HVDC AND FACTS

(20A02604a )

LECTURE NOTES

III -B.TECH & II-SEM

Prepared by:
Mr. S. Venkat Rao, Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

VEMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Approved By AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu)

Near Pakala, P.Kothakota, Chittoor- Tirupathi Highway

Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh-517 112

Web Site: www.vemu.org

Course Code L T P C
20A02303T HVDC AND FACTS 3 0 0 3
Semester IV
Course Objectives:

● High voltage DC transmission systems

● Flexible AC transmission systems

● Various configurations of the above, Principle of operation, Characteristics of various FACTS devices
Course Outcomes (CO): After completion of the course, the student can able to
CO-1 Understand the necessity of HVDC systems as emerging transmission networks
CO-2: Understand the necessity of reactive power compensation devices
CO-3: Design equivalent circuits of various HVDC system configurations
CO-4: Design and analysis of various FACTS devices
Unit – I: INTRODUCTION
Electrical Transmission Networks, Conventional Control Mechanisms-Automatic Generation Control, Excitation Control,
Transformer Tap-Changer Control, Phase-Shifting Transformers; Advances in Power-Electronic Switching Devices, Principles and
Applications of Semiconductor Switches; Limitations of Conventional Transmission Systems, Emerging Transmission Networks,
HVDC and FACTS
Unit – II: HIGH VOLTAGE DC TRANSMISSION – I
Types of HVDC links - Monopolar, Homopolar, Bipolar and Back-to-Back, Advantages and disadvantages of HVDC
Transmission, Analysis of Greatz circuit, Analysis of bridge circuit without overlap, Analysis of bridge with overlap less than 600,
Rectifier and inverter characteristics, complete characteristics of rectifier and inverter, Equivalent circuit of HVDC Link.
Unit – III: HIGH VOLTAGE DC TRANSMISSION – II
Desired features and means of control, control of the direct current transmission link, Constant current control, Constant ignition
angle control, Constant extinction angle control, Converter firing-angle control-IPC and EPC, frequency control and Tap changer
control, Starting, Stopping and Reversal of power flow in HVDC links.
Unit – IV: FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS-I
Types of FACTS Controllers, brief description about various types of FACTS controllers, Operation of 6-pulse converter,
Transformer Connections for 12-pulse, 24-pulse and 48-pulse operation, principle of operation of various types of Controllable
shunt Var Generation, Principle of switching converter type shunt compensator, principles of operation of various types of
Controllable Series Var Generation, Principle of Switching Converter type series compensator
Unit – V: FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS-II
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) – Principle of operation, Transmission Control Capabilities, Independent Real and Reactive
Power Flow Control; Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) – Principle of operation and Characteristics, UPFC and IPFC control
structures (only block diagram description), objectives and approaches of voltage and phase angle regulators
Textbooks:

1. Narain G. Hingorani and Laszlo Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission
Systems, IEEE Press, Wiley-Interscience, New Jersey, 2000.
2. E.W. Kimbark, Direct current transmission, Vol. I, Wiley Interscience, New York, 1971
Reference Books:

1. K R Padiyar, FACTS Controllers in Power Transmission and Distribution, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi, 2007.
2. AnriqueAcha, Claudio R. Fuerte-Esquivel, Hugo Ambriz-Pérez and César Angeles-Camacho, FACTS: Modelling and
Simulation in Power Networks, John Wiley & Sons, West Sussex, 2004.
 1

HVDC Transmission Systems

UNIT-1
Introduction
Electric power transmission was originally developed with direct current. The availability
of transformers and the development and improvement of induction motors at the beginning of
the 20th century, led to the use of AC transmission.
DC Transmission now became practical when long distances were to be covered or where
cables were required. Thyristors were applied to DC transmission and solid state valves became a
reality.
With the fast development of converters (rectifiers and inverters) at higher voltages and
larger currents, DC transmission has become a major factor in the planning of the power
transmission. In the beginning all HVDC schemes used mercury arc valves, invariably single
phase in construction, in contrast to the low voltage polyphase units used for industrial
application. About 1960 control electrodes were added to silicon diodes, giving silicon-
controlled-rectifiers (SCRs or Thyristors).
Today, the highest functional DC voltage for DC transmission is +/- 600kV. D.C
transmission is now an integral part of the delivery of electricity in many countries throughout
the world.

Comparison of AC and DC Transmission

The merits of two modes of transmission (AC & DC) should be compared based on the
following factors.
1) Economics of transmission
2) Technical Performance
3) Reliability
Economics of Power Transmission:
 In DC transmission, inductance and capacitance of the line has no effect on the power
transfer capability of the line and the line drop. Also, there is no leakage or charging current of
the line under steady conditions.
A DC line requires only 2 conductors whereas AC line requires 3 conductors in 3-phase
AC systems. The cost of the terminal equipment is more in DC lines than in AC line. Break-even
 2

distance is one at which the cost of the two systems is the same. It is understood from the below
figure that a DC line is economical for long distances which are greater than the break-even
distance.

Figure: Relative costs of AC and DC transmission lines vs distance

Technical Performance:
Due to its fast controllability, a DC transmission has full control over transmitted power,
an ability to enhance transient and dynamic stability in associated AC networks and can limit
fault currents in the DC lines. Furthermore, DC transmission overcomes some of the following
problems associated with AC transmission.
Stability Limits:
The power transfer in an AC line is dependent on the angle difference between the
voltage phasors at the two line ends. For a given power transfer level, this angle increases with
distance. The maximum power transfer is limited by the considerations of steady state and
transient stability. The power carrying capability of an AC line is inversely proportional to
transmission distance whereas the power carrying ability of DC lines is unaffected by the
distance of transmission.
 3

Voltage Control:
Voltage control in ac lines is complicated by line charging and voltage drops. The voltage
profile in an AC line is relatively flat only for a fixed level of power transfer corresponding to its
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL). The voltage profile varies with the line loading. For constant
voltage at the line ends, the midpoint voltage is reduced for line loadings higher than SIL and
increased for loadings less than SIL.
The maintenance of constant voltage at the two ends requires reactive power control as
the line loading is increased. The reactive power requirements increase with line length.
Although DC converter stations require reactive power related to the power transmitted, the DC
line itself does not require any reactive power. The steady-state charging currents in AC cables
pose serious problems and make the break-even distance for cable transmission around 50kms.
Line Compensation:
Line compensation is necessary for long distance AC transmission to overcome the
problems of line charging and stability limitations. The increase in power transfer and voltage
control is possible through the use of shunt inductors, series capacitors, Static Var Compensators
(SVCs) and, lately, the new generation Static Compensators (STATCOMs). In the case of DC
lines, such compensation is not needed.
Problems of AC Interconnection:
The interconnection of two power systems through ac ties requires the automatic
generation controllers of both systems to be coordinated using tie line power and frequency
signals. Even with coordinated control of interconnected systems, the operation of AC ties can be
problematic due to:
1. The presence of large power oscillations which can lead to frequent tripping,
2. Increase in fault level, and
3. Transmission of disturbances from one system to the other.
 4

The fast controllability of power flow in DC lines eliminates all of the above
problems. Furthermore, the asynchronous interconnection of two power systems can only be
achieved with the use of DC links.
Ground Impedance:
In AC transmission, the existence of ground (zero sequence) current cannot be permitted
in steady-state due to the high magnitude of ground impedance which will not only affect
efficient power transfer, but also result in telephonic interference. The ground impedance is
negligible for DC currents and a DC link can operate using one conductor with ground return
(monopolar operation).
The ground return is objectionable only when buried metallic structures (such as pipes)
are present and are subject to corrosion with DC current flow. While operating in the monopolar
mode, the AC network feeding the DC converter station operates with balanced voltages and
currents. Hence, single pole operation of dc transmission systems is possible for extended period,
while in AC transmission, single phase operation (or any unbalanced operation) is not feasible
for more than a second.
Disadvantages of DC Transmission:
The scope of application of DC transmission is limited by
1. High cost of conversion equipment.
2. Inability to use transformers to alter voltage levels.
3. Generation of harmonics.
4. Requirement of reactive power and
5. Complexity of controls.
Over the years, there have been significant advances in DC technology, which have
tried to overcome the disadvantages listed above except for (2). These are
1. Increase in the ratings of a thyristor cell that makes up a valve.
2. Modular construction of thyristor valves.
3. Twelve-pulse (and higher) operation of converters.
4. Use of forced commutation.
5. Application of digital electronics and fiber optics in the control of converters.

Reliability:
 5

The reliability of DC transmission systems is good and comparable to that of AC

systems. The reliability of DC links has also been very good.
There are two measures of overall system reliability-energy availability and transient
reliability.
Energy availability:
Energy availability = 100 (1 – equivalent outage time) %
Actual time
Where equivalent outage time is the product of the actual outage time and the fraction of
system capacity lost due to outage.
Transient reliability:
This is a factor specifying the performance of HVDC systems during recordable faults on
the associated AC systems.
Transient reliability = 100 X No. of times HVDC systems performed as
designed No. of recordable AC faults
Recordable AC system faults are those faults which cause one or more AC bus phase
voltages to drop below 90% of the voltage prior to the fault.
Both energy availability and transient reliability of existing DC systems with thyristor
valves is 95% or more.
Application of DC Transmission
Due to their costs and special nature, most applications of DC transmission generally fall
into one of the following three categories.
Underground or underwater cables:
In the case of long cable connections over the breakeven distance of about 40-50 km, DC
cable transmission system has a marked advantage over AC cable connections. Examples of this
type of applications were the Gotland (1954) and Sardinia (1967) schemes. The recent
development of Voltage Source Converters (VSC) and the use of rugged polymer DC cables,
with the so-called “HVDC Light” option, are being increasingly considered. An example of this
type of application is the 180 MW Direct link connection (2000) in Australia.
Long distance bulk power transmission:
Bulk power transmission over long distances is an application ideally suited for DC
transmission and is more economical than ac transmission whenever the breakeven distance is
 6

exceeded. Examples of this type of application abound from the earlier Pacific Intertie to the
recent links in China and India.
The breakeven distance is being effectively decreased with the reduced costs of new
compact converter stations possible due to the recent advances in power electronics.
Stabilization of power flows in integrated power system:
In large interconnected systems, power flow in AC ties (particularly under disturbance
conditions) can be uncontrolled and lead to overloads and stability problems thus endangering
system security. Strategically placed DC lines can overcome this problem due to the fast
controllability of DC power and provide much needed damping and timely overload capability.
The planning of DC transmission in such applications requires detailed study to evaluate the
benefits. Example is the Chandrapur-Padghe link in India.
Presently the number of DC lines in a power grid is very small compared to the number
of AC lines. This indicates that DC transmission is justified only for specific applications.
Although advances in technology and introduction of Multi-Terminal DC (MTDC) systems are
expected to increase the scope of application of DC transmission, it is not anticipated that the AC
grid will be replaced by a DC power grid in the future. There are two major reasons for this:
First, the control and protection of MTDC systems is complex and the inability of voltage
transformation in dc networks imposes economic penalties.
Second, the advances in power electronics technology have resulted in the improvement
of the performance of AC transmissions using FACTS devices, for instance through introduction
of static VAR systems, static phase shifters, etc.

Types of Valves
Based on the controllability and configuration valves are classified into four types as
under.
 7

Types of HVDC Links

Three types of HVDC Links are considered in HVDC applications which are
Monopolar Link:

A monopolar link as shown in the above figure has one conductor and uses either ground
and/or sea return. A metallic return can also be used where concerns for harmonic interference
and/or corrosion exist. In applications with DC cables (i.e., HVDC Light), a cable return is used.
Since the corona effects in a DC line are substantially less with negative polarity of the
conductor as compared to the positive polarity, a monopolar link is normally operated with
negative polarity.

Bipolar Link:
 8

A bipolar link as shown in the above figure has two conductors, one positive and the
other negative. Each terminal has two sets of converters of equal rating, in series on the DC side.
The junction between the two sets of converters is grounded at one or both ends by the use of a
short electrode line. Since both poles operate with equal currents under normal operation, there is
zero ground current flowing under these conditions. Monopolar operation can also be used in the
first stages of the development of a bipolar link. Alternatively, under faulty converter conditions,
one DC line may be temporarily used as a metallic return with the use of suitable switching.

Homopolar Link:

In this type of link as shown in the above figure two conductors having the same polarity
(usually negative) can be operated with ground or metallic return.
Due to the undesirability of operating a DC link with ground return, bipolar links are
mostly used. A homopolar link has the advantage of reduced insulation costs, but the
disadvantages of earth return outweigh the advantages.

HVDC Converter Station

 9

The major components of a HVDC transmission system are converter stations where
conversions from AC to DC (Rectifier station) and from DC to AC (Inverter station) are
performed. A point to point transmission requires two converter stations. The role of rectifier and
inverter stations can be reversed (resulting in power reversals) by suitable converter control.
A typical converter station with two 12 pulse converter units per pole is shown in figure
below. The block diagram of converter station is given above.

Converter Unit:
 1
0

This usually consists of two three phase converter bridges connected in series to form a
12 pulse converter unit as shown in above figure. The total number of valves in such a unit is
twelve. The valves can be packaged as single valve, double valve or quadrivalve arrangements.
Each valve is used to switch in segment of an AC voltage waveform. The converter is fed by
converter transformers connected in star/star and star/delta arrangements.
The valves are cooled by air, oil, water of freon. Liquid cooling using deionized water is
more efficient and results in the reduction of station losses. The design of valves is based on the
modular concept where each module contains a limited number of series connected thyristor
levels.
Valve firing signals are generated in the converter control at ground potential and are
transmitted to each thyristor in the valve through a fiber optic light guide system.
The valves are protected using snubber circuits, protective firing and gapless surge
arrestors.
Converter Transformer:
The converter transformer has three different configurations-
(i) three phase, two winding,
(ii) single phase, three winding and
(iii)single phase, two winding
The valve side windings are connected in parallel with neutral grounded. The leakage
reactance of the transformer is chosen to limit the short circuit currents through any valves.
 1
1

The converter transformers are designed to withstand DC voltage stresses and increased
eddy current losses due to harmonic currents. One problem that can arise is due to the DC
magnetization of the core due to unsymmetrical firing of valves.
Filters:
There are three types of filters used which are
1. AC Filters:
These are passive circuits used to provide how impedance, shunt paths for AC
harmonic currents. Both tuned and damped filter arrangements are used.
2. DC Filters:
These are similar to AC filters and are used for the filtering of DC harmonics.
3. High Frequency (RF/PLC) Filters:
These are connected between the converter transformer and the station AC bus to
suppress any high frequency currents. Sometimes such filters are provided on high-voltage DC
bus connected between the DC filter and DC line and also on the neutral side.
Reactive power source:
Converter stations require reactive power supply that is dependent on the active power
loading. But part of the reactive power requirement is provided by AC filters. In addition, shunt
capacitors, synchronous condensors and static VAR systems are used depending on the speed of
control desired.
Smoothing Reactor:
A sufficiently large series reactor is used on DC side to smooth DC current and also for
protection. The reactor is designed as a linear reactor and is connected on the line side, neutral
side or at intermediate location.
DC Switchgear:
It is modified AC equipment used to interrupt small DC currents. DC breakers or Metallic
Return Transfer Breakers (MRTB) are used, if required for interruption of rated load currents.
In addition to the DC switchgear, AC switchgear and associated equipment for protection
and measurement are also part of the converter station.

