composed of relatively permanent self-assessments
findings.
➢ However, develops and changes over time.
➢ It includes past and future selves
➢ It is a multi-dimensional construct of individual's
perception of "self" on academics, gender roles,
racial identity, and many others.
➢ A person's own subjective assessment results.
2
B. Self- awareness
➢ Having a clear perception of your personality,
including strengths, weaknesses, thoughts,
beliefs, motivation, and emotions.
➢ High self-awareness is a solid predictor of good
success in life.

3
Some suggestions to start building self-awareness:
➢ Practicing mindfulness

➢ Becoming a good listener

➢ Becoming more self-aware

➢ Open your mind to new perspectives

➢ Develop self-esteem

➢ Look at yourself objectively

➢ Take feedback from others

➢ Know your strengths and weaknesses

➢ Set intentions and goals

4
9.2. Self-Esteem and self-confidence
A. Self-esteem
➢ "Esteem" is derived from the Latin aestimare,
meaning "to appraise, value, rate, weigh,
estimate“.
➢ An individual's overall self-evaluation.

➢ It is the judgment or opinion we hold about

ourselves.
➢ It’s the extent to which we perceive ourselves to
be worthwhile and capable human beings.

5
Self-esteem is based on:
➢ Competency-based self-esteem: tied closely to
effective performance.
➢ Associated with self-attribution and social
comparison processes.
➢ Virtue (termed self-worth) is grounded in norms
and values concerning personal and interpersonal
conduct.
e.g., justice, reciprocity, and honor.

6
B. Self-confidence
➢ The term confidence comes from the Latin fidere,
"to trust.“
➢ Self-confidence and courage used
interchangeably
➢ Confidence operates in the realm of the known.

➢ Courage is in the unknown, the uncertain, and

the fearsome.
➢ Courage is a more noble attribute than confidence
because it requires greater strength, and because
a courageous person is one with limitless
capabilities and possibilities.
7
9.3. Self-Control
➢ Achieved by refraining from actions we like and
instead performing actions we prefer not to do as
a means of achieving a long-term goal.

8
9.4. Anger Management
➢ It is a state of emotion where a person irritated by
block of interests, loss of possession or threats to
personality.
➢ Characterized by walking away, using harsh tone
voice, yelling, arguing, and fighting.
➢ If you learn to manage, or control, your anger, you
can redirect these surges of anger energy to reach
your goal.
➢ Anger can build and lead to rage where you may
no longer be able to think clearly.
➢ Control your anger and prevent conflicts from
getting out of hand.
9
Techniques of Managing Anger
➢ Recognize anger as a signal of vulnerability - you feel devalued in some
way.
➢ When angry, think or do something that will make you feel more valuable
➢ Do not trust your judgment when angry. Anger magnifies and amplifies
only the negative aspects of an issue, distorting realistic appraisal.
➢ Try to see the complexity of the issue. Anger requires narrow and rigid
focus that ignores or oversimplifies context.
➢ Strive to understand other people's perspectives.
➢ Do not justify your anger. Instead, consider whether it will help you act in
your long-term best interest.
➢ Know your physical and mental resources. Anger is more likely to occur
when tired, hungry, sick, confused, anxious, preoccupied, distracted, or
overwhelmed.
➢ Focus on improving and repairing rather than blaming.
➢ When angry, remember your deepest values. Anger is about devaluing
others, which is probably inconsistent with your deepest values.
➢ Know that your temporary state of anger has prepared you to fight when
you really need to learn more, solve a problem, or, if it involves a loved
one, be more compassionate.

10
9.5. Emotional Intelligence and Managing Emotion
➢ The ability, capacity, skill, or self perceived ability
to identify, assess, and manage the emotions of
one’s self, of others, and of groups.
➢ People who possess a high degree of emotional
intelligence know themselves very well and are
also able to sense the emotions of others.
➢ They are affable, resilient, and optimistic.

11
Skills in Emotional intelligence
➢ Emotional awareness, or the ability to identify and
name one’s own emotions;
➢ Ability to harness those emotions and apply them
to tasks like thinking and problem solving; and
➢ Ability to manage emotions, which includes both
regulating one’s own emotions when
necessary and helping others to do the same.

12
Positive effects of emotional intelligence
➢ Productive and successful at what they do

➢ Help others become more productive and

successful too.
➢ Promoting understanding and relationships,
fostering stability, continuity,
➢ Harmony helps to develop emotional intelligence
family, organization, and society.
➢ It links strongly with concepts of love and
spirituality.