Modern Trends in DC Transmission

To overcome the losses and faults in AC transmission, HVDC transmission is preferred.
 1
2

The trends which are being introduced are for the effective development to reduce the
cost of the converters and to improve the performance of the transmission system.
Power semiconductors and valves:
The IGBTs or GTOs employed required huge amount of current to turn it ON which was
a big problem. GTOs are available at 2500V and 2100A. As the disadvantage of GTOs is the
large gate current needed to turn them OFF, so MCT which can be switched OFF by a small
current is preferred as valves.
The power rating of thyristors is also increased by better cooling methods. Deionized
water cooling has now become a standard and results in reduced losses in cooling.
Converter Control:
The development of micro-computer based converter control equipment has made
possible to design systems with completely redundant converter control with automatic transfer
between systems in the case of a problem.
The micro-computer based control also has the flexibility to implement adaptive control
algorithms or even the use of expert systems for fault diagnosis and protection.

DC Breakers:
Parallel rather than series operation of converters is likely as it allows certain flexibility
in the planned growth of a system. The DC breaker ratings are not likely to exceed the full load
ratings as the control intervention is expected to limit the fault current.
Conversion of existing AC lines:
There are some operational problems due to electromagnetic induction from AC circuits
where an experimental project of converting a single circuit of a double circuit is under process.

Operation with weak AC systems:

The strength of AC systems connected to the terminals of a DC link is measured in terms
of Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) which is defined as
SCR = Short circuit level at the converter bus
Rated DC Power
If SCR is less than 3, the AC system is said to be weak. The conventional constant
extinction angle control may not be suitable for weak AC systems.
 1
3

Constant reactive current control or AC voltage control may overcome some of the
problems of weak AC systems.
The power modulation techniques used to improve dynamic stability of power systems
will have to be modified in the presence of weak AC systems.

Six Pulse Converters

The conversion from AC to DC and vice-versa is done in HVDC converter stations by
using three phase bridge converters. The configuration of the bridge (also called Graetz circuit) is
a six pulse converter and the 12 pulse converter is composed of two bridges in series supplied

from two different (three-phase) transformers with voltages differing in phase by 30o .

Pulse Number
The pulse number of a converter is defined as the number of pulsations (cycles of ripple)
of direct voltage per cycle of alternating voltage.
The conversion from AC to DC involves switching sequentially different sinusoidal
voltages onto the DC circuit.
 14

A valve can be treated as a controllable switch which can be turned ON at any instant,
provided the voltage across it is positive.
The output voltage Vd of the converter consists of a DC component and a ripple whose
frequency is determined by the pulse number

Choice of Converter Configuration

The configuration for a given pulse number is so chosen in such a way that the valve and
transformer are used to the maximum.

A converter configuration can be defined by the basic commutation group and the
number of such groups connected in series and parallel.
If there are ‘q’ valves in a basic commutation group and r of those are connected in
parallel and s of them in series then,
p=qrs
Note:
 1
5

A commutation group is defined as the group of valves in which only one (neglecting
overlap) conducts at a time.
Valve Rating:
The valve rating is specified in terms of Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV). The ratio of PIV to
average DC voltage is an index of valve utilization.
So, average maximum DC voltage across the converter is given by,
q

Vdo = s q E m cos td ( t)
2 q

q /q sq sq
=s Em (sin t) = E m sin sin = E m .2 sin
/q

2 2 q q 2 q

s
q
V = E sin q ----- (1)
do m

If ‘q’ is even, then maximum inverse voltage occurs when the valve with a phase
displacement of 180o is conducting and is given by,
PIV = 2Em
If ‘q’ is odd, then maximum inverse voltage occurs when the valve with a phase shift of
π±(π/q) is conducting and is given by,
PIV = 2Em cos(π/2q)

The valve utilization factor is given by

PIV 2Em 2
s
V
For q even, do = q =
Em sin q s.q.sin q

2
E m cos 2 .cos 2 .cos
For q odd, PIV = 2q = 2q = 2q
s
V
do q
Em sin q sq.sin q sq.2 cos 2q sin 2
 q

(Since sin2θ=2sinθcosθ and 2 cos sin = sin 2 = sin )

2
2q q 2q q
 16

PIV = (For q odd)

V
do

sq.sin 2q

Transformer Rating:
The current rating of a valve is given by,
I
I d
v =---------------
r q (2)

where, Id is the DC current which is assumed to be constant.

The transformer rating on the valve side (in VA) is given by,
Em
Stv = p Iv
2
 17

From equations (1), (2) & p=qrs, we have

V
do . . Id
Stv = p rq
2.sq.sin q
V I
S= do d

tv
.
2
q.sin q
S
Transformer utilization factor tv is a function of q.

V I
do d

As AC supply is three phase so, commutation group of three valves can be easily
arranged. So, for q = 3,
S
tv =
V I
do d
(2 X 3) sin 3
S
tv =
VI
do d 6sin 60o
Stv
= 1.48
VI
do d

Transformer utilization can be improved if two valve groups can share single transformer
winding. In this case, the current rating of the winding can be increased by a factor of √2 while
decreasing the number of windings by a factor of 2.
 18

It is a 6-pulse converter consisting of two winding transformer where the transformer

utilization factor is increased when compared to three winding transformer.
The series conduction of converter groups has been preferred because of controlling and
protection as well as the requirements for high voltage ratings. So, a 12 pulse converter is
obtained by series connection of two bridges.
The 30o phase displacement between two sets of source voltages is achieved by
transformer connections Y-Y for one bridge and Y-∆ for the other bridge.
The use of a 12 pulse converter is preferable over the 6 pulse converter because of the
reduced filtering requirements.

Analysis of Graetz Circuit without overlap:

At any instant, two valves are conducting in the bridge, one from the upper commutation
group and the second from the lower commutation group. The firing of the next valve in a
particular group results in the turning OFF of the valve that is already conducting. The valves are
numbered in the sequence in which they are fired. Each valve conducts for 120o and the interval

between consecutive firing pulse is 60o in steady state.

The following assumptions are made to simplify the analysis
a. The DC current is constant.
b. The valves are modeled as ideal switches with zero impedance when ON and with
infinite impedance when OFF.
c. The AC voltages at the converter bus are sinusoidal and remain constant.
One period of the AC supply voltage can be divided into 6 intervals – each corresponding
to the conduction of a pair of valves. The DC voltage waveform repeats for each interval.
Assuming the firing of valve 3 is delayed by an angle α , the instantaneous DC voltage
Vd during the interval is given by
Vd = eb – ec = ebc for α ≤ ωt ≤ α+60o
Let eba = 2 ELL sin t
then e = 2E sin( t + 60o )
bc LL
o
+60
3
Average DC Voltage = Vd = 2ELL sin( t + 60o )d t

3
= 2ELL [cos( + 60o cos( +120o )]
 19

V = 3 2E cos = 1.35E cos

d LL LL

Vd = Vdo cos ------------- (1)

The above equation indicates that for different values of α , Vd is variable.
The range of α is 180o and correspondingly Vd can vary from Vdo to –Vdo . Thus, the
same converter can act as a rectifier or inverter depending upon whether the DC voltage is
positive or negative.
DC Voltage Waveform:
The DC voltage waveform contains a ripple whose fundamental frequency is six times
the supply frequency. This can analyzed in Fourier series and contains harmonics of the order h
= np
where, p is the pulse number and n is an integer.
The rms value of the hth order harmonic in DC voltage is given by

2
V h = V do h2 1[1 + (h2 +1) sin 2
]1/ 2

The waveforms of the direct voltage and calve voltage are shown for different values of
α.
 20

AC Current Waveform:
It is assumed that direct current has no ripple (or harmonics). The AC currents flowing
through the valve (secondary) and primary windings of the converter transformer contain
harmonics.

The waveform of the current in a valve winding is shown. The rms value of the
fundamental component of current is given by

I = 1 2 I cos .d = 6I ---- (2)

1 2 / 3d d
where as the rms value of the current is

2
I = 3 .I d
The harmonics contained in the current waveform are of the order given by
h = np 1

Where n is an integer, p is the pulse number. For a six pulse converter, the order of AC
harmonics is 5, 7, 11, 13 and higher order. These are filtered out by using tuned filters for each
one of the first four harmonics and a high pass filter for the remaining.
th I1
I
The rms value of h harmonic is given by h = h
Power Factor:
The AC power supplied to the converter is given by

PAC = 3ELL I1 cos

Where cos is the power factor.

The DC power must match the AC power ignoring the losses in the converter. Thus,

PAC = PDC = Vdo I d = 3ELL I1 cos

Substituting for Vdo and I1 from equations (1) and (2) in the above equation, we getcos
= cos
 2
1

The reactive power requirements are increased as α is increased from zero (or reduced
from 180o ).

Analysis of Graetz Circuit with overlap

Due to the leakage inductance of the converter transformers and the impedance in the
supply network, the current in a valve cannot change suddenly and this commutation from one
valve to the next cannot be instantaneous. This is called overlap and its duration is measured by
the overlap (commutation) angle ‘μ’.
Each interval of the period of supply can be divided into two subintervals as shown in the
below timing diagram. In the first subinterval, three valves are conducting and in the second
subinterval, two valves are conducting which is based on the assumption that the overlap angle is

less than 60o .

There are three modes of the converter which are

i) Mode 1 – Two and three valve conduction (μ<60o )
ii) Mode 2 – Three valve conduction (μ=60o )
iii) Mode 3 – Three and four valve conduction (μ>60o )
i) Analysis of Two and Three Valve Conduction Mode:
The equivalent circuit for three valve conduction is shown below.
For this circuit,

di di
3
e e =L 1

b adt dtc

The LHS in the above equation is called the commutating emf whose value is given by

eb ea = 2ELL sin t
Which is the voltage across valve 3 just before it starts conducting.
 22

Since, i1 = I d i3
We get,
di
2ELL sin t = 2Lc dt3
Solving the above equation, we get
i3 (t) = I s (cos cos t), t +
Where,
2E
LL
Is=
2 Lc

At ωt=α+μ , is = Id . This gives I d = I s [cos cos( + )]The

average direct voltage can be obtained as
+
3 3 +60
Vd = 2 ec d ( t) + (eb ec )d ( t)
+

3
= V do cos 2 2E LL [cos cos( + )]

32
Since, ELL = Vdo , we get

V
Vd = 2 [cos + cos( + )]
do

The value of [cos cos( + )] can be substituted to get,

Id
Vd = V cos =V do
cos RI
d
c

2I s
do

Where,
3 3
Rc = Lc = Xc

Rc is called equivalent commutation resistance and the equivalent circuit for a bridge
converter is shown below.
 23

Inverter Equations:
For an inverter, advance angle β is given by
β=π-α
and use opposite polarity for the DC voltage with voltage rise opposite to the direction of
current. Thus,
V
V = doi [cos + cos( + )]
di
2
V
= doi [cos( ) + cos( )] 2
V
V = doi
[cos + cos ]
di
2
Where, the extinction angle γ is defined as
γ = β-μ = π-α-μ
Similarly, it can be shown that
Vdi = Vdoi cos + Rci I d

= Vdoi cos Rci I d

The subscript “i” refers to the inverter.
ii) Analysis of Three and Four Valve Conduction Mode:
The equivalent circuit for three and four valve conduction is shown below.
For, α ≤ ωt ≤ α+μ-60o
i1 = Is sin(ωt+60o ) + A
i6 = Id – i2 = IEd – Is 2
sinωt + C
Where, I s = m
= I
s
Lc 3
The constant A can be determined from the initial condition
i1 (ωt=α) = Id = Is sin(α+60o ) + A
The constant C can be determined from the final condition
i6 (ωt=α+μ-60o ) = 0 = Id – Is sin(α+μ-60o ) + C = 0
 24

For, α+μ-60o ≤ ωt ≤ α+600

i1 = Is cosωt + B
The constant B can be determined from the continuity
equation i1 (ωt=α+μ=60o ) = Is sin(α+μ) + A = Is cos(α+μ-60o ) + B
Finally,

I
I d = 2s [cos( 30o ) cos( + + 30o )]The

expression for average direct voltage is given by

3 +60o 3
Vd = ec d ( t)
+ 60o 2
Since ec = Em cosωt
33
Vd = 2E m[sin( + 60o ) sin( + 60o )]

3
Vd = 2 V do[cos( 30o ) + cos( + + 30o )]

Finally

V = V [ 3 cos( 30o ) 3 I d ] = 3.V cos( 30o ) 3R I

d do do c d
2Is

Converter Bridge Characteristics

A) Rectifier: The rectifier has three modes of operation.
1) First mode: Two and three valve conduction mode ( μ < 60o )
2) Second mode: Three valve conduction mode only for α < 30o ( μ = 60o )
3) Third mode: Three and four valve conduction mode α ≥ 30o ( 60o ≤ μ ≤ 120o )
As the DC current continues to increase, the converter operation changes over from
mode 1 to 2 and finally to mode 3.
The DC voltage continues to decrease until it reaches zero.
 25

For α ≥ 30o , mode 2 is bypassed.

For Modes 1 and 3, we have
Vd = cos Id
V
do 2I s
Vd = 3 cos( 30 ) 3I d
o

V
do 2I s
The voltage and current characteristics are linear with different slopes in these cases. For

mode 2, μ = 60o , μ is constant, so the characteristics are elliptical and is given by

2 2
| |
V
d + I
d
=1
cos sin
2 2
V
where, V | =
I
d
and I | = 2 I ds

d Vdo d

B) Inverter:
The inverter characteristics are similar to the rectifier characteristics. However, the
operation as an inverter requires a minimum commutation margin angle during which the voltage
across the valve is negative. Hence the operating region of an inverter is different from that for a
rectifier.
So, the margin angle (ξ) has different relationship to γ depending on the range of
operation which are

First Range: β < 60o and ξ = γ

Second Range: 60o < β < 90o and ξ =60o – μ = γ-(β-60o )
Third Range: β > 90o and ξ = γ – 30o
In the inverter operation, it is necessary to maintain a certain minimum margin angle ξo
which results in 3 sub-modes of the 1st mode which are

Mode 1
1(a) β < 60o for values of μ < (60o - ξo )
The characteristics are linear defined by
Vd| = cosγo – Id|
1(b) 60o < β < 90o for
μ = 60o – ξo = 60o – γo = constant
 26

The characteristics are elliptical.

1(c) 90o < β < 90o + ξo for values of μ in the range
60o – ξo ≤ μ ≤ 60o
The characteristics in this case are line and defined by
Vd| = cos( γo+ 30o ) - I d|
Mode 2
For μ > 60o corresponding to β > 90o + γo
The characteristics again are linear but with a different slope and is defined by
Vd| = √3 cosγ o- 3I d|
In the normal operation of the converter Id| is in the range of 0.08 to 0.1 .
Characteristics of a twelve pulse converter

As long as the AC voltages at the converter bus remain sinusoidal (with effective
filtering), the operation of one bridge is unaffected by the operation of the other bridge connected
in series. The region of rectifier operation can be divided into five modes as Mode 1: 4 and 5
valve conduction
0 < μ < 30o
Mode 2: 5 and 6 valve conduction
30o < μ < 60o
Mode 3: 6 valve conduction
0 < α < 30o , μ = 60o
Mode 4: 6 and 7 valve conduction
60o < μ < 90o
 27

Mode 5: 7 and 8 valve conduction

90o < μ < 120o
The second mode is a continuation of the first and similarly fifth is a continuation of the
fourth.
The equivalent circuit of the twelve pulse converter is the series combination of the
equivalent circuits for the two bridges. This is because the two bridges are connected in series on
the DC side and in parallel on the AC side. The current waveforms in the primary winding of the
star/star and star/delta connected transformers and the line current injected into the converter bus
are shown.

Questions
1) What is the need for interconnection of systems? Explain the merits of connecting HVAC
systems by HVDC tie-lines?
2) (a) Discuss the different factors that favor HVDC transmission systems over EHVAC
transmission over long distances.
(b) What are the different HVDC links normally adopted?
3) (a) With the help of a neat schematic diagram of a typical HVDC converter station
explain the functions of various components available.
(b) What are the applications and merits of HVDC transmission system?
4) (a) Explain for what reasons as a system planner, you consider the applications of HVDC
in India?
 28

(b) Compare HVDC transmission system with AC system in all aspects.

5) For a 3-Φ, 6 pulse Graetz’s circuit, draw the timing diagram considering overlap angle is less
than 60o and without overlap for the following:
(a) Voltage across load
(b) Voltage across any two pair of conduction values
6) Explain the operation of a 12 pulse bridge rectifier with the help of circuit diagram,
voltage & current waveforms.
7) (a) Clearly explain how harmonics are produced and obtain the expression for rms value
of the fundamental component of the current.
(b) Obtain a relation between firing angle and power factor angle in a 3-Φ bridge rectifier.
8) Derive the expression for average DC voltages of a six pulse bridge converter,
considering gate control and source reactance.
9) What is the reason for using star-star and star-delta transformer configurations for 12
pulse converter? Derive an equation for primary current using fourier analysis.
 29

UNIT-III: CONTROL OF HVDC CONVERTER SYSTEMS

The major advantage of a HVDC link is rapid controllability of transmitted power

through the control of firing angles of the converters. Modern converter controls are not only
fast, but also very reliable and they are used for protection against line and converter faults.

Principles of DC Link Control

The control of power in a DC link can be achieved through the control of current or
voltage. From minimization of loss considerations, we need to maintain constant voltage in the
link and adjust the current to meet the required power.

Consider the steady state equivalent circuit of a two terminal DC link. This is based on
the assumption that all the series connected bridges in both poles of a converter station are
identical and have the same delay angles. Also the number of series connected bridges (nb ) in
both stations (rectifier and inverter) are the same.

The voltage sources Edr and Edi are defined by

Edr = (3√2/π) nb Evr cosαr ------ (1)
Edi = (3√2/π) nb Evi cosγi ------ (2)
 3
0

where Evr and Evi are the line to line voltages in the valve side windings of the rectifier
and inverter transformer respectively. From the above figure these voltages can be obtained by
N Er N E
E = sr , E = si i --------------------
(3)
vr
N prTr vi
N piTi
where Er and Ei are the AC (line to line) voltages of the converter buses on the rectifier
and inverter side. Tr and Ti are the OFF-nominal tap ratios on the rectifier and inverter side.
Combining equations (1), (2) and (3),
Edr = (Ar Er /Tr) cosαr ----------(4)
Edi = (Ai Ei /Ti) cosγi-----------(5)
where Ar and Ai are constants.
The steady-state current Id in the DC link is obtained as

Id (Edr Edi )
=R
+ Rd Rci cr

Substituting equations (4) and (5) in the above equation, we get

( A E / T ) cos ( A E / T ) cos
I d = r r r r i i i i

Rcr + Rd Rci
The control variables in the above equation are Tr , Ti and αr , βi . However, for
maintaining safe commutation margin, it is convenient to consider γi as control variable instead
of βi .
As the denominator in the final equation is small, even small changes in the voltage
magnitude Er or Ei can result in large changes in the DC current, the control variables are held
constant. As the voltage changes can be sudden, it is obvious that manual control of converter
angles is not feasible. Hence, direct and fast control of current by varying α r or γr in response to a
feedback signal is essential.
While there is a need to maintain a minimum extinction angle of the inverter to avoid
commutation failure, it is economical to operate the inverter at Constant Extinction Angle (CEA)
which is slightly above the absolute minimum required for the commutation margin. This results
in reduced costs of the inverter stations, reduced converter losses and reactive power
consumption. However, the main drawback of CEA control is the negative resistance
characteristics of the converter which makes it difficult to operate stably when the AC system is
weak (low short-circuit ratios). Constant DC Voltage (CDCV) control or Constant AC Voltage
(CACV) control are the alternatives that could be used at the inverter.
 31

Under normal conditions, the rectifier operates at Constant Current (CC) control and the
inverter at the CEA control.
The power reversal in the link can take place by the reversal of the DC voltage. This is
done by increasing the delay angle at the station initially operating as a rectifier, while reducing
the delay angle at the station initially operating as the inverter. Thus, it is necessary to provide
both CEA and CC controllers at both terminals.
The feedback control of power in a DC link is not desirable because
1) At low DC voltages, the current required is excessive to maintain the required level of
power. This can be counterproductive because of the excessive requirements of the
reactive power, which depresses voltage further.
2) The constant power characteristic contributes to negative damping and degrades dynamic
stability.

Converter Control Characteristics

Basic Characteristics:
The intersection of the two characteristics (point A) determines the mode of operation-
Station I operating as rectifier with constant current control and station II operating at constant
(minimum) extinction angle.
There can be three modes of operation of the link (for the same direction of power flow)
depending on the ceiling voltage of the rectifier which determines the point of intersection of the
two characteristics which are defined below
1) CC at rectifier and CEA at inverter (operating point A) which is the normal mode of
operation.
2) With slight dip in the AC voltage, the point of intersection drifts to C which implies
minimum α at rectifier and minimum γ at the inverter.
3) With lower AC voltage at the rectifier, the mode of operation shifts to point B which
implies CC at the inverter with minimum α at the rectifier.
 32

The characteristic AB has generally more negative slope than characteristic FE because
the slope of AB is due to the combined resistance of (Rd + Rcr ) while is the slope of FE is due to
Rci .

The above figure shows the control characteristics for negative current margin I m (or
where the current reference of station II is larger than that of station I). The operating point shifts
now to D which implies power reversal with station I (now acting as inverter) operating with
minimum CEA control while station II operating with CC control.
This shows the importance of maintaining the correct sign of the current margin to avoid
inadvertent power reversal. The maintenance of proper current margin requires adequate
telecommunication channel for rapid transmission of the current or power order.

Voltage Dependent Current Limit:

The low voltage in the DC link is mainly due to the faults in the AC system on the
rectifier or inverter side. The low AC voltage due to faults on the inverter side can result in
 3
3

persistent commutation failure because of the increase of the overlap angle. In such cases, it is
necessary to reduce the DC current in the link until the conditions that led to the reduced DC
voltage are relieved. Also the reduction of current relieves those valves in the inverter which are
overstressed due to continuous current flow in them.

If the low voltage is due to faults on the rectifier side AC system, the inverter has to
operate at very low power factor causing excessive consumption of reactive power which is also
undesirable. Thus, it becomes useful to modify the control characteristics to include voltage
dependent current limits. The figure above shown shows current error characteristics to stabilize

the mode when operating with DC current between I d1 and Id2 . The characteristic cc| and c|c||
show the limitation of current due to the reduction in voltage.
System Control Hierarchy
The control function required for the HVDC link is performed using the hierarchical
control structure.
 3
4

The master controller for a bipole is located at one of the terminals and is provided with
the power order (Pref ) from the system controller (from energy control centre). It also has other
information such as AC voltage at the converter bus, DC voltage etc. The master controller
transmits the current order (Iref ) to the pole control units which in turn provide a firing angle
order to the individual valve groups (converters). The valve group or converter control also
oversees valve monitoring and firing logic through the optical interface. It also includes bypass
pair selection logic, commutation failure protection, tap changer control, converter start/stop
sequences, margin switching and valve protection circuits.
The pole control incorporated pole protection, DC line protection and optional converter
paralleling and deparalleling sequences. The master controller which oversees the complete
bipole includes the functions of frequency control, power modulation, AC voltage and reactive
power control and torsional frequency damping control.

The current or extinction angle controller generates a control signal V c which is related to
the firing angle required. The firing angle controller generates gate pulses in response to the
control signal Vc . The selector picks the smaller of the α determined by the current and CEA
controllers.

Firing Angle Control

The operation of CC and CEA controllers is closely linked with the method of generation
of gate pulses for the valves in a converter. The requirements for the firing pulse generation of
HVDC valves are
 35

1. The firing instant for all the valves are determined at ground potential and the firing
signals sent to individual thyristors by light signals through fibre-optic cables. The
required gate power is made available at the potential of individual thyristor.
2. While a single pulse is adequate to turn-on a thyristor, the gate pulse generated must send
a pulse whenever required, if the particular valve is to be kept in a conducting
state. The two basic firing schemes are
1. Individual Phase Control (IPC)
2. Equidistant Pulse Control (EPC)

Individual Phase Control (IPC)

This was used in the early HVDC projects. The main feature of this scheme is that the
firing pulse generation for each phase (or valve) is independent of each other and the firing
pulses are rigidly synchronized with commutation voltages.
There are two ways in which this can be achieved
1. Constant α Control
2. Inverse Cosine Control
Constant α Control
Six timing (commutation) voltages are derived from the converter AC bus via voltage
transformers and the six gate pulses are generated at nominally identical delay times subsequent
to the respective voltage zero crossings. The instant of zero crossing of a particular commutation

voltage corresponds to α = 0o for that valve.

The delays are produced by independent delay circuits and controlled by a common
control voltage V derived from the current controllers.

Inverse Cosine Control

The six timing voltages (obtained as in constant α control) are each phase shifted by 90 o
and added separately to a common control voltage V.
 36

The zero crossing of the sum of the two voltages initiates the firing pulse for the
particular valve is considered. The delay angle α is nominally proportional to the inverse cosine
of the control voltage. It also depends on the AC system voltage amplitude and shape.

The main advantage of this scheme is that the average DC voltage across the bridge
varies linearly with the control voltage Vc .

Drawbacks of IPC Scheme

The major drawback of IPC scheme is the aggravation of the harmonic stability problem
that was encountered particularly in systems with low short circuit ratios (less than 4). The
harmonic instability, unlike instability in control systems, is a problem that is characterized by
magnification of noncharacteristic harmonics in steady-state.
This is mainly due to the fact that any distortion in the system voltage leads to
perturbations in the zero crossings which affect the instants of firing pulses in IPC scheme. This
implies that even when the fundamental frequency voltage components are balanced, the firing
 3
7

pulses are not equidistant in steady-state. This in turn leads to the generation of noncharacteristic
harmonics (harmonics of order h ≠ np ± 1) in the AC current which can amplify the harmonic
content of the AC voltage at the converter bus. The problem of harmonic instability can be
overcome by the following measures
1. Through the provision of synchronous condensers or additional filters for filtering out
noncharacteristic harmonics.
2. Use of filters in control circuit to filter out noncharacteristic harmonics in the
commutation voltages.
3. The use of firing angle control independent of the zero crossings of the AC voltages. This
is the most attractive solution and leads to the Equidistant Pulse Firing scheme.

Equidistant Pulse Control (EPC)

The firing pulses are generated in steady-state at equal intervals of 1/pf , through a ring
counter. This control scheme uses a phase locked oscillator to generate the firing pulses. Thre are
three variations of the EPC scheme
1. Pulse Frequency Control (PFC)
2. Pulse Period Control
3. Pulse Phase Control (PPC)

Pulse Frequency Control (PFC)

A Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is used, the frequency of which is determined by
the control voltage Vc which is related to the error in the quantity (current, extinction angle or
DC voltage) being regulated. The frequency in steady-state operation is equal to pfo where fo is
the nominal frequency of the AC system. PFC system has an integral characteristic and has to be
used along with a feedback control system for stabilization.
The Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) consists of an integrator, comparator and a
pulse generator.
 38

The output pulses of the generator drive the ring counter and also reset the integrator. The
instant (tn ) of the firing pulse is determined by

t n
K1 (Vc +V1 )dt = V3
t n 1

where V1 is a bias (constant) voltage and V3 is proportional to the system

period. In steady-state, Vc = 0, and from the above equation, we get
K1 V1 (tn – tn-1 ) = V3
Since, tn – tn-1 = 1/pfo
in steady-state, the gain K1 of the integrator is chosen as
K1 = pfo V3 / V1
The circuit does not incorporate frequency correction (when the system frequency
deviates from fo ). The frequency correction is obtained by deriving V3 as
V3 = V2 / (1+ST1 ) , V2 = K1 V1 (tn-1 – tn-2 )

Pulse Period Control

It is similar to PFC except for the way in which the control voltage V c is handled. The
structure of the controller is the same, however, Vc is now summed with V3 instead of V1 . Thus,
the instant tn of the pulse generation is
 3
9

t n
K1V1dt = V3 +Vc
t n 1

K1 V1 (tn – tn-1 ) = V3 + Vc
With Vc = 0, the interval between consecutive pulses, in steady-state, is exactly equal to
1/pfo .

The frequency correction in this scheme is obtained by either updating V 1 in response to

the system frequency variation or including another integrator in the CC or CEA controller.

Pulse Phase Control (PPC)

An analog circuit is configured to generate firing pulses according to the following equation
t n
K1V1dt = Vcn Vc(n 1) +V3
t n 1

where Vcn and Vc(n-1) are the control voltages at the instants tn and tn-1 respectively.
For proportional current control, the steady-state can be reached when the error of Vc is
constant.
The major advantages claimed for PPC over PFC are (i) easy inclusion of α limits by
limiting Vc as in IPC and (ii) linearization of control characteristic by including an inverse cosine
function block after the current controller. Limits can also be incorporated into PFC or pulse
period control system.
Drawbacks of EPC Scheme
EPC Scheme has replaced IPC Scheme in modern HVDC projects; it has certain
limitations which are
1. Under balanced voltage conditions, EPC results in less DC voltage compared to IPC.
Unbalance in the voltage results from single phase to ground fault in the AC system
 4
0

which may persist for over 10 cycles due to stuck breakers. Under such conditions, it is
desirable to maximize DC power transfer in the link which calls for IPC.
2. EPC Scheme also results in higher negative damping contribution to torsional oscillations
when HVDC is the major transmission link from a thermal station.

Current and Extinction Angle Control

The current controller is invariably of feedback type which is of PI type.

The extinction angle controller can be of predictive type or feedback type with IPC
control. The predictive controller is considered to be less prone to commutation failure and was
used in early schemes. The feedback control with PFC type of Equidistant Pulse Control
overcomes the problems associated with IPC.
The extinction angle, as opposed to current, is a discrete variable and it was felt the
feedback control of gamma is slower than the predictive type. The firing pulse generation is
based on the following equation
tn

0= ecj d ( t) + 2 X c I d

+n 1

where ecj is the commutation voltage across valve j and t n is the instant of its
firing. In general, the prediction of firing angle is based on the equation
Βj = γref + µj
where µj is the overlap angle of valve j, which is to be predicted based on the current knowledge
of the commutation voltage and DC current.
Under large disturbances such as a sudden dip in the AC voltage, signals derived from the
derivative of voltage or DC current aid the advancing of delay angle for fast recovery from
commutation failures.
 41

Starting and Stopping of DC Link

Energization and Deenergization of a Bridge:

Consider N series connected bridges at a converter station. If one of the bridges is to be
taken out of service, there is need to not only block, but bypass the bridge. This is because of the
fact that just blocking the pulses does not extinguish the current in the pair of valves that are left
conducting at the time of blocking. The continued conduction of this pair injects AC voltage into
the link which can give rise to current and voltage oscillations due to lightly damped oscillatory
circuit in the link formed by smoothing reactor and the line capacitance. The transformer feeding
the bridge is also subjected to DC magnetization when DC current continues to flow through the
secondary windings.
The bypassing of the bridge can be done with the help of a separate bypass valve or by
activating a bypass pair in the bridge (two valves in the same arm of the bridge). The bypass
valve was used with mercury arc valves where the possibility of arc backs makes it impractical to
use bypass pairs. With thyristor valves, the use of bypass pair is the practice as it saves the cost
of an extra valve.