13
Domains of emotional intelligence
➢ Personal (self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-
motivation) and
➢ Social (social awareness and social skills)
competences.

14
9.6. Stress, Coping with Stress and Resilience
➢ The psychological perception of pressure on the
one hand and the body's response to it on the
other which involves multiple systems from
metabolism to muscles and memory.
➢ Some stress is necessary for all living systems as
it is the means by which they encounter and
respond to the challenges and uncertainties of
existence.
➢ Prolonged or repeated arousal of the stress
response causes physical and psychological
consequences, including heart disease, diabetes,
anxiety, and depression. 15
Categories of stressors
Catastrophes
➢ Unpredictable, large scale events, such as war and
natural disasters w/c are threatening.
Significant Life Changes
➢ The death of a loved one, loss of a job, leaving home,
marriage, divorce, etc.
➢ Life transitions and insecurities are often keenly felt
during young adulthood.
Daily life events
➢ Everyday annoyances like rush hour traffic,
aggravating housemates, long lines at the store, too
many things to do, e-mail spam, and obnoxious cell
phone talkers may be the most significant sources of
stress.
➢ Unattainable goals. 16
Coping With Stress
➢ Stressors are unavoidable.

Problem focused
➢ When we feel a sense of control over a situation
and think we can change the circumstances or
change ourselves, we may address stressors
directly.
Emotion-focused
➢ When we cannot handle the problem or believe
that we cannot change a situation, we may turn to
emotion-focused coping.

17
Resilience
➢ It is the process of adapting well in the face of
adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or significant
sources of stress such as family and relationship
problems, serious health problems or workplace and
financial stressors.
➢ It means "bouncing back" from difficult experiences
(APA definition).
➢ Resilience is about getting through pain and
disappointment without letting them crush your spirit.
Resilience strategies
➢ Positive attitude,
➢ Optimism,
➢ Ability to regulate emotions, and
➢ The ability to see failure as a form of helpful feedback
18
Resilience…
➢ Resilience is not some magical quality but it takes
real mental work to transcend hardship.
➢ Even after misfortune, resilient people are able to
change course and move toward achieving their
goals.
➢ The road to resilience is likely to involve
considerable emotional distress.
➢ Resilience is not a trait that people either have or
do not have.
➢ It involves behaviors, thoughts and actions that
can be learned and developed in anyone.
19
9.7. Critical and Creative Thinking
➢ Critical thinking skills includes decision-
making/problem solving skills and information
gathering skills.
➢ The individual must also be skilled at evaluating the
future consequences of their present actions and
the actions of others.
➢ They need to be able to determine alternative
solutions and to analyze the influence of their own
values and the values of those around them.
➢ "Purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results
in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference,
as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual,
methodological, contextual considerations upon
which judgment is based (ADEA). 20
➢ Educators strive for students to be better critical
thinkers.
➢ This implies thinking more effectively within curricular
subject areas, understanding the reasoning
employed, assessing independently and
appropriately, and solving problems effectively.
➢ It involves, as well, improved thinking skills in dealing
with real life problems, in assessing information and
arguments in social contexts and making life
decisions.
➢ We also want students to be more creative, not
simply to reproduce old patterns but to respond
productively to new situations, to generate new and
better solutions to problems, and to produce original
works.
21
Creative thinking
➢ The ability to connect the seemingly unconnected
and meld existing knowledge into new insight
about some element of how the world works.
➢ Critical thinking is seen as analytic.

➢ It is the means for arriving at judgments within a

given framework or context .
➢ Creative thinking, on the other hand, is seen as
imaginative, constructive, generative. Learn the
comparisons given in the below.

22
➢ Intellectually engaged, skillful, and responsible
thinking that facilitates good judgment because it
requires the application of assumptions,
knowledge, competence, and the ability to
challenge one's own thinking.
➢ Critical thinking requires the use of self-correction
and monitoring to judge the rationality of thinking
as well as reflexivity.
➢ When using critical thinking, individuals step back
and reflect on the quality of that thinking (ADEA).

23
9.8. Problem Solving and Decision Making
➢ There are two classes of problems: those that are
considered well defined and others that are
considered ill defined.
➢ Well-defined problems are those problems whose
goals, path to solution, and obstacles to solution are
clear based on the information given.
➢ For example, the problem of how to calculate simple
simultaneous equation.
➢ In contrast, ill-defined problems are characterized by
their lack of a clear path to solution.
➢ Such problems often lack a clear problem statement
as well, making the task of problem definition and
problem representation quite challenging.
➢ For example, the problem of how to find a life partner
is an ill-defined problem.
24
➢ Problem solving is a process in which we perceive
and resolve a gap between a present situation
and a desired goal, with the path to the goal
blocked by known or unknown obstacles.
➢ In general, the problem situation is one not
previously encountered, or where at least a
specific solution from past experiences is not
known.

25
Steps in problem solving
1. Recognize or identify the problem.
2. Define and represent the problem mentally.
3. Develop a solution strategy alternatives and
select the best one.
4. Organize knowledge about the problem and avail
the necessary resources.
5. Allocate mental and physical resources for solving
the problem.
6. Monitor his or her progress toward the goal.
7. Evaluate the solution for accuracy.
26
Decision-making
➢ A selection process where one of two or more
possible solutions is chosen to reach a desired
goal.
➢ The steps in both problem solving and decision-
making are quite similar. In fact, the terms are
sometimes used interchangeably (Huitt, 1992).
➢ People generally believe that a group’s decision
will be superior to an individual’s decision.
Groups, however, do not always make good
decisions.

27
 Chapter Nine
ACADEMIC SKILLS
9.1. Time Management
➢ Dorothy Cudaback described g.t.m. as deciding what
someone wants to get out of life and efficiently per
suing these goals.
➢ It does not mean being busy all the time, but using
your time the way you want to use.
➢ It brings with it increasing relaxation, less stress,
more satisfaction and greater accomplishment.
➢ Time is non-renewable resource, we can’t get back
again once passed.
➢ Wise utilization of time is very beneficial for success,
happiness and peace of mind.
➢ It’s valuable and limited: it must be saved, used
wisely, and budgeted much like money.
Good time management in University
➢ Characterized by many deadlines where works
occur at the same time.
➢ Planning in advance

➢ Work out what needs to be done and when they

should be done.
❖ People who practice good time management
techniques often find that they:
➢ Are more productive,

➢ Have more energy for things they need to

accomplish,
➢ Feel less stressed,

➢ Are able to do the things they want,

➢ Get more things done,

➢ Relate more positively to others, and

➢ Feel better about themselves.

Effective time management strategies (Chapman &
Burpured)
➢ Finding a time management strategy that works best
for individuals depends on their personality, ability to
self-motivate and level of self-discipline.
➢ Know how you spend time
➢ Set priorities
➢ Use a planning tool
➢ Get organized
➢ Schedule your time appropriately
➢ Delegate – get help from others
➢ Stop procrastinating
➢ Manage external time wasters
➢ Avoid multi-tasking
➢ Stay healthy
9.2. Note-taking and Study Skills
Comprehensive strategies of note-taking
➢ Getting Organized

➢ Necessary materials such as notebooks and pen.

➢ Prepare yourself and select the best approach to

take notes during class.
Before Class
➢ Effective note taking begins prior to class by
creating a framework of reference.
➢ This provides familiarity with terms, ideas and
concepts discussed in lecture and leads to an
active role in your own learning.
Therefore:
➢ Determine the lecture topic and review past
readings and notes
➢ Complete readings assigned to lecture topics and
preview any other auxiliary materials
➢ Prepare questions you may have from the
readings
During Class
 Date your notes