With the selection of bypass pair 1 and 4, the commutation from valve 2 to4 is there, but
the commutation from valve 3 to valve 5 is prevented. In the case of a predetermined choice of
the bypass path, the time lapse between the blocking command and the current transfer to bypass

path can vary from 600 and 1800 for a rectifier bridge. In the inverter, there is no time lag
involved in the activation of the bypass pair. The voltage waveforms for the rectifier and inverter
during de-energisation are shown below where the overlap is neglected.
 42

The current from bypass pair is shunted to a mechanical switch S1 . With the aid of the
isolators S, the bridge can be isolated. The isolator pair S and switch S1 are interlocked such that
one or both are always closed.
The energisation of a blocked bridge is done in two stages. The current is first diverted
from S1 to the bypass pair. For this to happen S1 must generate the required arc voltage and to
minimize this voltage, the circuit inductance must be small. In case the bypass pair fails to take
over the current, S1 must close automatically if the current in that does not become zero after a
predetermined time interval. AC breakers with sufficient arc voltage, but with reduced breaking
capacity are used as switch S1 .
In the second stage of energisation, the current is diverted from the bypass pair. For the
rectifier, this can take place instantaneously neglecting overlap. The voltage waveforms for this
case are shown below.

Start-Up of DC Link:
There are two different start-up procedures depending upon whether the converter firing
controller provides a short gate pulse or long gate pulse. The long gate pulse lasts nearly 1200 ,
the average conduction period of a valve.
Start-up with long pulse firing:
1. Deblock inverter at about γ = 900
2. Deblock rectifier at α = 850 to establish low direct current
3. Ramp up voltage by inverter control and the current by rectifier control.
 43

Start-up with short pulse firing:

1. Open bypass switch at one terminal
2. Deblock that terminal and load to minimum current in the rectifier mode
3. Open bypass switch at the second terminal and commutate current to the bypass pair
4. Start the second terminal also in the rectifier mode
5. The inverter terminal is put into the inversion mode
6. Ramp up voltage and current.

The voltage is raised before raising the current. This permits the insulation of the line to
be checked before raising the power. The ramping of power avoids stresses on the generator
shaft. The switching surges in the line are also reduced.
The required power ramping rate depends on the strength of the AC system. Weaker
systems require fast restoration of DC power for maintaining transient stability.

Power Control
The current order is obtained as the quantity derived from the power order by dividing it
by the direct voltage. The limits on the current order are modified by the voltage dependent
current order limiter (VDCOL). The objective of VDCOL is to prevent individual thyristors from
carrying full current for long periods during commutation failures.
By providing both converter stations with dividing circuits and transmitting the power
order from the leading station in which the power order is set to the trailing station, the fastest
response to the DC line voltage changes is obtained without undue communication requirement.

The figure below shows the basic power controller used.

 44

When the DC line resistance is large and varies considerably e.g., when
the overhead line is very long and exposed to large temperature variations, the DC line voltage
drop cannot be compensated individually in the two stations. This problem can be solved by
using a current order calculated in one substation only and transmitting its output to the other
substation.
Questions:
1) Write detailed notes on the following
(a) Preductive commutation margin control
(b) Equidistant firing control.
2) (a) Differentiate between the two start-up procedures based upon the pulse.
(b) Describe about starting and stopping of DC link.
3) (a) Explain with neat sketch, constant extinction angle control.
(b) What is meant by current margin between two stations in a HVDC link? Why is the
inverter station, operated as a constant voltage controller under normal conditions?
4) Enumerate the relative merits and demerits of constant current control and constant
voltage control of HVDC link.
5) (a) Explain the necessity of “VDCOL" control in a HVDC link with the help of VI
characteristics..
(b) Explain the procedure of Energization and Deenergization of a converter bridge.
6) (a) Draw the complete converter control characteristics and explain the principle of
power control in a DC link.
(b) Explain Inverse cosine control scheme for firing pulse generations.
7) (a) Explain pulse frequency control scheme for firing pulse generation and discuss its
drawbacks.
(b) Explain clearly the procedure for start up of a DC link.
8) Explain the individual characteristics of a Rectifier and an Inverter with sketches.
9) With block diagram, discuss the principle of operation of a basic power controller.
10) Write short notes on the following:
(a) Constant Alpha control (b) Inverse cosine control.
11) Explain the drawbacks in Individual phase control and equidistant pulse control schemes
used in HVDC projects.
 4
5

Introduction, generation of harmonics, AC & DC Filters, Reactive power

requirements at steady state, sources of reactive power, static VAR systems

Electrical energy transmitted through AC transmission or DC transmission is to be

delivered at the consumer’s terminals at specified voltage level of constant magnitude without
deviation from the ideal waveform.
An HVDC transmission system generates harmonic currents on the AC side and
harmonic voltages on the DC side during operation. The harmonic currents generated at the AC
bus of the converter get transmitted to the AC network and then cause the following adverse
effects.
a) Heating of the equipments connected.
b) Instability of converter control.
c) Generates telephone and radio interference in adjacent communication lines, thereby
inducing harmonic noise.
d) Harmonics can lead to generation of overvoltages due to resonance when filter circuits
are employed.

An HVDC transmission system consists of a rectifier and an inverter whose operation

generates harmonics on AC and DC side of the converter. The three distinct sources of harmonics
in HVDC systems are
1) Transformer.
2) AC Generator.
3) Converter along with its control devices.

Transformer as source of harmonics

Transformers can be considered as source of harmonic voltages, which arise from
magnetic distortion and magnetic saturation due to the presence of a DC component in its
secondary. The magnitude of these harmonics depends upon the operating flux density.
Converter transformers are usually operated at high flux densities than conventional 3-phase
transformers, and therefore the possibility of generation of harmonics is more.
Although the waveform is usually good, an AC generator may be regarded as a source of
balanced harmonics because of non-uniform distribution of flux on the armature windings.
 4
6

The converter which forms the basic unit in HVDC transmission imposes changes of
impedances in the current.

When hysteresis effect is considered, then the non-sinusoidal magnetizing current

waveform is no longer symmetrical which is mainly caused by triple n harmonics and
particularly the third harmonic. Thus, in order to maintain a reasonable sinusoidal voltage supply,
it is necessary to supply a path for triple n harmonics which is achieved by the use of delta-
connected windings.
Harmonics due to Converters
A 12-pulse connection consists of two 6-pulse groups. One group having Y-Y connected
converter transformer with 1:1 turns ratio and the other group having Y-∆ converter transformer
bank with 1:√3 turns ratio.

Generation of Harmonics
The harmonics which are generated are of two types.
(i) Characteristic harmonics.
(ii) Non- characteristic harmonics.
Characteristic Harmonics
The characteristic harmonics are harmonics which are always present even under ideal
operation.
 4
7

In the converter analysis, the DC current is assumed to be constant. But in AC current the
harmonics exist which are of the order of
h = np ± 1
and in DC current it is of the order of
h = np
where n is any integer and p is pulse number.
Neglecting overlap, primary currents of Y-Y and Y-∆ connection of the transformer are
considered taking the origin symmetrical where
i = Id for –π/3≤ ωt≤π/3
= 0 for π/3≤ωt≤2π/3 and for Y-Y connection
-π/3≤ωt≤-2π/3 converter
= - Id for –2π/3≤ ωt≤-π and transformer
2π/3≤ ωt≤π

Figure (a): Phase current on primary side of Y-Y connection converter transformer
Figure (b): Phase current on primary side of Y-∆ connection converter transformer
 4
8

For convenience, the ordinate axis (corresponding to ωt = 0) is chosen such that the
waveform has even symmetry. So, generally, by fourier series
1
f (t) = a0 + an cos n t + bn sin n t
2 n=0 n=0

As positive and negative half cycle cancel each other, so a0 = 0 and as it is (waveform is)
even symmetry, so bn = 0 due to which f(t) becomes

f (t) = an cos n t(or) an cos n t

n=0 n

Therefore, iA1 = an1 cos n t

n

PeriodOfConduction
2
where, an1 = f (t)dt
T 0

Here total time period is T = π and period of conduction is

π/3 So,
/3
2
an1 = 2 X Id cos n td ( t)
0

(Here as it is symmetry)
/3
4I /3 4I sin n t
a = d d
n1 cos n td ( t) =
0 n 0
4
I
an = n
d
sin n 3
1

For triplen harmonics, an = 0

1

Questions
1) Derive the relationship between pulse conversion and harmonics generated.
2) What are the various sources of harmonics generation in a HVDC line?
3) (a) Discuss the effect of pulse number and overlap angle on harmonics generated by
HVDC converters.
(b) Using fourier analysis show that the lowest order voltage harmonic
present in Graetz circuit output voltage is six.
4) Analyze the harmonics in the AC current during 6-pulse and 12-pulse operations using
fourier analysis. What orders of harmonics predominate in the current wave?
 4
9

5) (a) Discuss about characteristic and non-characteristic harmonics generated in HVDC

systems.
(b) What are the adverse affects of Harmonics produced by the HVDC converters?
6) It is required to eliminate harmonics of order 10 and below 10 other than fundamental in
a 12 pulse converter. Suggest a suitable transformer configuration and derive an equation
for primary current of transformer.
7) Give reasons for selecting star-star and star-delta transformer configuration instead of two
star-star configurations for 12 pulse converter. Derive an equation for primary current.
8) How do you estimate the harmonic order based upon pulse number of HVDC converter
station? Give a detailed harmonic analysis of a 12 pulse converter for characteristic
harmonics.
9) What are the different harmonics generated in voltage and current waveform on both AC
and DC side in case of a 6 pulse converter?
10) Discuss the following filters:
(a) Double Tuned Filter (b) High Pass C Type Filter
11) Draw the loci of Network impedance and filter impedance and analyze the impact of
network impendence or admittance on the design of single tuned filter.
12) While listing out the problems associated with the injection of harmonics in a system,
explain what is the major design objective of AC filters? How is their performance
measured?
13) What do you understand by term filter? Why is it increasing in a system? Classify filters
and choose the one required for HVDC transmission system.
14) (a) Discuss about various types of AC filters employed in HVDC systems for harmonic
suppression.
(b) Discuss the design aspects of high pass filter.
15) Discuss the design aspects of a single tuned filter and obtain the expression for optimum
value of Q for minimum harmonic voltage.
16) What are the various types of filters that are employed in HVDC converter station?

17) What are the filter configurations that are employed for HVDC converter
station? Give design aspect of one such filter.
 18) Derive an equation for harmonic voltage and current for single tuned filter and discuss
the influence of network admittance on design aspects.
19) Explain in detail, the different configurations of static VAR system.
 50

20) (a) Describe the method of compensation of reactive power in HVDC substation.
(b) Draw simple single line schematics for each.
21) What is a Static VAR system? How many types of SVS schemes are present and what
are they?
22) (a) Discuss about alternate converter control strategies for reactive power control.
(b) Discuss how shunt capacitors can be used to meet reactive power requirement of a converter.
23) (a) Why Reactive power control is required for HVDC stations? Discuss about
conventional control strategies for Reactive power control in HVDC link.
(b) Discuss how reactive power requirement is met using synchronous condensers.
25) Write a note on the following sources of reactive power
(a) Synchronous condensers
(b) Static VAR system
Design of AC Filters
1. Harmonic Distortion:
Harmonic Distortion is given by,
m
I Z
n n
n=2 100
D=
E1
where,
In – harmonic current injected
Zn – harmonic impedance of the system
E1 – fundamental component of line to neutral voltage
m – highest harmonic considered
Harmonic Distortion is also given by,

m 1/2
(I n Z n )2
DRSS = n=2 100
E
1

2. Telephone Influence Factor (TIF):

An index of possible telephone interference and is given by,
m
1/2
(I n Z n Fn )2
n=2
TIF =
E1
 51

where,
Fn = 5 n f1 pn
Pn is the c message weighting used by Bell Telephone Systems (BTS) and Edison
Electric Institute (EEI) in USA. This weighting reflects the frequency dependent sensitivity of
the human ear and has a maximum value at the frequency of 1000Hz.

3. Telephone Harmonic Form Factor (THFF): It

is similar to TIF and is given by,
Fn = (n f1 / 800) Wn
where,
Wn – weight at the harmonic order n, defined by the Consultative Commission on Telephone and
Telegraph Systems (CCITT).
TIF is used in USA.
THFF is popular in Europe.
4. IT Product:
In BTS-EEI system, there is another index called IT product and is defined by,
1/2
m 2
IT = (I n Fn )
n=2

Types of AC Filters
The various types of filters that are used are
1. Single Tuned Filter
2. Double Tuned Filter
3. High Pass Filter
a) Second Order Filter
b) C Type Filter
Single Tuned Filter
Single Tuned Filters are designed to filter
out characteristic harmonics of single
frequency.
 52

Double Tuned Filter

The Double Tuned
Filters are used to filter out
two discrete frequencies,
instead of using two Single
Tuned Filters. Their main
disadvantages are
i. only one inductor is
subject to full line
impulse voltage.
ii. power loss at the
fundamental
frequency is
considerably reduced.
Second Order High Pass Filter
The Second Order High Pass Filters are designed to filter out higher harmonics.

High Pass C Type Filter

The losses at the fundamental frequency can be reduced by using a C Type Filter where
capacitor C2 is in series with inductor L, which provides a low impedance path to the
fundamental component of current.
 53

A converter system with 12 pulse converters has Double Tuned (or two Single Tuned)
Filter banks to filter out 11th and 13th harmonics and a High Pass Filter bank to filter the rest of
harmonics. Sometimes a third harmonic filter may be used to filter the non-characteristic
harmonics of the 3rd order particularly with weak AC systems where some voltage unbalance is
expected.
All filter branches appear capacitive at fundamental frequency and supply reactive power.

Design of Single Tuned Filter

The impedance ZFh of the single tuned filter at the harmonic order ‘h’ is given by
1
Z
Fh =R+jh L
hC
where ω is the fundamental frequency which can vary with the power system operating
conditions.
A tuned filter is designed to filter a single harmonic of order hr . If hrω=ωr , then ZFh=R=
X0
and is minimum.
Q
Since ω is variable and there could be errors in the tuning(ω r ≠hr ωn where ωn is the
nominal (rated) frequency), it is necessary to compute the impedance of the tuned filter as a
function of the detuning parameter (δ) defined by
h
= r r = r

h h
r n n r n

Considering variations in the frequency (f), inductance (L) and capacitance (C),
 54

1/ 2
f L C
=1+ 1+ 1+
fn L
n
C
n

= f+1 L+1
Cfn 2 Ln
2 Cn
where Ln and Cn are the nominal values of L and C such that hrωn=(LnCn)-
1/2
The variation in C can be due to
(i) error in the initial setting of C
(ii) the variation in C due to the temperature dependence of the dielectric constant.
L C
Z = R + jX n n
Fh 0
L C

n n
1
where X 0 = hr n Ln =
hr n Cn

The single tuned filters are designed to filter out characteristic harmonics of single
frequency. The harmonic current in the filter is given by
Z
I I h Sh
Fh =
Z
Sh + Z Fh

The harmonic voltage at the converter bus is

I = Ih
V h = I Fh Z Fh = Y h
Fh + YSh Yh
The basic objective in designing the filter is to select the filter admittance YFh in order to
minimize Vh or satisfy the constraints on Vh . The problem of designing a filter is complicated by
the uncertainty about the network admittance (YSh ). There are two possible representations of
system impedance in the complex plane where
 55

(a) impedance angle is limited

This allows a simplified computation of the optimum value of Q. In computing the

optimum value of Q, we need to minimize the maximum value of V h . The optimum value of Q
corresponds to the lowest value of the upper limit on Vh .
(b) the impedance is limited both in angle and impedance

The value of Yh is reduced if the detuning parameter δ is maximum = δm . For a specified

value δm and X0 , the locus of the filter impedance as Q is varied is a semicircle in the 4th
quadrant of the G-B plane as shown below.
 56

The optimum value of Q can be obtained from game-theoretic analysis. If one selects YFh
arbitrarily (the tip of YFh lying along the semicircle), the network can select YSh such that the
vector Yh is perpendicular to the vector YSh and ensure Yh is minimum. To maximize the
minimum magnitude of Yh , it is necessary to have YSh tangential to the circle. Thus, we select
YFh to maximize Yh when the network tries to minimize it.

Design of High Pass Filter

For harmonic frequencies of order equal to or higher than 17, a common second order
high pass filter is provided. By defining the following parameters

h0 1 = 1/ LC , Z0 = L C , = R / Z0
The following values can be chosen
0.5 < σ < 2
h0 ≤ √2 hmin
where hmin is the smallest value of h to be handled by the filter. The choice of h0 given above
implies that the filter impedance at hmin has decreased approximately to the value of R.
The filter impedance is given by
Z [ + j(h / h).( 2 1 ( h / h)2 )]
Zf = 0 0
2
0

1 + ( h / h)
0

The reactive power supplied by the filter is

Qf = ( h0 / ( h0 2 – 1 ) ) . ( V12 / Z0 )
 5
7

The filtering is improved if Qf is increased and higher value of h0 can be chosen. Hence,
it is advantageous in designing high pass filter to exclude six pulse operation.

Protection of Filters
The filter is exposed to overvoltage during switching in and the magnitude of this
overvoltage is a function of the short-circuit ratio (higher with low values of SCR) and the
saturation characteristics of the converter transformer.
During switching in, the filter current (at filter frequencies) can have magnitudes ranging
from 20 to 100 times the harmonic current in normal (steady-state) operation. The lower values
for tuned filters and higher values are applicable to high pass filters. These overcurrents are taken
into consideration in the mechanical design of reactor coils.
When filters are disconnected, their capacitors remain charged to the voltage at the
instant of switching. The residual direct voltages can also occur on bus bars. To avoid, the
capacitors may be discharged by short-circuiting devices or through converter transformers or by
voltage transformers loaded with resistors.
If the network frequency deviates from the nominal value, higher currents and losses will
result in AC filters. If they exceed the limits,
 LECTURE NOTES
ON

FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION
SYSTEMS
 FACTS CONTROLLERS

INTRODUCTION

The electric power supply systems of whole world are interconnected, involving connections

inside the utilities, own territories with external to inter-utility, internationals to inter regional

and then international connections. This is done for economic reasons, to reduce the cost of

electricity and to improve reliability of power supply. We need the interconnections to pool

power plants and load centers in order to minimize the total power generation capacity and fuel

cost. Transmission lines interconnections enable to supply, electricity to the loads at minimized

cost with a required reliability. The FACTS Technology is adopted in the transmissions to

enhance grid reliability and to overcome the practical difficulties which occur in mechanical

devises used as controllers of the transmission network.

The FACTS Technology has opened a new opportunity to the transmission planner for

controlling power and enhancing the useable capacity presently, also to upgrade the

transmission lines. The current through the line can be controlled at a reasonable cost which

enables a large potential of increasing the capacity of existing lines with large conductors and

by the use of FACTS controllers the power flow through the lines is maintained stable. The

FACTS controllers control the parameters governing the operation of transmission systems,

such as series impedance, shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase angle and damping of

oscillations at various frequencies below the rated frequency.

In an A.C power flow, the electrical generation and load must be balanced all the times. Since

the electrical system is self-regulating, therefore, if one of the generators supplies less power
than the load, the voltage and frequency drop, thereby load goes on decreasing to equalize the

generated power by subtracting the transmission losses. How ever there is small margin of self

regulating. If voltage is dropped due to reactive power, the load will go up and frequency goes

on decreasing and the system will collapse ultimately. Also the system will collapse if there is

a large reactive power available in it. In case of high power generation the active power flows

from surplus generating area to the deficit area.

POWER FLOW

Consider a simple case of power flow in parallel paths. Here power flows from surplus

generation area to the deficit generation area. Power flow is based on the inverse of line

impedance. It is likely that lower impedance line become overloaded and limits the loading on

both the paths, though the higher impedance area is not fully loaded. There would not be any

chance to upgrade the current capacity of the overloaded path, because it would further

decrease the impedance. The power flow with HVDC converters is controlled by high speed

HVDC converters. The parallel A.C. transmission maintains the stability of power flow. The

power flow control with FACTS controllers can be carried out by means of controlling

impedance, phase angle and by injected voltage in series.

1400 MW
A
C
10 
2000 MW
10  3000
600 5  1600 MW
MW MW load

1000 MW

(a)
 -5 1750 MW
A
C
10
2000 MW

600 10 3000

MW 5
1250 MW
MW load

B 1000 MW

(b)

1750 MW
A
C
10

250 MW 10 5 3000 MW load

2000MW

7
B 1000 MW

(c)

-4.24 1750 MW
A
C
10
2000MW

250 MW 10 5 3000 MW load

1250 MW

7
B 1000 MW

(d)

Fig 2.1 Power Flow in Meshed Paths

-

For understanding free flow of power, consider a simplified case in which two generators are

sending power to load center from different sites. The Mesh network has the lines AB, BC and

AC having continuous rating of 1000 MW, 1250 MW respectively. If one of the generators is

generating 2000 MW and the other 1000 MW, a total power of 3000 MW would be delivered

to the load center. In Fig 2.1 (a) the three impedances 10Ω, 5Ω and 10Ω, carry the powers 600

MW, 1600 MW and 1400 MW respectively. Such a situation would overload line BC and

therefore generation would have to be decreased at „B‟ and increased at „A‟ in order to meet

the load without overloading the line BC.

If a capacitor of reactance (-5Ω) at the synchronous frequency is inserted in the line AC as in

Fig 2.1 (b), it reduces the line impedance from 10Ω to 5Ω so that the power flow through the

lines AB, BC and AC are 250 MW, 1250 MW and 1750 MW respectively. It is clear that if the

series capacitor is adjusted the power flow level may be realized. The complication is if the

series capacitor is mechanically controlled it may lead to sub synchronous resonance. This

resonance occurs when one of the mechanical resonance frequencies of the shaft of a multiple-

turbine generator unit coincides with normal frequency by subtracting the electrical resonance

frequency of the capacitor with the inductive load impedance of the line. Then the shaft will be

damaged.

If the series capacitor is thyristor controlled, it can be varied whenever required. It can be

modulated to rapidly damped and sub synchronous conditions. Also can be modulated at

damped low frequency oscillations. The transmission system to go from one steady-state

condition to another without the risk of damaging the shaft, the system collapse. In other words

thyristor controlled series capacitor can enhance the stability of network similarly as in Fig

2.1(c). The impedance of line BC is increased by inserting an inductor of reactance in series

-
-

with the line AB, the series inductor which is controlled by thyristor could serve to adjust the

steady-state power flow and damped unwanted oscillations.

Another option of thyristor controlled method is, phase angle regulator could be installed

instead of series capacitor in the line as in Fig 2.1(d). The regulator is installed in line AC to

reduce the total phase angle difference along the line from 8.5 degree to 4.26 degrees. Thus the

combination of Mesh and thyristor control of the phase angle regulator may reduce the cost.

The same result could be achieved by injecting a variable voltage in one of the lines. Balancing

of power flow in the line is carried out by the use of FACTS controller in the line.

LOADING CAPABILITY LIMITS

For the best use of the transmission and to improve the loading capability of the system one

has to over come the following three kinds of limitations:-

 Thermal Limitations

 Dielectric Limitations

 Limitations of Stability

Thermal Limitations

Thermal capability of an overhead lines is a function of the ambient temperature, wind

conditions, conductors condition and ground clearance. It varies by a factor of 2 to 1 due to

variable environment and the loading history. It needs to find out the nature of environment

and other loading parameters. For this, off-line computer programs are made use to calculate a

line loading capability based on available ambient environment and present loading history.

The over load line monitoring devices are also used to know the on line loading capability of

the line. The normal loading of the line is also decided on a loss evaluation basis which may

vary for many reasons. The increase of the rating of transmission line involves the

-
-

consideration of the real time rating of a transformer which is a function of ambient

temperature, aging of transformer and present loading history of off-line and on-line

monitoring. The loading capability of transformer is also used to obtain real time loading

capability. Enhancement of cooling of transformer is also a factor of increase of load on

transmission line. From the above discussion it is necessary of upgrading line loading

capability which can be done by changing the conductor of higher current rating which

requires the structural upgrading. The loading capability of line is also achieved by converting

a single circuit to double circuit line. If the higher current capability is available then the

question arises, how to control this high current in the line, also, the acceptance of sudden

voltage drop with such high current etc. The FACTS technology helps in making an effective

use of the above technique of upgrading the loading capability of line.

Dielectric Limitations

From insulation point of view, many transmission lines are designed very conservatively. For a

normal voltage rating, it is rarely possible to increase normal operation by +10% voltages, e.g.

500 kV, - 550 kV or even higher. Care must be taken such that the dynamic and transient over

voltages are within the limit. Modern type of gapless arresters, or line insulators with internal

gapless arresters or powerful Thyristor-controlled over voltage suppressors at the sub-stations

are used to increase the line and sub station voltage capability. The FACTS technology could

be used to ensure acceptable over-voltage and power conditions.

Limitations of Stability

There are a number of stability issues that limit the transmission capability. They are:

 Transient Stability

 Dynamic Stability

-
-

 Steady-state Stability

 Frequency Collapse

 Voltage Collapse

 Sub synchronous Resonance

IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLABLE PARAMETERS

 Control of line impedance „X‟ with a Thyristor controlled series capacitor can provide a

powerful means of current control.

 When the angle is not large in some cases the control of „X‟ or the angle provides the

control of active power.

 Control of angle with a phase angle regulator controls the driving voltage, which

provides the powerful means of controlling the current flow and hence active power

flow when the angle is not large.

 Injecting a voltage in series with the line, which is perpendicular to the current flow can

increase or decrease the magnitude of current flow. Since the current flow lags the

driving voltage by 90º, this means injection of reactive power in series compensation

can provide a powerful means of controlling the line current and hence the active power

when the angle is not large.

 Injecting voltage in series with line with any phase angle with respect to the driving

voltage can control the magnitude and the phase of the line current. This means that

injecting a voltage phasor with variable phase angle can provide a powerful means of

controlling the active and reactive power flow. This requires injection if both active and

reactive power are in series.

-
-

 When the angle is not-large, controlling the magnitude of one or the other line voltages

with a Thyristor-controlled voltage regularly can very cost-effective means for the

control of reactive power flow through the inter connection.

 Combination of the line impedance with a series controller and voltage regulation with

shunt controller can also provide a cost effective means to control both the active and

reactive power flow between the two systems.

TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

In general FACTS controllers can be classified into four categories.

 Series controllers

 Shunt controllers

 Combined series-series controllers

 Combined series-shunt controllers

Line

(a) General symbol of (b) Series controller

FACTS controller

Line

D.C Power Link

(c) Shunt controller

(d) Unified Series controller

-
-

Line

Line

Coordinated
Controller
DC Power Link
(e) (f) Unified Series
shunt controller

Fig 2.2 Schematic diagrams of FACTS Controller

Fig 2.2 (a) shows the general symbol for FACTS controller; with a thyristor arrow inside a

box. Fig 2.2 (b) shows the series controller could be variable impedance, such as capacitor,

reactor etc. or it is a power electronics based variable source of main frequency sub-

synchronous frequency and harmonics frequencies or combination of all to serve the desired

need. The principle of series controller is to inject the voltage in series with the line. Even

variable impedance multiplied by the current flow through it, represents an injected series

voltage in the line. So long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, the series

controller supplies or consumes variable reactive power. If any other phase relation involves it

will handle the real power also.

Fig 2.2 (c) shows the shunt controllers. As series controller, the shunt controller also has

variable impedance, variable source, or a combination of all. The principle of shunt controller

is to inject current into the system at the point of connection. Even variable shunt impedance

connected to the line voltage causes a variable current flow and hence represents injection of

current into the line. As long as the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line

voltage. The shunt controller supplies or consumes variable reactive power. If any other phase

relationship involves, it will also handle real power.

-
-

Fig 2.2 (d) shows the combination of two separate series controllers, which are controlled in a

coordinated manner, in a multi line transmission system. Other wise it could be unified

controller. As shown in Fig 2.2 (d) the series controllers provide independent series reactive

compensation for each line and also transfer the real power among the lines via the unified

series-series controller, referred to as inter-line power flow controller, which makes it possible

to balance both the real and reactive power flow in the lines and thereby maximizing the

utilization of transmission system. Note that the term “unified” here means that the D.C

terminals of all controller converters are connected together for real power transfer.

Fig 2.2 (e & f) shows the combined series-shunt controllers. This could be a combination of

separate shunt and series controllers, which are controlled in coordinated manner in Fig 2.2 (e)

or a unified power flow controller with series and shunt elements in Fig 2.2 (f). The principle

of combined shunt and series controllers is, it injects current into the system with the shunt part

of the controller and voltage through series part. However, when the shunt and series

controllers are unified, there can be a real power exchange between the series and shunt

controllers via the power link.

BENEFITS FROM FACTS CONTROLLER

,

 Control of power flow is in order, meet the utilities, own needs, ensure optimum power

flow, and ride through emergency conditions or a combination of all.

 Increase the loading capability of lines to their thermal capabilities, including short

term and seasonal, this can be done by overcoming other limitations and sharing of

power among lines according to their capability.

-
-

 Increase the system security through raising the transient stability limit, limiting short

circuit currents and over loads, managing cascading black-outs and damping electro-

mechanical oscillations of power systems and machines.

 Provide secure tie-line connections to neighboring utilities and regions thereby

decreasing overall generation reserve requirements both sides.

 Provide greater flexibility in setting new generation.

 Provide upgrade of lines.

 Reduce the reactive power flow, thus allowing the lines to carry more active power.

 Reduce loop flows.

 Increase utilization of lowest cost generation.