 Keep the objective/theme of the class in mind

 Record notes in your own words

 Make your notes brief and focus on the pain

points
 If you fall behind, stop. Make a mark in your
notebook, listen for a few minutes until you feel
caught up, then begin taking notes again. It is
better to listen and get the information later.
Common Note Taking Methods
➢ Major note-taking methods.
Cornell Method: a systematic and simple method for
note taking that breaks the note page into three
sections (Cue column, note-taking column and
summary) to allow for organized recording and review
the main points during lecture. You can also use it
while reading your text books.
Outlining: Recording the main ideas of the lecture to
the left margin of the page in your exercise book.
Indent more specific information underneath and
further indent examples.
Charting: Charting is a good strategy for courses that
require comparisons/contrasts of specific dates,
places, people, events, importance and how the
information relates.
After Class
➢ Find a quiet space, and review your notes as soon
as possible following class.
➢ Create an interactive discussion about the lecture.
➢ Visit your professor during office hours with
questions. Be specific, state what you understand
and ask if you missed any important concepts.
➢ Instead of recopying your notes, record yourself
reviewing what you wrote (if possible). Speaking
out loud is an interactive process that leads to a
more in-depth understanding.
➢ Additionally, you will have a recording that can be
played back.
9.3. Test-Taking Skill
➢ No agreed up on test-taking skills among scholars
Suggestions
➢ Attend all classes
➢ Take organized and clear lecture notes
➢ Plan your study time and set study goals
➢ Use SQ3R(Survey, Question, Read, Revise and Recite) study
style
➢ Use memorizing techniques such as associating difficult
material with something you already know
➢ Divide the review material into logical sections and
concentrate on one at a time.
➢ Organize the information you must remember
➢ Know your teacher(e.g., His/her focus areas) and meet with
your teacher out of class
➢ Make your presence known in class by your courtesy,
cooperation and willingness to learn
Suggestions…
 Ask questions to increase your understanding of
course material
 Make use of tutoring services and student support
centers of the college
 Separate review time from daily assignments
 Start reviewing systematically and early, not just the
night before the test
 Practice predicting and answering test questions.
 Learn test-taking terms and strategies.
 Examine previous tests to ascertain what you did
well and what you did not do so well.
 Find out what kind of a test it will be: objective, essay,
or a combination of both.
Suggestions…
➢ Find out when and where the test will be given;
what you are expected to bring with you (pens);
and what you are allowed to bring with you
(dictionary). Get to the test site early with
appropriate materials and do deep breathing
exercises to relax. Do not, at this time, continue to
try to study.
➢ Get plenty of sleep the night before the exam.

➢ Get up early enough to avoid rushing and to eat a

healthy breakfast.
➢ Tell yourself you will do well - and you will!
9.4. Test Anxiety and Overcoming Test Anxiety
➢ It is perfectly natural to feel some anxiety when
preparing for and taking a test.
➢ Too much anxiety about a test
➢ Test anxiety is a negative mood state characterized
by bodily symptoms of physical tension and by
apprehension about a test/exam going to take place
in the future.
➢ It can be a subjective sense of unease, a set of
behaviors (looking worried and anxious or fidgeting),
or a physiological response originating in the brain
and reflected in elevated heart rate and muscle
tension due to negative thinking of taking a test.
➢ Test anxiety will experience rushes of adrenaline
before and throughout their test.
➢ This blocks the brain from thinking and triggers
flight/fight responses.
❖ It can interfere with students’:
➢ Studying,

➢ learning and remembering (difficulty in

demonstrating what they know during the test),
➢ May block performances.

➢ Hence, the student will not be in a good state of

feelings while doing the test and become a failure.
Symptoms of severe test anxiety
Physical: headaches, nausea or diarrhea, extreme
body temperature changes, excessive sweating,
shortness of breath, light-headedness or fainting,
rapid heartbeat, and/or dry mouth
Emotional: excessive feelings of fear,
disappointment, anger, depression, uncontrollable
crying or laughing, feelings of helplessness
Behavioral: fidgeting, pacing, substance abuse,
avoidance
Cognitive: racing thoughts, going blank, difficulty in
concentrating, negative self-talk, feelings of
dread, comparing self with others, and difficulty in
organizing thoughts
Strategies to manage test anxiety
Realistic thinking
➢ Looking at all aspects of a situation (the positive, the
negative and the neutral) before making conclusions.
➢ Steps of realistic thinking

➢ Step 1: Pay attention to your self-talk

➢ Thoughts are the things that we say to ourselves

without speaking out loud (self-talk).
➢ How we think has a big effect on how we feel.

➢ When we think that something bad will happen such

as failing a test, we feel anxious.
➢ It’s important to start paying attention to what we are
saying to ourselves
Step 2: Identify thoughts that lead to feelings of
anxiety
➢ What am I thinking right now?

➢ What is making me feel anxious?

➢ What am I worried will happen?

➢ What bad thing do I expect to happen?

Step 3: Challenge your ‘anxious’ thinking
➢ Our thoughts are just guesses and not actual
facts.
➢ Thinking traps are unfair or overly negative ways
of seeing things.
➢ It is helpful to challenge your anxious thoughts
9.5. Goal Setting
➢ It’s like drawing map, which will help individuals to
track their development towards reaching their full
potential.
➢ It is the process of imagining, planning and
implementing the big picture of one’s destination.
➢ It gives direction and motivation, and increasing
satisfaction and self-confidence in their
performance.
➢ The goal should be specific, measurable, action,
realistic and time-bound (SMART).
Important purposes of goal setting (Hellriegel,
Slocum, Woodman and Martens, 1992; 1987)
➢ Guide and direct behavior
➢ Provide clarity
➢ Provide challenges and standards
➢ Reflect on what the goal setters consider
important
➢ Help to improve performance.
➢ Increase the motivation to achieve
➢ Help increase pride and satisfaction in
achievements
➢ Improve self-confidence
➢ Help to decrease negative attitude
9.6. Career Development Skill
➢ Refers to a lifelong continuous process of
planning, implementing, and managing one’s
learning, work and leisure in order to achieve life
objectives.
➢ It is the process through which people come to
understand themselves as they relate to the world
of work and their role in it.
Career management skill
➢ Describe skills, aptitudes, abilities, and attitudes
required to manage life.
➢ They are competencies which help individuals to
identify their existing skills to develop career
learning goals and take action to enhance their
careers.
➢ The concept of career management assumes that
individuals can influence their careers by
developing a range of skills acquired through
learning and experience.
 Chapter Eleven
SOCIAL SKILLS
11.1. Understanding cultural Diversity
➢ The term “culturally diverse” is often used
interchangeably with the concept of
“multiculturalism.”
➢ Multiculturalism is defined as: “…a system of beliefs
and behaviors that recognizes and respects the
presence of all diverse groups in an organization or
society, acknowledges and values their socio cultural
differences, and encourages and enables their
continued contribution within an inclusive cultural
context which empowers all within the organization or
society (Belfield, 2012).
Diversity Management
➢ Increase level of understanding about each other’s
cultures by interacting with people outside of one’s
own culture
➢ Avoid imposing values on one other that may conflict
or be inconsistent with cultures.
➢ When interacting with others who may not be
proficient in one’s language, recognize that their
limitations in the language proficiency in no way
reflects their level of intellectual functioning.
➢ Recognize and understand that concepts within the
helping profession, such as family, gender roles,
spirituality, and emotional well-being, vary
significantly among cultures and influence behavior.
Diversity management…
➢ Within the workplace, educational setting, and/or
clinical setting, advocate for the use of materials
that are representative of the various cultural
groups within the local community and the society
in general.
➢ Intervene in an appropriate manner when you
observe others engaging in behaviors that show
cultural insensitivity, bias, or prejudice.
➢ Being proactive in listening, accepting, and
welcoming people and ideas that are different
from your own
11.2. Gender and Social Inclusion
➢ The term “sex” usually refers to biological
phenomena such as hormones and reproduction.
➢ However, gender is an organizing principle of all
social systems.
Three levels of analysis
➢ The individual level refers to stable traits of men and
women that endure over time in the process of
human life span development, such as differences
believed to be rooted in biology or early childhood
socialization.
➢ The interactional level examines the ways in which
social behavior is constrained or facilitated by
expectations that people have regarding the traits
men and women possess, the ways they should act,
and the beliefs they should hold.
➢ The structural level addresses how macro level
patterns, such as the positions to which people are
assigned in society or the rewards attached to those
positions, lead to differences in the behavior or
experiences of men and women.
➢ Nations have been denying women benefits that
they should have got despite their significant
contribution for the development.
➢ Hence, nations, right groups, nation leaders and
scholars have been demanding more rights for
women and inclusion of developmental activities.
➢ Therefore, women should benefit from education,
economy, leadership system, development
programs and legal system.
❖ Build a culture of gender inclusion across
implementing the following is important.
➢ Encourage inclusive engagement in all areas of
development and cross-cutting initiatives;
➢ Apply gender-inclusive approaches of
development
➢ Promote good practices in gender inclusion; and

➢ Optimize resources and prosperity for all

11.3. Interpersonal Communication Skills
➢ It is the process by which people exchange
information, feelings, and meaning through verbal
and non-verbal messages.
➢ It is face-to-face communication.

➢ Defined broadly as “those skills which one needs

in order to communicate effectively with another
person or a group of people” (Rungapadiachy,
1999, p.193).
11.4. Social Influences
➢ Occurs when one person (the source) engages in some
behavior (such as persuading, threatening, promising, or
issuing orders) that causes another person (the target) to
behave differently from how he or she would otherwise
behave.
➢ Various outcomes can result when social influence is
attempted.
➢ In some cases, the influencing source may produce attitude
change - a change in the target’s beliefs and attitudes
about some issue, person, or situation.
➢ Attitude change is a fairly common result of social
influence.
➢ In other cases, however, the source may not really care
about changing the target’s attitudes but only about
securing compliance.
➢ Compliance occurs when the target’s behavior conforms to
the source’s requests or demands (Delamater & Myers,
2011).
11.5. Peer Pressure
➢ The influence to go along with the beliefs and actions of
one’s peers.
➢ May be positive when it inspires a person to do something
worthwhile.
➢ The desire to fit in and feel like you are part of a group is
normal especially in the teen and young adult years.
➢ Negative peer pressure tries to get a person to do
something harmful.
➢ It may involve threats, bribes, teasing, and name-calling.
➢ Peers can exert a negative pressure or a positive influence
upon each other, for example: using drugs, misbehaving in
class, stealing, making fun of someone, and the like.
➢ On the other hand, peer influence helps someone to do
his/her best at school, playing sports, being inclusive,
helping those in need
How to Handle Peer Pressure
➢ Give yourself permission to avoid people or situations that
don't feel right and leave a situation that becomes
uncomfortable.
➢ Check in with yourself. Ask, "How am I feeling about this?"
"Does this seem right to me?" "What are the pros and cons
of making this decision?"
➢ Recognize unhealthy dynamics: It's not OK for others to
pressure, force, or trick you into doing things you don't want
to or for others to make threats if you don't give in. It's not
OK for others to mock, belittle, shame, or criticize you for
your choices. You can ask others to stop these behaviors, or
you can choose to avoid spending time with people who act
in these ways.
➢ Spend time with people who respect your decisions and
won't put unfair pressure on you to conform.
➢ Remember that you can't (and don't have to) please
everyone or be liked by everyone.
How to Handle Peer Pressure
➢ When people or situations that make you feel pressured are not avoidable, try
the "delay tactic": Give yourself time to think about your decision instead of
giving an immediate answer: "Let me think about that," "Can I get back to you?"
or "Check back with me in an hour."
➢ When you can't avoid or delay a pressure-filled situation, practice saying "No
thanks" or just "No!" If "no" feels uncomfortable, practice using other responses,
such as "Not today," "Maybe another time," or "Thanks, but I can't."
➢ It's OK to use an excuse if the truth is too challenging. For example, if someone
offers you a drink and you want to say no but feel awkward, say you're on
medication or have to get up early the next day.
➢ Take a friend who supports you along if you are going to be in a pressure-filled
situation and let them know what your intentions are (e.g., "I don't want to drink,
so if you see me about to, remind me that I wanted to stay sober").
➢ Stand up for others when you see them being pressured. "Bystander
intervention" (stepping in to help out when you see someone in trouble) can be
an effective way to support others and send a message. If you don't feel
comfortable directly confronting the person doing the pressuring, try distracting
them or inviting the person being pressured to do something else.
➢ Ask for advice or support from a parent or other trusted family member, a clergy
person, a mentor, or a counselor if you need it.
11.6. Assertiveness
➢ Being open in expressing wishes, thoughts and
feelings and encouraging others to do likewise.
➢ Listening to the views of others and responding
appropriately, whether in agreement with those
views or not.
➢ Accepting responsibilities and being able to
delegate to others.
➢ Regularly expressing appreciation of others for
what they have done or are doing.
➢ Being able to admit to mistakes and apologise.
➢ Maintaining self-control.
➢ Behaving as an equal to others.
11.7. Conflict and Conflict Resolution
➢ The absence of conflict usually signals the absence
of meaningful interaction.
➢ Conflict by itself is neither good nor bad.
➢ However, the manner in which conflict is handled
determines whether it is constructive or destructive
(Deutsch & Coleman, 2000).
➢ Conflict is defined as an incompatibility of goals or
values between two or more parties in a relationship,
combined with attempts to control each other and
antagonistic feelings toward each other (Fisher,
1990).
➢ The incompatibility or difference may exist in reality
or may only be perceived by the parties involved.
➢ Conflict has the potential for either a great deal of
destruction or much creativity and positive social
change (Kriesberg, 1998).
Sources of Conflict
➢ Economic conflict: involves competing motives to
attain scarce resources.
➢ The behavior and emotions of each party are directed
toward maximizing its gain.
➢ Value conflict: involves incompatibility in ways of life,
ideologies (preferences, principles and practices that
people believe in).
➢ Power conflict: occurs when each party wishes to
maintain or maximize the amount of influence that it
exerts in the relationship and the social setting.
➢ Ineffective communication: Miscommunication and
misunderstanding can create conflict even where
there are no basic incompatibilities.