UNIT - II
VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTERS

1
11 3 31 P&Q

Vd Vab
iab AC System
4
41 2 21

Fig 2.3 (a) Single Phase Full Wave Bridge Converters

Operation of Single Phase Bridge Converter

Fig 2.3 (a) shows a single phase bridge converter consisting of four valves i.e. valves (1-1') to

(4 -4'), a capacitor to provide stiff D.C. Voltage and two A.C. connection points „a‟ and „b‟.

The designated valve numbers represent their sequence of turn on and turn off operation. The

-
-

D.C. voltage is converted to A.C. voltage with the appropriate valve turn-off sequence, as

explained below. As in the first wave form 2.3 (b) when devices 1and 2 are turned on voltage

„Vab‟ becomes „+Vd‟ for one half cycle and when devices 3 and 4 turned off „Vab‟ becomes „-

Vb‟ for the other half cycle. Suppose the current flow in Fig 2.3 (c) is A.C. wave form which is

a sinusoidal wave form „Iab,‟ the angle „θ‟ leads with respect to the square-wave voltage wave

form t1 the operation is illustrated.

Vab AC Voltage
AC Voltage

Iab AC Current
-Vd

Id DC Current
Rectifier Inerter

V1-1 Value Voltage

Vas
Ias

(b)

Fig 2.3(b) Single phase full wave bridge converter

1. From instant t1 to t2 when devices 1 and 2 are ON and 3 and 4 are OFF, „Vab‟ is +ve and Iab

is -ve. The current flows through device 1 into A.C. phase „a‟ and then out of A.C. phase „b‟

through device „2‟ with power flow from D.C. to A.C. (inverter action).

2. From instant t2 to t3 the current reverses i.e. becomes +ve and flows through diodes 1' and 2'

with power flow from A.C. to D.C. (rectifier action)

-
-

3. From instant t3 and t4 device 1 and 2 are OFF and 3 and 4 are ON, Vab becomes -ve and Iab

is still +ve the current flow through devices 3 and 4 with power flow from D.C. to A.C.

(inverter action).

4. From instant t4 and t5 devices 3 and 4 still ON and 1 and 2 OFF Vab is -ve current Iab

reverses and flows through diodes 3' and 4' with power flow from A.C. to D.C. (rectifier

operation).

Fig 2.3(d) shows D.C. current wave form and Fig 2.3(e) shows Voltage across valve (1-1') Fig

2.3(f) shows phasor of power flow from A.C. to D.C. with lagging power factor. Four

operating modes in one cycle of a single phase converter are shown in table

Table 2.1 Operational mode of Single Phase Full Wave Bridge Converter

Conducting

ORD Devices Vab Iab devices conversion

1 & 2 ON

1 3 & 4 OFF +ve -ve 1 and 2 Inverter

1 & 2 ON

2 3 & 4 OFF +ve +ve 1' and 2' Rectifier

1 & 2 OFF

3 3 & 4 ON -ve +ve 3 and 4 Inverter

1 & 2 OFF

4 3 & 4 ON -ve -ve 3' and 4' Rectifier

-
 -

1 11 3 31 5 51

a
P Vd N
b
c
4 41 6 2 21
61

(a) Three Phase Full Wave Bridge Converters

+Vd/2
1
Va Phase to DC mid point
4 4
-Vd/2
+Vd/2
Vb 3 3
6 6
-Vd/2
+Vd/2
5 5
Vc
2 2
-Vd/2

(b) (b)

-
 -

1,3 4,6
1,6 1,6
Vab=Va-Vb
3,4 3,4 ph-to-ph voltage

2,6 3,5
3,2 3,2
Vbc=Vb-Vc
5,6 5,6 5,6

1,5 3,4
5,4 5,4
Vca=Vc-Va
1,2 1,2

(c) (c)

t1 t2 t3
11 4 11 4
ia 1
4 1 4 1
1 41 1

(d) (d)

+vd/6
Vn nature
voltage
-vd/6

(e) (e)

Van +vd/3 Ph-to-N

voltage

-vd/3

(f) (f)

V1 Valve
(g) voltage

-
 -

11 4 1 41
DC Current from
1 4 1 4 ph-a

(h) (h)

31 61 31
DC Current from ph-b

3 6 3 6

(i) (i)

51 21 51 21 DC Current from ph-c

Id
2 5 2 5

(j) (j)

Total DC Bus Current

(k) (k)

DC Current with upf inverter operation

(l)

Fig 2.4 Three phase full wave bridge converter

-
- FACTS Controllers 26

Fig 2.4 (a) shows a three phase wave converter with six valves, i.e. (1-1') to (6-6') they are

designated in the order. 1 to 6 represents the sequence of valve operation in time.It consists of

three legs, 120º apart. The three legs operate in a square wave mode; each valve alternately

closes for 180º as in the wave form of Fig 2.4 (b), Va, Vb and VC.

These three square-wave waveform are the voltages of A.C. buses a, b and c with respect to a

D.C. capacitor mid point „N‟ with peak voltages of +Vd/2 and -Vd/2. The three phase legs have

their timing 120º apart with respect to each other to a 6-phase converter operation phase leg (3-

6) switches 120º after phase leg (1-4) and phase leg (5-2) switches 120º after phase (3-6), thus

completing the cycle as shown by the valve close-open sequence.

Fig 2.4 (c) shows the three phase-to-phase voltages Vab, Vbc and Vca, where VAB = Va-Vb, Vbc =

Vb-Vc and Vca = Vc-Va. These phase-to-phase voltages have 120º pulse width with peak

voltage magnitude of Vd. The periods of 60, º when the phase-to-phase voltages are zero,

represents the condition when two valves on the same order of the D.C. bus.

For example the waveform for Vab shows voltage Vd when device „1‟ connects A.C. bus „a‟ to

the D.C. + Vd/2, and device 6 connects A.C. bus „b‟ to the D.C. bus -Vd/2, giving a total voltage

Vab = Va-Vb = Vd. It is seen 120º later, when device „6‟ is turned OFF and device „3‟ is turned

ON both A.C. buses „a‟ and „b‟ become connected to the same D.C. bus +Vd/2, giving zero

voltage between buses „a‟ and „b‟. After another 60º later. When device 1 turns OFF and

device „4‟ connects bus „a‟ to -Vd/2, Vab becomes -Vd. Another 120º later, device „3‟ turns OFF

and device „6‟, connects bus „b‟ to -Vd/2, giving Vab = 0 the cycle is completed, after another

60º. device „4‟ turns OFF and device „1‟ turns ON, the other two voltages Vab and Vca have the

same sequence 120º a part.

-
-

The turn ON and turn OFF of the devices establish the wave forms of the A.C. bus voltages in

relation to the D.C. voltage, the current flows itself, is the result of the interaction of the A.C.

voltage with the D.C. system. Each converter phase-leg can handle resultant current flow in

either direction. In fig 2.4 (d) A.C. current „Ia‟ in phase „a‟ with +ve current representing

current from A.C. to D.C. side for simplicity, the current is assumed to have fundamental

frequency only. From point t1 to t2. For example phase „a‟ current is -ve and has to flow

through either valve (1-1') or valve (4-4'). It is seen, when comparing the phase „a‟ voltage

with the form of the phase „a‟ current that when device 4 is ON and device „1‟ is OFF and the

current is -ve, the current would actually flow through diode 4'. But later say from point t 2, t3,

when device „1‟ is ON, the -Ve current flows through device „1‟, i.e., the current is transferred

from diode 4' to device „1‟ the current covering out of phase „b‟ flows through device „6‟ but

then part of this current returns back through diode 4' into the D.C. bus. The D.C. current

returns via device „5‟ into phase „e‟. At any time three valves are conducting in a three phase

converter system. In fact only the active power part of A.C. current and part of the harmonics

flow into the D.C. side, as shown in Fig 2.4(l ). [19]

TRANSFORMER CONNECTION FOR 12-PULSE OPERATION

The harmonics content of the phase to phase voltage and phase to neutral voltage are 30º out of

phase. If this phase shift is corrected, then the phase to neutral voltage (Van) other then that of

the harmonics order 12n±1 would be in phase opposition to those of the phase to phase voltage

(Vab) and with 1/√3 times the amplitude.

In Fig 2.5 (a) if the phase to phase voltages of a second converter were connected to a delta-

connected secondary of a second transformer, with √3 times the turns compared to the star

connected secondary, and the pulse train of one converter was shifted by 30º with respect to the

-
-

other “in order to bring „Vab‟ and „Van‟ to be in phase”, the combined out put voltage would

have a 12-phase wave form, with harmonics of the order of 12n±1, i.e. 11th , 13th , 23rd , 25th

…. And with amplitudes of 1/11th, 1/13th, 1/23rd 1/25th. respectively, compared to the

fundamental.

I N

Vd

300

3

(a)

Vd
Six pulse phase to
phase

2Vd/3
Vd3 3x6 pulse phase to
„N‟

12- pulse

(b)

-
-

Vd

(c)

Fig 2.5 Transformer Connection for 12-Pulse Operation

Fig 2.5 (b): shows the two wave forms Van and Vab, adjusted for the transformer ratio and one

of them phase displaced by 30º. These two wave forms are then added to give the third wave

form, which is a 12-pulse wave form, closer to being a sine wave than each of the six-phase

wave form.

In the arrangement of Fig 2.5 (a), the two six-pulse converters, involving a total of six-phase

legs are connected in parallel on the same D.C. bus, and work together as a 12-pulse converter.

It is necessary to have two separate transformers, otherwise phase shift in the non 12-pulse

harmonics i.e. 5th, 7th, 17th, 19th …. In the secondaries it will result in a large circulating current

due to common core flux. To the non 12-pulse voltage harmonics, common core flux will

represent a near short circuit. Also for the same reason, the two primary side windings should

not be directly connected in parallel to the same three phase A.C. bus bars on the primary side.

Again this side becomes the non 12-pulse voltage harmonics i.e. 5th, 7th, 17th, 19th …. while

they cancel out looking into the A.C. system would be in phase for the closed loop. At the

-
-

same time harmonics will also flow in this loop, which is essentially the leakage inductance of

the transformers.

The circulating current of each non 12-pulse harmonics is given by:

In/ I1 = 100/ (XT * n²) Percent

Where I1 is the nominal fundamental current, n is the relevant harmonic number, and XT is the

per unit transformer impedance of each transformer at the fundamental frequency. For

example, if XT is 0.15 per unit at fundamental frequency, then the circulating current for the

fifth harmonic will be 26.6%, seventh, 14.9%, eleventh, 5.5%, thirteenth, 3.9%, of the rated

fundamental current, and so on. Clearly this is not acceptable for practical voltage sourced

converters. Therefore, it is necessary to connect the transformer primaries of two separate

transformers in series and connect the combination to the A.C. bus as shown in Fig 2.5 (a),

with the arrangement shown in Fig 2.5 (a), the 5th, 7th, 17th, 19th…. harmonics voltages cancel

out, and the two fundamental voltages add up, as shown in Fig 2.5 (b), and the combined unit

becomes a true 12-pulse converter.

TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS FOR 24-PULSE AND 48-PULSE OPERATION

Two 12-pulse converters phase shifted by 15º from each other can provide a 24-pulse

converter, with much lower harmonics on both A.C. and D.C. sides. It‟s A.C. out put voltage

would have 24n±1 order of harmonics i.e. 23rd, 25th, 47th, 49th …. , with magnitudes of 1/23rd,

1/25th, 1/47th, 1/49th …. respectively, of the fundamental A.C. voltage. The question now is,

how to arrange this phase shift. One approach is to provide 15º phase shift windings on the

two transformers of one of the two 12-pulse converters. Another approach is to provide phase

shift windings for (+7.5º) phase shift on the two transformers of one 12-pulse converter and (-

7.5º) on the two transformers of the other 12-pulse converter, as shown in Fig2.6 (a), the later

-
-

is preferred because it requires transformer of the same design and leakage inductances. It is

also necessary to shift the firing pulses of one 12-pulse converter by 15º with respect to the

other. All four six-pulse converters can be connected on the D.C. side in parallel, i.e. 12-pulse

legs in parallel. Alternately all four six-pulse converters can be connected in series for high

voltage or two pair of 12-pulse series converters may then be connected will have a separate

transformer, two with star connected secondaries, and the other two with delta-connected

secondaries.

AC System AC System

-12.50

-12.50

+12.50

+12.50

Fig 2.6 Transformer connections in series & parallel

Primaries of all four transformers can be connected in series as shown in Fig 2.6 (b) in order to

avoid harmonic circulation current corresponding the 12-pulse order i.e. 11th, 13th, and 23rd,

24th. It may be worth while to consider two 12-pulse converters connected in parallel on the

A.C. system bus bars, with inter phase reactors as shown in Fig 2.6 (b) for a penalty of small

harmonic circulation inside the converter loop. While this may be manageable from the point
-

of view of converter rating. Care has to be taken in the design of converter controls,

particularly during light load when the harmonic currents could become the significant part of

the A.C. current flowing through the converter. As increase in the transformer impedance to

say 0.2 per unit may be appropriate when connecting two 12-pulse transformers to the A.C. bus

directly and less than that when connected through inter phase reactors. For high power

FACTS Controllers, from the point of view of the A.C. system, even a 24-pulse converter with

out A.C. filters could have voltage harmonics, which are higher then the acceptable level in

this case, a single high pass filter turned to the 23 rd - 25th harmonics located on the system side

of the converter transformers should be adequate.

The alternative of course, is go to 48-pulse operation with eight six pulse groups, with one set

of transformers of one 24-pulse converter phase shifted from the other by 7.5º, or one set

shifted (+7.5º) and the other by (-3.7º). Logically, all eight transformer primaries may be

connected in series, but because of the small phase shift (i.e. 7.5º) the primaries of the two 24-

pulse converters each with four primaries in series may be connected in parallel, if the

consequent circulating current is accepted. This should not be much of a problem, because the

higher the order of a harmonic, the lower would be the circulating current. For 0.1 per unit

transformer impedance and the 23rd harmonic, the circulating current can be further limited by

higher transformer inductance or by inter phase reactor at the point of parallel connection of

the two 24-pulse converters, with 48-pulse operation A.C. filters are not necessary.

THREE LEVEL VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTERS

The three level converters is one, which is used to vary the magnitude of A.C. out put voltage

without having to change the magnitude of the D.C. voltage.

-
-

+Vd/2

1
D1 11

1A 41 11A
ia

4A
41A
D4
4 41

-Vd/2

(a)

1,1A 1,1A

Va +vd/2

-vd/2 4,4A
1,1A 1,1A
Va
1A,4A
4,4A
3,3A
Vb
3,3A 3,5A

+vd
+vd/2
Va-Vb

-vd

(b)

Fig 2.7 Voltage source converters

-
-

One phase leg of a three level converter is shown in Fig 2.7 (a). The other two phase legs (not

shown) would be connected across the same D.C. bus bars and the clamping diodes connected

to the same mid point „N‟ of the D.C. capacitor. It is seen that each half of the phase leg is

splitted into two series connected valves i.e. 1-1' is Sp' into 1-1' and 1A-1'A. The mid point of

the splitted valve is connected by diodes D1 and D2 to the mid point „N‟ as shown on the phase

of it; this may seen like doubling the number of valves from two to four per phase leg, in

addition to providing two extra diode valves. However, doubling the number of valves with the

same voltage rating would double the D.C. voltage and hence the power capacity of the

converter. Thus only the addition of the diode clamping valves D1 and D4 per phase leg as in

Fig 2.7 (a) adds to the converter cost. If the converter is a high voltage converter with devices

in series, then the number of main devices would be about the same. A diode clamp at the mid

point may also help to ensure a more voltage sharing between the two valve halves.

Fig 2.7 (b) shows out put voltage corresponding to one three level phase leg. The first wave

form shows a full 180º square wave obtained by the closing of devices 1 and 1 A to give (+Vd/2)

for 180º and the closing of valves 4 and 4A for180º to give (-Vd/2) for 180º . Now consider

second voltage wave form in Fig 2.7 (b) in which upper device 1 is OFF and device 4 A is ON

an angle α earlier than they were due in the 180º square wave operation. This leaves only

device 1A and 4A ON, which in combination with diodes D1 and D2, clamp the phase voltage

Va to zero with respect to the D.C. mid point „N‟ regardless of which way the current is

flowing, this continues for a period 2α until device 1A is turned OFF and device 4 is turned ON

and the voltage jumps to (-Vd/2) with both the lower devices 4 and 4A turned ON and both the

upper devices 1 and 1A turned OFF and so ON. The angle α is variable and the output voltage

Va is made up of σ = 180º - 2αº square waves. This variable period σ per half cycle allows the

-
 -

voltage Va to be independently variable with a fast response. It is seen that devices 1 A and 4A

are turned ON for 180º during each cycle devices 1 and 4 are turned ON for σ = 180º - 2αº

during each cycle, while diodes D1 and D4 conduct for 2αº = 180ºσ each cycle. The converter is

referred to as three level because the D.C. voltage has three levels i.e. (-Vd/2) 0 and (+Vd/2).

CURRENT SOURCE CONVERTERS

A current source converter is characterized by the fact that the D.C. current flow is always in

one direction and the power flow reverses with the reversal of D.C. voltage shows in Fig 2.8

(b). Where as the voltage source converter in which the D.C. voltage always has one polarity

and the power reversal of D.C. current is as shown in Fig 2.8 (a). In Fig2.8 (a) the converter

box for the voltage source converter is a symbolically shown with a turn OFF device with a

reverse diode. Where as the converter box in Fig 2.8 (b) for the current source converter is

shown without a specific type of device. This is because the voltage source converter requires

turn OFF devices with reverse diodes; where as the current source converter may be based on

diodes conventional thyristor or the turn OFF devices. Thus, there are three principal types of

current source converters as shown in Fig 2.8 (c), 2.8 (d), 2.8 (e).

Id

Vd Active power
DC power Reactive power

(a) Voltage source converter

-
 -

Id

Vd or
Active power
DC power or Reactive
or power

(b) Current source converter

DC Current

Active & Reactive power

DC Voltage
DC Power

Filter & Capacitors

(c) Diode Rectifier

DC Current
Active power Reactive power

DC Voltage
DC Power
Filter &
Capacitors

(d) Thyristor line commutated converter

DC Current
Active Reactive
power power
DC Voltage
DC Power

Capacitor Filter

(e) Self commutated converters

Fig 2.8 Current source converters

-
-

Diode Rectifier or Diode Converter

Fig 2.8 (c) represents the diode converter, which simply converts A.C. voltage to D.C. voltage

and utilizes A.C. system voltage for commutating of D.C. current from one valve to another.

Obviously the diode based line commutating converter just converts A.C. power to D.C. power

without any control and also in doing so consumes some reactive power on the A.C. side.

Thyristor Line Commutated Converter

It is based on conventional thyristor with gate turn ON but without gate turn OFF capability as

in Fig 2.8 (d): utilizes A.C. system voltage for commutation of current from one valve to

another. This converter can convert and controls active power in either direction, but in doing

so consumes reactive power on the A.C. side. It can not supply reactive power to the A.C.

system.

Self Commutated Converter

It is based on turn OFF devices like (GTOs, MTOs, IGBTs, etc) in which commutation of

current from valve to valve takes place with the device turn OFF action and provision of A.C.

capacitors to facilitate transfer of current from valve to valve as in Fig 2.8 (e).Where as in a

voltage source converter the commutation of current is supported by a stiff D.C. bus with D.C.

capacitors provide a stiff A.C. bus for supplying the fact changing current pulses needed for

the commutations. It also supplies or consumes the reactive power. [22]

Comparison between Current Source Converters and Voltage Source Converters

 Current source converters in which direct current always has one polarity and the

power reversal takes place through reversal of D.C. voltage polarity. Where as voltage

source converters in which the D.C. voltage always has one polarity, and the power

reversal takes place through reversal of D.C. current polarity.

-
-

 Conventional Thyristor-based converters, being without turn OFF capability, can only

be current source converters. Where as turn OFF device based converters can be of

either type i.e. current source or voltage source converter.

 Diode based current source converters are the lowest cost converters, if control of

active power by the converter is not required. Where as the same type of voltage source

converters are expensive.

 If the leading reactive power is not required, then a conventional Thyristor based

current source converter provides a low cost, converter with active power control. But

for the same purpose Voltage source converter is costly.

 The current sourced converter does not have high short circuit current, where as the

voltage source converter has high short circuit current.

 For current source converters, the rate of rise of fault current during external or internal

faults is limited by the d.c reactor. For the voltage source converters the capacitor

discharge current would rise very rapidly and can damage the valves.

 The six-pulse current source converter does not generate 3rd harmonic voltage, where as

voltage source converter, it generates.

 The transformer primaries connected to current source converter of 12-pulse should not

be connected in series, where as the voltage source converter for the same purpose may

be connected in series for the cancellation of harmonics.

 In a current stiff converter, the valves are not subject to high dv/dt, due to the presence

of A.c capacitor, where as in voltage source converter it can be available.

-
  A.C capacitors required for the current stiff converters can be quite large and

expensive, where as voltage source converter used small size of capacitors which are

cheap.

 Continuous losses in the d.c reactor of a current source converter are much higher than

the losses in the d.c capacitor, where as in voltage source converter they are

relaxable.[23]

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
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 UNIT-III
STATIC SHUNT COMPENSATORS
Objectives of shunt compensation –methods of controllable VAR generation-static VAR
compensators, SVC and STATCOM, comparison
****************

OBJECTIVES OF SHUNT COMPENSATION:

Shunt compensation is used to influence the natural characteristics of the transmission line to “ steady-state

transmittable power and to control voltage profile along the line” shunt connected fixed or mechanically switched reactors are
used to minimize line over-voltage under light load conditions. Shunt connected fixed or mechanically switched capacitors are
applied to maintain voltage levels under heavy load conditions.

Var compensation is used for voltage regulation.

i. At the midpoint to segment the transmission line and
ii. At the end of the line
To prevent “voltage intangibility as well as for dynamic voltage control to increase transient stability and to damp out power
oscillations”.
MID-POINT VOLTAGE REGULATION FOR LINE SEGMENTATION:

Consider simple two-machine(two-bus)transmission model in which an ideal var compensator is shunt connected at the
midpoint of the transmission line

FIG:
NOTE:

i. The midpoint of the transmission line is the best location for compensator because the voltage sage along the
uncompensated transmission line is the longest at the midpoint
ii. The concept of transmission line segmentation can be expanded to use of multiple compensators, located at equal
segments of the transmission line as shown in fig.

END OF LINE VOLTAGE TO SUPPORT TO PREVENT VOLTAGE INSTABILITY:

A simple radial system with feeder line reactance X and load impedance Z is shown.
 NOTE:

1. For a radial line , the end of the line, where the largest voltage variation is experienced, is the best location for the
compensator.
2. Reactive shunt compensation is often used too regulate voltage support for the load when capacity of sending –end
system becomes impaired.

IMPROVEMENT OF TRANSIENT STABILITY:

The shunt compensation will be able to change the power flow in the system during and following disturbances. So as to increase the
transient stability limit. The potential effectiveness of shunt on transient stability improvement can be conveniently evaluated by
“EQUAL AREA CRITERION”.
Assume that both the uncompensated and compensated systems are subjected to the same fault for the same period of time. The
dynamic behavior of these systems is illustrated in the following figures.

METHODS OF CONTROLLABLE VAR GENERATION:

Capacitors generate and inductors (reactors)absorb reactive power when connected to an ac power source. They have been used

with mechanical switches for controlled var generation and absorption. Continuously variable var generation or absorption for

dynamic system compensation as originally provided by

 over or under-excited rotating synchronous machines

 saturating reactors in conjunction with fixed capacitors

Using appropriate switch control, the var output can be controlled continuously from maximum capacitive to maximum
inductive output at a given bus voltage.
More recently gate turn-off thyristors and other power semiconductors with internal turn off capacity have been use of ac
capacitors or reactors.
It is evident that the magnitude of current in the reactor can be varied continuously by the method of delay angle control from
maximum (α=0) to zero (α=90).

In practice, the maximum magnitude of the applied voltage and that of the corresponding current will be limited by the ratings of the
power components(reactor and thyristor valve)used. Thus, a practical TCR can be operated anywhere in a defined V-I area ,the
boundaries of which are determined by its maximum attainable admittance, voltage and current ratings are shown in fig.

Note: If Thyristor Controlled Reactor(TCR) switching is restricted to a fixed delay angle, usually α=0, then it becomes a thyristors –

switched reactor (TSR). The TSR provides a fixed inductive admittance. Thus, when connected to the a.c. system, the reactive current

in it will be proportional to the applied voltage as shown in fig.

TSRs can provide at α=0, the resultant steady-state current will be sinusoidal.
THYRISTOR SWITCHED CAPACITOR(TSC):

A single-phase thyristors switched capacitor (TSC) is shown in fig.

It consists of a capacitor, a bi-directional thyristors valve, and a relatively small surge current limiting reactor. This reactor is
needed primarily
To limit the surge current in the thyristors valve under abnormal operating conditions To avoid

resonances with the a.c. system impedance at particular frequencies

Under steady state conditions, when the thyristor valve is closed and the TSC branch is connected to a sinusoidal a.c. voltage source,

υ=Vsin ωt, the current in the branch is given by

The TSC branch can be disconnected (“switched out”) at any current zero by prior removal of the gate drive to the thyristor valve.

At the current zero crossing, the capacitor voltage is at its peak valve. The disconnected capacitor stays charged to this voltage, and

consequently the voltage across the non-conducting thyristors valve varied between zero and the peak-to-peak value of the

applied a.c. voltage as shown in fig.(b).

The TSC branch represents a single capacitive admittance which is either connected to, or disconnected from the a.c. system. The
current in the TSC branch varies linearly with the applied voltage according to the admittance of the capacitor as illustrated by the V-I
plot in the following fig.
It is observed that , maximum applicable voltage and the corresponding current are limited by the ratings of the TSC
components(capacitor and thyristor valve).To approximate continuous current variation, several TSC branches in parallel may be
employed, which would increase in a step-like manner the capacitive admittance.
STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR:

The static compensator term is used in a general sense to refer to an SVC as well as to a STATCOM.

The static compensators are used in a power system to increase the power transmission capacity with a given network, from the

generators to the loads. Since static compensators cannot generate or absorb real power, the power transmission of the system is
affected indirectly by voltage control. That is, the reactive output power ( capacitive or inductive) of compensator is varied to control
the voltage at given terminals of the transmission network so as to maintain the desired power flow under possible system

disturbances and contingencies.

Static Var Compensator(SVC) and Static Synchronous Compensator(STATCOM) are var generators, whose output is varied so as
to maintain to control specific parameters of the electric power system.
The basic compensation needs fall into one of the following two main categories
Direct voltage support to maintain sufficient line voltage for facilitating increased power flow under heavy loads and for
preventing voltage instability.
Transient and dynamic stability improvements to improve the first swing stability margin and provide power oscillation
damping.
SVC:

SVCs are part of the Flexible AC transmission system device family, regulating voltage and stabilizing the system. Unlike a
synchronous condenser which is a rotating electrical machine, a "static" VAR compensator has no significant moving parts (other
than internal switchgear). Prior to the invention of the SVC, power factor compensation was the preserve of large rotating machines
such as synchronous condensers or switched capacitor banks.
Fig.shows Static Var Compensator(SVC).

An SVC comprises one or more banks of fixed or switched shunt capacitors or reactors, of which at least one bank is switched by
thyristors. Elements which may be used to make an SVC typically include:

Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR), where the reactor may be air- or iron-cored Thyristor
switched capacitor (TSC)
Harmonic filter(s)
Mechanically switched capacitors or reactors (switched by a circuit breaker)
The SVC is an automated impedance matching device, designed to bring the system closer to unity power factor. SVCs are used in
two main situations:
Connected to the power system, to regulate the transmission voltage ("Transmission SVC") Connected near

large industrial loads, to improve power quality ("Industrial SVC")

Fig.shows V-I Characteristics of SVC.

In transmission applications, the SVC is used to regulate the grid voltage. If the power system's reactive load is capacitive (leading), the

SVC will use thyristor controlled reactors to consume vars from the system, lowering the system voltage. Under inductive (lagging)

conditions, the capacitor banks are automatically switched in, thus providing a higher system voltage. By connecting the thyristor-

controlled reactor, which is continuously variable, along with a capacitor bank step, the net result is continuously-variable leading or

lagging power.

In industrial applications, SVCs are typically placed near high and rapidly varying loads, such as arc furnaces, where they can

smooth flicker voltage.

STATCOM:

A static synchronous compensator (STATCOM), also known as a "static synchronous condenser" ("STATCON"), is a regulating device
used on alternating current electricity transmission networks. It is based on a power electronics voltage-source converter and can act
as either a source or sink of reactive AC power to an electricity network. If connected to a source of power it can also provide active
AC power. It is a member of the FACTS family of devices.

The STATCOM generates a 3-phase voltage source with controllable amplitude and phase angle behind reactance. When the a.c.
output voltage from the inverter is higher(lower) than the bus voltage, current flow is caused to lead(lag) and the difference in the
voltage amplitudes determines how much current flows. This allows the control of reactive power.
Fig. shows block diagram representation of STATCOM and V-I characteristics.

The STATCOM is implemented by a 6-pulse Voltage Source Inverter(VSI) comprising GTO thyristors fed from a d.c.storage

capacitor.The STATCOM is able to control its output current over the rated maximum capacitive or inductive range independently of

a.c. system voltage, in contrast to the SVC that varies with the ac system voltage. Thus STATCOM is more effective than the SVC in

providing voltage support and stability improvements. The STATCOM can continue to produce capacitive current independent of

voltage.The amount and duration of the overload capability is dependent upon the thermal capacity of the GTO.

Note : Multi-pulse circuit configurations are employed to reduce the harmonic generation and to produce practically

sinusoidal current.
Comparison between STATCOM and SVC:

S.No. STATCOM SVC

1 Acts as a voltage source behind a Acts as a variable susceptance

reactance
2 Insensitive to transmission system Sensitive to transmission system
harmonic resonance harmonic resonance
3 Has a larger dynamic range Has a smaller dynamic voltage
.
4 Lower generation of harmonics Higher generation of harmonics
.
5 Faster response and better performance Somewhat slower response
during transients
6 Both inductive and capacitive regions of Mostly capacitive region of operation
operation is possible
7 Can maintain a stable voltage even with a Has difficulty operating with a very
very weak a.c. system weak a.c. system
 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR

INTRODUCTION

Series compensation is a means of controlling the power

transmitted across transmission lines by altering or changing the characteristic
impedance of the line. The power flow problem may be related to the length
of the transmission line. The transmission line may be compensated by a
fixed capacitor or inductor to meet the requirements of the transmission
system. When the structure of the transmission network is considered, power
flow imbalance problems arise. Inadvertent interchange occurs when the
power system tie line becomes corrupted. This is because of unexpected
change in load on a distribution feeder due to which the demand for power on
that feeder increases or decreases. The generators are to be turned on or off to
compensate for this change in load. If the generators are not activated very
quickly, voltage sags or surges can occur. In such cases, controlled series
compensation helps effectively.

SERIES COMPENSATOR

Series compensation, if properly controlled, provides voltage

stability and transient stability improvements significantly for post-fault
systems. It is also very effective in damping out power oscillations and
mitigation of sub-synchronous resonance (Hingorani 2000).
Voltage Stability

Series capacitive compensation reduces the series reactive

impedance to minimize the receiving end voltage variation and the possibility
of voltage collapse. Figure 3.1 (a) shows a simple radial system with feeder
line reactance X, series compensating reactance Xc and load impedance Z.
The corresponding normalized terminal voltage Vr versus power P plots, with
unity power factor load and 0, 50, and 75% series capacitive compensation,
are shown in Figure 3.1(b). The “nose point” at each plot for a specific
compensation level represents the corresponding voltage instability. So by
cancelling a portion of the line reactance, a “stiff” voltage source for the load
is given by the compensator.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.1 Transmittable power and voltage stability limit of a radial

transmission line as a function of series capacitive
compensation

Transient Stability Enhancement

The transient stability limit is increased with series compensation.

The equal area criterion is used to investigate the capability of the ideal series
compensator to improve the transient stability.
Figure 3.2 Two machine system with series capacitive compensation

Figure 3.2 shows the simple system with the series compensated
line. Assumptions that are made here are as follows:

• The pre-fault and post-fault systems remain the same for the
series compensated system.

• The system, with and without series capacitive compensation,

transmits the same power Pm.

• Both the uncompensated and the series compensated systems

are subjected to the same fault for the same period of time.

Figures 3.3 (a) and (b) show the equal area criterion for a simple
two machine system without and with series compensator for a three phase to
ground fault in the transmission line. From the figures, the dynamic
behaviour of these systems are discussed.

Prior to the fault, both of them transmit power P m at angles 61 and

6s1 respectively. During the fault, the transmitted electric power becomes
zero, while the mechanical input power to the generators remains constant
(Pm). Hence, the sending end generator accelerates from the steady-state
angles 61 and 6s1 to 62 and 6s2 respectively, when the fault clears. In the
figures, the accelerating energies are represented by areas A1 and As1. After
fault clearing, the transmitted electric power exceeds the mechanical input
power and therefore the sending end machine decelerates. However, the
accumulated kinetic energy further increases until a balance between the
accelerating and decelerating energies, represented by the areas A1, As1 and
A2, As2, respectively, are reached at the maximum angular swings, 63 and 6s3
respectively. The areas between the P versus 6 curve and the constant Pm line
over the intervals defined by angles 63 and 6crit, and 6s1 and 6scrit, respectively,
determine the margin of transient stability represented by areas Amargin and
Asmargin for the system without and with compensation.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.3 Equal area criterion to illustrate the transient stability

margin for a simple two-machine system (a) without
compensation and (b) with a series capacitor

Comparing figures 3.3(a) and (b), it is clear that there is an increase

in the transient stability margin with the series capacitive compensation by
partial cancellation of the series impedance of the transmission line. The
increase of transient stability margin is proportional to the degree of series
compensation.
Power Oscillation Damping

Power oscillations are damped out effectively with controlled series

compensation. The degree of compensation is varied to counteract the
accelerating and decelerating swings of the disturbed machine(s) for damping
out power oscillations. When the rotationally oscillating generator accelerates
and angle 6 increases (d6/dt > 0), the electric power transmitted must be
increased to compensate for the excess mechanical input power and
conversely, when the generator decelerates and angle 6 decreases (d6/dt < 0),
the electric power must be decreased to balance the insufficient mechanical
input power.

Figure 3.4 Waveforms illustrating power oscillation damping by

controllable series compensation (a) generator angle (b)
transmitted power and (c) degree of series compensation

Figure 3.4 shows the waveforms describing the power oscillation

damping by controllable series compensation. Waveforms in figure 3.4(a)
show the undamped and damped oscillations of angle 6 around the steady
state value 60. The corresponding undamped and damped oscillations of the
electric power P around the steady state value P0, following an assumed fault
(sudden drop in P) that initiated the oscillation are shown by the waveforms in
figure 3.4(b). Waveform 3.4 (c) shows the applied variation of the degree of
series compensation, k applied. ‘k’ is maximum when d6/dt > 0, and it is
zero when d6/dt < 0.

Immunity to Sub-synchronous Resonance

The sub-synchronous resonance is known as an electric power

system condition where the electric network exchanges energy with a turbine
generator at one or more of the natural frequencies of the combined system
below the synchronous frequency of the system. With controlled series
compensation, the resonance zone is prohibited for operation and the control
system is designed in such a way that the compensator does not enter that
area. Also, an SSSC is an ac voltage source operating only at the fundamental
output frequency and its output impedance at any other frequency should be
zero. The SSSC is unable to form a series resonant circuit with the inductive
line impedance to initiate sub-synchronous system oscillations.

Types of Series Compensators

Series compensation is accomplished either using a variable

impedance type series compensators or a switching converter type series
compensator.

Variable impedance type series compensators

The thyristor controlled series compensators are the variable type of

compensators. The type of thyristor used for the variable type series
compensators has an impact on their performance. The types of thyristors
used in FACTS devices are Silicon Controller Rectifier (SCR), Gate Turn-Off
Thyristor (GTO), MOS Turn-Off Thyristor (MTO), Integrated Gate
Commutated Thyristor (GCT or IGCT), MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT)
and Emitter Turn-Off Thyristor (ETO). Each of these types of thyristors has
several important device parameters that are needed for the design of FACT
devices. These parameters are di/dt capability, dv/dt capability, turn-on time
and turn-off time, Safe Operating Area (SOA), forward drop voltage,
switching speed, switching losses, and gate drive power.

The variable impedance type series compensators are GTO

thyristor controlled series compensator (GCSC), Thyristor Switched Series
Capacitor (TSSC) and Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC).

GTO Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC)

A GCSC consists of a fixed capacitor in parallel with a GTO

Thyristor as in figure 3.5which has the ability to be turned on or off. The
GCSC controls the voltage across the capacitor (Vc) for a given line current.
In other words, when the GTO is closed the voltage across the capacitor is
zero and when the GTO is open the voltage across the capacitor is at its
maximum value. The magnitude of the capacitor voltage can be varied
continuously by the method of delayed angle control (max y = 0, zero y =
n/2). For practical applications, the GCSC compensates either the voltage or
reactance.

Figure 3.5 GTO Controlled Series Capacitor

Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)

Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC) is another type of

variable impedance type series compensators shown in Figure 3.6. The TSSC
consists of several capacitors shunted by a reverse connected thyristor bypass
switch.

Figure 3.6 Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor

In TSSC, the amount of series compensation is controlled in a step-

like manner by increasing or decreasing the number of series capacitors
inserted into the line. The thyristor turns off when the line current crosses the
zero point. As a result, capacitors can only be inserted or deleted from the
string at the zero crossing. Due to this, a dc offset voltage arises which is
equal to the amplitude of the ac capacitor voltage. In order to keep the initial
surge current at a minimum, the thyristor is turned on when the capacitor
voltage is zero.

The TSSC controls the degree of compensating voltage by either

inserting or bypassing series capacitors. There are several limitations to the
TSSC. A high degree of TSSC compensation can cause sub-synchronous
resonance in the transmission line just like a traditional series capacitor. The
TSSC is most commonly used for power flow control and for damping power
flow oscillations where the response time required is moderate. There are two
modes of operation for the TSSC-voltage compensating mode and impedance
compensating mode.

Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)

Figure 3.7 shows the basic Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor

(TCSC) scheme. The TCSC is composed of a series-compensating capacitor
in parallel with a thyristor-controlled reactor. The TCSC provides a
continuously variable capacitive or inductive reactance by means of thyristor
firing angle control. The parallel LC circuit determines the steady-state
impedance of the TCSC.

Figure 3.7 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor

The impedance of the controllable reactor is varied from its

maximum (infinity) to its minimum (mL). The TCSC has two operating
ranges; one is when aClim ≤ a ≤ n/2, where the TCSC is in capacitive mode.
The other range of operation is 0 ≤ a ≤ aLlim, where the TCSC is in inductive
mode. TCSC can be operated in impedance compensation mode or voltage
compensation mode.
Switching converter type compensator

With the high power forced-commutated valves such as the GTO

and ETO, the converter-based FACTS controllers have become true. The
advantages of converter-based FACTS controllers are continuous and precise
power control, cost reduction of the associated relative components and a
reduction in size and weight of the overall system.

An SSSC is an example of a FACTS device that has its primary

function to change the characteristic impedance of the transmission line and
thus change the power flow. The impedance of the transmission line is
changed by injecting a voltage which leads or lags the transmission line
current by 90º.

Figure 3.8 Schematic diagram of SSSC

If the SSSC is equipped with an energy storage system, the SSSC

gets an added advantage of real and reactive power compensation in the
power system. By controlling the angular position of the injected voltage
with respect to the line current, the real power is provided by the SSSC with
energy storage element. Figure 3.8 shows a schematic diagram of SSSC with
energy storage system for real and reactive power exchange.

The applications for an SSSC are the same as for traditional

controllable series capacitors. The SSSC is used for power flow control,
voltage stability and phase angle stability. The benefit of the SSSC over the
conventional controllable series capacitor is that the SSSC induces both
capacitive and inductive series compensating voltages on a line. Hence, the
SSSC has a wider range of operation compared with the traditional series
capacitors.

The primary objective of this thesis is to examine the possible uses

of the SSSC with energy storage system with state-of-the-art power
semiconductor devices in order to provide a more cost effective solution.

Comparison of Series Compensator Types

Figure 3.9 shows a comparison of VI and loss characteristics of

variable type series compensators and the converter based series compensator.

Figure 3.9 Comparison of Variable Type Series Compensators to

Converter Type Series Compensator
 From the figure the following conclusions can be made.

• The SSSC is capable of internally generating a controllable

compensating voltage over any capacitive or inductive range
independent of the magnitude of the line current. The GCSC
and the TSSC generate a compensating voltage that is
proportional to the line current. The TCSC maintains the
maximum compensating voltage with decreasing line current
but the control range of the compensating voltage is
determined by the current boosting capability of the thyristor
controlled reactor.
• The SSSC has the ability to be interfaced with an external dc
power supply. The external dc power supply is used to provide
compensation for the line resistance. This is accomplished by
the injection of real power as well as for the line reactance by
the injection of reactive power. The variable impedance type
series compensators cannot inject real power into the
transmission line. They can only provide reactive power
compensation.
• The SSSC with energy storage can increase the effectiveness
of the power oscillation damping by modulating the amount of
series compensation in order to increase or decrease the
transmitted power. The SSSC increases or decreases the
amount of transmitted power by injecting positive and
negative real impedances into the transmission line. The
variable-type series compensators can damp the power
oscillations by modulating the reactive compensation.

STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR (SSSC)

The Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) based series compensators -

Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) was proposed by Gyugyi in
1989. The single line diagram of a two machine system with SSSC is shown
in Figure 3.10. The SSSC injects a compensating voltage in series with the
line irrespective of the line current. From the phasor diagram, it can be stated
that at a given line current, the voltage injected by the SSSC forces the
opposite polarity voltage across the series line reactance. It works by
increasing the voltage across the transmission line and thus increases the
corresponding line current and transmitted power.

Figure 3.10 Simplified diagram of series compensation with the phasor

diagram.

The compensating reactance is defined to be negative when the

SSSC is operated in an inductive mode and positive when operated in
capacitive mode. The voltage source converter can be controlled in such a
way that the output voltage can either lead or lag the line current by 90 o.
During normal capacitive compensation, the output voltage lags the line
current by 90o. The SSSC can increase or decrease the power flow to the
same degree in either direction simply by changing the polarity of the injected
ac voltage. The reversed (180o) phase shifted voltage adds directly to the
reactive voltage drop of the line. The reactive line impedance appears as if it
were increased. If the amplitude of the reversed polarity voltage is large
enough, the power flow will be reversed. The transmitted power verses
transmitted phase angle relationship is shown in Equation (3.1) and the
transmitted power verses transmitted angle as a function of the degree of
series compensation is shown in Figure 3.11.
V2 V ð
P= sin ð + Vqcos 2 (3.1)
X X
Figure 3.11 Transmitted power verses transmitted angle as a function of
series compensation

CONVERTERS

Basic Concept

The conventional thyristor device has only the turn on control and
its turn off depends on the natural current zero. Devices such as the Gate
Turn Off Thyristor (GTO), Integrated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT), MOS
Turn Off Thyristor (MTO) and Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor
(IGCT) and similar devices have turn on and turn off capability. These
devices are more expensive and have higher losses than the thyristors without
turn off capability; however, turn off devices enable converter concepts that
can have significant overall system cost and performance advantages. These
advantages in principle result from the converter, which are self commutating
as against the line commutating converters. The line commutating converter
consumes reactive power and suffers from occasional commutation failures in
the inverter mode of operation. Hence, the converters applicable for FACTS
controllers are of self commutating type (Hingorani and Gyugyi, 2000).
There are two basic categories of self commutating converters:
 UNIT-V
POWER FLOW CONTROLLERS
THE UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER

The Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) concept was proposed by Gyugyi in 1991. The UPFC was devised
for the real-time control and dynamic compensation of ac transmission systems, providing multifunctional flexibility
required to solve many of the problems facing the power delivery industry. Within the framework of traditional power
transmission concepts, the UPFC is able to control, simultaneously or selectively, all the parameters affecting power flow
in the transmission line (i.e., voltage, impedance, and phase angle), and this unique capability is signified by the adjective
"unified"
in its name. Alternatively, it can independently control both the real and .reactive power flow in the line. The reader
should recall that, for all the Controllers discussed in the previous chapters, the control of real power is associated with
similar change in reactive power, i.e., increased real power flow also resulted in increased reactive line power.

Basic Operating Principles of UPFC

source. The transmission line current flows through this voltage source resulting in reactive and real power exchange
between it and the ac system. The reactive power exchanged at the ac terminal (Le., at the terminal of the series insertion
transformer) is generated internally by the converter. The real power exchanged at the ac terminal is converted into de
power which appears at the de link as a positive or negative real power demand. The basic function of Converter 1 is to
supply or absorb the real power demanded by Converter 2 at the common de link to support the real power exchange
resulting from the series voltage injection. This de link power demand of Converter 2 is converted back to ac by Converter
1 and coupled to the transmission line bus via a shuntconnected transformer. In addition to the real power need of
Converter 2, Converter 1 can also generate or absorb controllable reactive power, if it is desired, and thereby provide
independent shunt reactive compensation for the line. It is important to note that whereas there is a closed direct path for
the real power negotiated by the action of series voltage injection through Converters 1 and 2 back to the line, the
corresponding reactive power exchanged is supplied or absorbed locally by Converter 2 and therefore does not have to be
transmitted by the line. Thus, Converter 1 can be operated at a unity power factor or be controlled to have a reactive
power exchange with the line independent of the reactive power exchanged by Converter 2. Obviously, there can
be no reactive power flow through the UPFC de link.

INDEPENDENT REAL AND REACTIVE POWER FLOW CONTROL: