Classifying living things

Classification: the process of placing living things into groups. To place all living things into categories is a huge task, as
current estimates suggest that there are nearly 2 million different species of organisms alive today. Each species must be
studied in detail before it can be correctly placed in a group of similar organisms. The reasons why we do this include the
following:
• it is for our convenience
• to make the study of living things more manageable
• to make it easier to identify organisms
• to help us see the relationships between species.

The very earliest classification system classified organisms into those that lived in air, water and soil. Carl Linnaeus devised
the system of that is still used today. He studied each organism closely and organised them according to their visible
features. Two organisms with many similar visible features were grouped closer together. Linnaeus created a hierarchy of
ranked categories. These categories are called taxonomic groups or taxa (singular taxon). His original classification
contained five levels: kingdom, class, order, genus and species. As more organisms have been discovered and described,
this original system of classification has had to be modified and expanded. We now have more kingdoms, and these are
grouped into three even larger categories called domains. Kingdoms are divided into phyla, which are then divided into
classes. Classes are divided into orders and orders are divided into families, etc.

The modern classification hierarchy

The current system of classification uses eight taxonomic levels:
• Domain - the domain is the highest taxonomic rank. There are three domains: Archaea, Eubacteria and Eukaryotae.
• Kingdom - traditionally there are five main kingdoms. Plantae, Animalia, Fungi and Protoctista are all eukaryotes, which
possess a nucleus. All those single-celled organisms that do not possess a nucleus are grouped into the kingdom
Prokaryotae.
• Phylum — a major subdivision of the kingdom. A phylum contains all the groups of organisms that have the same body
plan, e.g. possession of a backbone.
• Class — a group of organisms that all possess the same general traits. e.g. the same number of legs.
• Order — a subdivision of the class using additional information about the organisms, e.g. the class mammal is divided into
meat-eating animals (order Carnivora) and vegetation-eating animals (order Herbivora).
• Family — a group of closely related genera, e.g. within the order Carnivora we might recognise the 'dog' family and the `cat'
family:
• Genus — a group of closely related species.
• Species — the basic unit of classification. All members of a species show some variations, but all are essentially the same.

Classifying species
At the higher levels of this ranked system, the differences between the organisms can be very great. It is therefore quite easy
to place a species into its domain, kingdom or phylum. For example, two phyla in the animal kingdom are the Chordata and
the Arthropoda. The Chordata have a nervous system with a central bundle of nerves running along their back, usually
protected by a series of bones called the vertebral column — these are the vertebrates. In contrast, the Arthropoda have a
hard exoskeleton (skeleton on the outside of the body rather than the inside) and jointed limbs. Within a phylum, the species
must be placed in a class. This becomes a little more difficult, as the differences between the classes in one phylum may not
be very great. A longer description of the species may be needed. For example, two classes in the phylum Arthropoda are
the insects and the arachnids (spiders). All members of the class Insecta can easily be recognised as having three body
parts (a head, a thorax and an abdomen), six legs and usually two pairs of wings (flies have one pair of wings though). All
members of the class Arachnida can be recognised as having two body parts (a cephalothorax and an abdomen) and eight
legs. As you descend to the lower taxonomic groups, it becomes increasingly difficult to separate closely related species and
to place a species accurately. A more and more detailed description of the species is needed.

The binomial naming system

binomial system: a system that uses the genus name and the species name to avoid confusion when naming organisms. In
the binomial system of naming organisms, the genus name and the species name are used. Thus, humans become Homo
sapiens. Homo refers to the genus to which humans belong. The genus name is always given an uppercase first letter. The
species name is sapiens. This can be abbreviated to H. sapiens. The binomial Latin name is always written in a style that
makes it stand out. In printed text this is in italics, in handwritten text it is underlined. Carl Linnaeus devised this binomial
system. Before Linnaeus, species were identified by a common name, or a long and detailed description. Using a common
name does not work well because:
• the same organism may have a completely different common name in different parts of one country
• different common names are used in different countries
• translation of languages or dialects may give different names
• the same common name may be used for different species in other parts of the world. Linnaeus used Latin as a universal
language. This means that whenever a species is named, it is given a universal name. Every scientist in every country will
use the same name. This avoids the potential confusion caused by using common names.

Using observable features

The biological definition of a species is: `a group of organisms that can freely interbreed to produce fertile offspring'. However,
this definition does not work for organisms that reproduce asexually, and it is very hard to apply to organisms that are known
only as fossils. The phylogenetic definition of a species is: 'a group of individual organisms that are very similar in
appearance, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry and genetics'. Being so similar, the members of a species occupy the same
niche in an ecosystem. This fact was used in early classification systems which were based only on appearance and
anatomy. For many species, this provided enough information to allow accurate classification. But it is easy to make
mistakes. In the earliest attempts at classification, Aristotle classified all living things as either plant or animal. He further
subdivided the animals into three groups — those that:
• live and move in water
• live and move on land
• move through the air.
This was based on the similarities that he observed — some animals have fins, some have legs and some have wings.
Unfortunately, this grouped fish with turtles, birds with insects, and mammals with frogs. Such early classifications have been
adapted and made more accurate as more research is carried out and more information becomes available. The early
classification systems of Linnaeus and other scientists were based on observable features. This means they were limited to
those features of organisms that you can see. By the 17th century, scientists had microscopes to help.

Using more detailed evidence

Traditionally, all living things have been grouped into a number of kingdoms. For many years, the generally accepted number
of kingdoms was two. All living things were grouped into either plants or animals. As more living things were discovered and
studied closely, it became clear that not all could fit easily into one of these categories.

In the early two-kingdom classification systems, the animal kingdom includes single-celled organisms that had some
animal-like features, and the plant kingdom includes single-celled organisms that had plant-like features. Later, better
microscopes made it clear that many single-celled organisms share some of the features of both plants and animals. Euglena
is a single-celled organism that has chloroplasts to photosynthesise, but it also has the ability to move around using a
flagellum. It does not clearly fit into either the plant or the animal kingdom. Also, where do fungi fit in? Like plants, they do
not move about, and their hyphae grow into the surrounding substrate in the same way as roots do. However, they do not
photosynthesise. They digest organic matter and absorb the nutrients — like animals. Fungi were originally classified as
plants. The resulting upheaval in the world of taxonomy and classification led to the adoption of the five-kingdom
classification. These kingdoms are still based on the observable features of their anatomy, but at a microscopic level.

Prokaryotae:
• have no nucleus
• have a loop of DNA that is not arranged in linear chromosomes
• have naked DNA (DNA that is not associated with histone proteins)
• have no membrane-bound organelles
• have smaller ribosomes than in other groups
• have cells smaller than those of eukaryotes
• may be free-living or parasitic (some cause diseases)

Protoctista:
• are eukaryotic
• are mostly single-celled (but many algae are multicellular)
• show a wide variety of forms (the only thing that all protoctists have in common is that they do not qualify to belong to any of
the other four kingdoms!)
• show various plant-like or animal-like features
• are mostly free-living
• have autotrophic or heterotrophic nutrition — some photosynthesise, some ingest prey, some feed using extracellular
enzymes (like fungi do), and some are parasites

Fungi:
• are eukaryotic
• can exist as single cells (called yeasts) or they have a mycelium that consists of hyphae
• have walls made of chitin
• have cytoplasm that is multinucleate
• are mostly free-living and saprophytic — this means that they cause decay of organic matter

Plantae:
• are eukaryotic
• are multicellular
• have cells surrounded by a cellulose cell wall
• are autotrophic (absorb simple molecules and build them into larger organic molecules)
• contain chlorophyll are eukaryotic are multicellular

Animalia
Are eukaryotic
Are multicellular
• heterotrophic (digest large organic molecules to form smaller molecules for absorption)
• are usually able to move around
Recent developments in taxonomy have moved the old kingdom Prokaryotae to become two domains. That leaves four of the
original five kingdoms in the third domain — the Eukaryotae. However, continued research has blurred the distinction
between kingdoms and modern taxonomists have created more kingdoms in an effort to accurately reflect the evolutionary
relationships between organisms in a modern system of classification

Using biological molecules in classification

Using observable features has created a largely successful classification of living things. However, since organisms adapt to
their environment, it is possible that two unrelated species could adapt in similar ways and therefore look very similar. These
two species might be classified in the same taxonomic group according to their observable features. The most recent
research uses a wider range of techniques, and has produced even more detailed evidence for classification. Evidence from
biological molecules can help to determine how closely related one species is to another. Cytochrome c and RNA
polymerase, are used as evidence for evolutionary relationships.
A protein called cytochrome is used in the process of respiration. All living organisms that respire must have cytochrome c.
But cytochrome c is not identical in all species. Proteins are large molecules made from a chain of smaller units called amino
acids. The amino acids in cytochrome c can be identified. If we compare the sequence of amino acids in samples of
cytochrome c from two different species, then we can draw certain conclusions: • if the sequences are the same, then the two
species must be closely related
• if the sequences are different, the two species are not so closely related
• the more differences found between the sequences, the less closely related the two species.

DNA - Another biological molecule that is found in all living organisms is DNA. DNA provides the genetic code — the
instructions for producing proteins. The code is the same for all organisms — it is universal. This means that a particular
sequence of DNA codes for the same sequence of amino acids in a bacterium as in any other organism. Changes to the
sequence of bases in DNA are called mutations. Mutations occur at random. Comparison of DNA sequence provides another
way to classify species. The more similar the sequence in a part of the DNA, the more closely related the two species. If
there are many differences, then the species have evolved separately for a long time, and they can be considered as less
closely related. This is probably the most accurate way to demonstrate how closely related one species is to another.

Classification and evolution

In 1990, Carl Woese suggested a new classification system. He based his ideas on detailed study of the ribosomal RNA
gene. He divided the kingdom Prokaryotae into two groups: the Bacteria (originally called the Eubacteria) and the Archaeae
(Archaebacteria). This division is based on the fact that the Bacteria are fundamentally different from the Archaea and the
Eukaryotae. Some structural differences include the fact that bacteria have include:
• a different cell membrane structure flagella with a different internal structure
• different enzymes (RNA polymerase) for synthesising RNA
• no proteins bound to their genetic material
• different mechanisms for DNA replication and for synthesising RNA.

Archaea share certain features with eukaryotes:

• similar enzymes (RNA polymerase) for synthesising RNA
• similar mechanisms for DNA replication and synthesising RNA
• production of some proteins that bind to their DNA.
RNA and DNA are part of the basic mechanism that translates genes into visible characteristics. Woese argued that these
differences between the Bacteria (Eubacteria) and the Archaea (Archaebacteria) are fundamental. He suggested that these
two groups are more different from each other than the Archaea are from the Eukaryotae. Therefore an accurate
classification system must reflect this difference. Woese's three-domain system of classification is now widely accepted by
most biologists.

Some classifications are done purely for convenience. An artificial classification:

• is based on only a few characteristics
• does not reflect any evolutionary relationships
• provide, limited information
Is stable (does not change with time and/or discoveries)

Natural classification
Biological classification involves detailed study of the individuals in a species. The whole of the living world can be organised
into a series of ranked groups — a hierarchy. This is known as a natural classification. A natural classification:
• uses many characteristics
• reflects evolutionary relationships
• provides a lot of useful info
• may change with advancing knowledge.
A natural classification that reflects real relationships between the groups could be very useful. For example, if we want to
find out more about a rare or endangered species, we may not want to risk harming any of the few surviving members of that
species. However, if we know of another very similar species that is not endangered, we can carry out research on this
second species to provide information that is also applicable to the endangered species. This may help us to make
conservation more successful.

Phylogeny
Increasingly, modern classification has come to reflect the evolutionary history of the living world. We can think of all
organisms as belonging to an evolutionary tree. Any two species living today have had a common ancestor at some time in
the past. The time at which the two species started to evolve separately is a branch point on the tree. The common ancestor
appears on the tree at that branch point. The more recent the common ancestor, the more closely related the two species
are. Phylogeny is the study of the evolutionary relationships between species. It involves studying how closely different
species are related. Using the evolutionary or phylogenetic tree we can see certain evolutionary relationships that indicate
how closely related species are:
1. Humans and gorillas (both mammals) share many features and are closely related
2. We have a common ancestor in the recent past. We can call humans and gorillas monophyletic — because they belong to
the same phylogenetic group.
4. Humans and gorillas can be placed (classified) in the same taxonomic group.
5. The thrush is more closely related to the snake than to the mammals.
6. We can see this because the common ancestor (species 2) shared by the thrush and the snake is more recent than the
common ancestor shared by the thrush and the mammals (species 3). It should be noted that the common ancestors do not
survive today. We cannot say that we evolved from the apes, or from the gorillas, or even from modern-day fish. We evolved
from an ancestor that lived at some time in the past. It happens that the gorillas also evolved from that same ancestor.
natural selection: the term used to explain how features of the environment apply a selective force on the reproduction of
individuals in a population.

Darwin and Wallace

Charles Darwin was a naturalist who spent much of his life observing and studying living organisms. The theory of evolution
was not his idea. The idea that one species might evolve from another over time was not new, but Darwin proposed a
mechanism for this process. This made it easier to believe in the theory of evolution. It also caused a certain amount of
upheaval in Victorian Britain, because it countered the religious beliefs of the time. His proposed mechanism was natural
selection. Darwin's ideas began to develop during a five-year trip around the world in a ship called the HMS Beagle. During
this trip he visited the Galapagos Islands, where he discovered a large number of unusual species. Many of these species
were similar to those found on the South American mainland. What interested Darwin was that there was variation between
members of the same species found on different islands. He also noted that what appeared to be a wide variety of bird
species were actually all closely related finches. Darwin concluded that one species had arrived on the islands from the
mainland and had then evolved to form many different species. Alfred Russel Wallace was another naturalist who
independently came to the same conclusions as Darwin. Wallace had made collections in both the Amazon and in South
East Asia. Their first publications were joint papers on the subject of evolution by natural selection. This was soon followed by
Darwin's book, best known as ‘The Origin of Species'.
Herbert Spencer coined the phrase 'survival of the fittest' after reading Darwin's book 'The Origin of Species'.

From observation to theory

Darwin made four particular observations:
1. Offspring generally appear similar to their parents.
2. No two individuals are identical.
3. Organisms have the ability to produce large numbers of offspring.
4 Populations in nature tend to remain fairly stable in size.
Darwin realised that variation was the key to understanding how species change. He saw that when too many young are
produced, there is competition for food and resources. As all the offspring are different, some may be better adapted than
others. The better-adapted individuals obtain enough food and survive long enough to reproduce. These individuals can pass
on their characteristics to the next generation. Therefore the population can change or evolve to become better suited to its
environment.

Darwin's conclusions can be summarised as follows:

• There is a struggle to survive.
• Better-adapted individuals survive and pass on their characteristics.
• Over time, a number of changes may give rise to a new species.

Fossil evidence
Even in Darwin's time, known fossils clearly showed a number of interesting facts:
• In the past. the world was inhabited by species that were different from those present today.
• Old species have died out and new species have arisen.
• The new species that have appeared are often similar to the older ones found in the same place.
Darwin was fascinated by the similarities that he found between species living today and fossil species. He began to
understand that fossil species gave rise to more modern species, and he felt that this must be because the more modern
species had variations that meant they were better adapted to the environment. Darwin was also struck by the differences
between the fossil species and the modern species. Many of the fossil species were much larger than modern species, but
otherwise appeared very similar. For example, some modern species of armadillo grow to only 15 cm long, whilst the
glyptodont was many times this size.

One of the most complete fossil records of evolution is that of the horse. The evolution of the modern horse can followed
through a sequence of species that are all very similar to each other. Their similarity and their sequence in time provide
evidence that one species arose from a previous one.

Biological molecules
Recent study of biological molecules provides very strong evidence for evolution.
• The fact that certain molecules are found throughout the living world is evidence in itself. If one species gives rise to
another, both are likely to have the same biological molecules. This suggests that all species arose from one original
ancestor.
• Two closely related species will have separated only relatively recently, so their biological molecules are likely to be identical
or very similar.
• In species that took separate evolutionary paths a long time ago, the biological molecules are likely to differ more.

Mitochondria contain their own DNA called mitochondrial DNA or mDNA. During sexual reproduction mitochondria contained
in the egg are passed to the offspring, therefore mDNA is passed on from the mother. This makes it uniquely useful in tracing
human history. The history is not confused by DNA from the paternal line. Also, mDNA mutates more frequently than nuclear
DNA as it does not have the same checking systems in place to proofread new copies. Therefore, there is plenty of variation
in the sequence of mDNA between people from different parts of the world. This variation can be used to solve outstanding
uncertainties about the origins of different races. For example, it has shown that the Polynesians migrated from southeast
Asia and that the native Americans crossed from Siberia about 13000 years ago rather than being descended from people in
the Middle East. The path of evolution seen in mitochondrial DNA is so clear that we can trace it back to a single female
known as mitochondrial Eve who lived in Africa about 150000 years ago. Whoever we are, and wherever we live, we are all
her descendants.

interspecific variation: the differences between species.

intraspecific variation: the variation between members of the same species.
variation: the presence of variety — the differences between individuals.

Continuous variation
Continuous variation is where there are two extremes and a full range of intermediate values between those extremes. Most
individuals are close to the mean value. The number of individuals at the extremes is low. Continuous variation is often
regulated by more than one gene and can be influenced by the environment in which an organism lives. Examples of
continuous variation include:
• height in humans
• length of leaves on an oak tree
• length of stalk (reproductive hypha) of a toadstool
• number of flagella on bacterium.
This type of variation is usually quantifiable. When plotting it on a graph, it is best to use a histogram.

Discontinuous variation
Discontinuous variation is where there are two or more distinct categories with no intermediate values. The members of a
species may be evenly distributed between the different forms, or there may be more of one type than the other.
Discontinuous variation is usually regulated by a single gene and is not influenced by the environment in which an organism
lives. Examples of discontinuous variation include:
• gender — mammals are either male or female; plants can be male, female or hermaphrodite
• some bacteria have flagella, but others do not
• human blood groups — you are blood group A, B, AB or 0.
• discontinuous variation can be shown as a bar chart and us more qualitative

Causes of variation
environmental variation: variation caused by response to environmental factors such as Light intensity (i.e: skin tans, overfed
pets become obese)
genetic variation: variation caused by possessing a different combination of alleles.

Combined effects
Many characteristics are affected by both causes of variation.
• In the past century, humans have become taller as the result of a better diet. But however good your diet may be, you are
unlikely to grow very tall if all the rest of your family are short. This is because the height you can reach is limited by your
genes.
• Not all our genes are active at any one time. For example, when you reach puberty, many changes occur in your body,
because different genes are becoming active.
• Changes in the environment can also directly affect which genes are active.
• Temperature can affect the expression of genes. In Himalayan rabbits, the gene responsible for development of dark
pigment (called the C gene) is only active at body temperatures below 35 °C. Rabbits reared at lower - temperatures (20 °C)
have a specific coloration not seen in those reared at warmer temperatures (30 °C).

Why use statistical tests?

Data about variation may provide a series of numbers. A small difference between two figures may or may not be significant.
Using the correct statistical test can help to determine whether the difference observed is a significant difference or simply
natural variation.
The standard deviation is a measure of variation. It measures the amount of variation or spread from the mean.
• A low standard deviation indicates that the data have a narrow range and the points are closely grouped to the mean. This
could indicate greater reliability. •
A high standard deviation indicates that the data points have a larger range and are less well grouped. This might indicate
lower reliability.

Calculating the standard deviation

Use the formula: Where s = standard deviation, x is an individual value, x (with a bar on top) = the mean
value, n = the number of data points.

Student’s t-test
• The Student’s t-test is used to compare two means. It will test whether the difference between the two means is a significant
difference. We first state a null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the means of these two sets of data.
The t-test will then test whether we can reject this hypothesis or must accept it. We use the formula:

Where x bar, is the mean of the first data set, s2/1 is me standard deviation of the first data set squared, and n1 is the
number of data points in the first data set. X(bar)2 and n2 refer to the second data set.

Is this significant?
The degrees of freedom are defined as the number of values in a statistical calculation that are free to vary. It is usually
calculated as the (sample size) — (the number of data sets). The number of degrees freedom must be taken into account
when considering if our calculated t-value is significant. We can now use a table of t-values to assess whether our calculated
value of t indicates a significant difference. In biology we always consider the 5% significance level. If the calculated value of t
is greater than the value at 5%, then we can consider the difference between the two sets of data to be significant. If the
calculated value of t is lower than the 5% value, then we can consider the difference to be insignificant.

Correlation coefficient
A correlation coefficient is used to consider the relationships between two sets of the data. The Spearman rank correlation

tells us whether two sets of data are correlated or not. Use the formula= , where rs is the rank
coefficient, D= the difference between the ranks and n is the number of pairs of values. If our value is lower than the critical
value then there is no significant correlation and vice versa.

adaptation: a characteristic that enhances survival in the habitat.

anatomical adaptations (anatomy): structural features.
behavioural adaptations: the ways that behaviour is modified for survival.
physiological adaptations (physiology): affect the way that processes work.

What is adaptation?
Any variation that helps the organism survive is an adaptation. The organism is adapted to its environment. Adaptations help
the organism cope with environmental stresses and obtain the things that they need to survive. A well-adapted organism will
be able to:
• find enough food or photosynthesise well
• find enough water
• gather enough nutrients
• defend itself from predators and diseases
• survive the physical conditions of its environment, such as changes in temperature, light and water availability
• respond to changes in its environment
• have sufficient energy to allow successful reproduction.
Adaptations can work in different ways. They may be anatomical, behavioural or physiological (or biochemical). We shall
consider each of these in the context of marram grass.

Marram grass
Marram grass (Ammophila) is a very specialised plant. It is adapted to living on sand dunes where there is little water
available. Marram grass must, therefore, be adapted to take up as much water as possible and to avoid losing that water.
Marram grass is a xerophyte.

Anatomical adaptations
Anatomical means structural. Marram grass has long roots to enable it to reach water that is deep underground. The roots
are spread out over a wide area. This enables marram to absorb a lot of water when it is available. It also helps to stabilise
the sand dune in which the plant lives. The leaves are curled as this helps to reduce the surface area exposed to the wind. It
also traps air inside, against the lower epidermis, so that moisture can build up in an enclosed space. The lower epidermis is
covered in hairs to reduce air movement so that water vapour is retained close to the lower epidermis. The lower epidermis is
folded to create pits in which the stomata are positioned. Water vapour builds up in the pits, further reducing the loss of water
vapour from inside the leaf. Marram grass has a low density of stomata as fewer stomata mean that less water vapour is lost.
Marram leaves are covered in a thick waxy cuticle as this reduces evaporation of water from the cells of the leaf.

Behavioural adaptations- A behavioural adaptation is an aspect of the behaviour of an organism that helps it to survive the
conditions it lives in. For example, when you touch an earthworm it quickly contracts and withdraws into its burrow. The
earthworm has no eyes, so it cannot tell that you are not a bird about to eat it. Its rapid withdrawal is a behavioural adaptation
to avoid being eaten. Marram grass responds to shortage of water by rolling the leaf more tightly and closing the stomata.
Both changes help to reduce transpiration. When covered by sand, marram will grow more quickly to reach the sunlight.

physiological/biochemical adaptations of marram

A physiological or biochemical adaptation is one that ensures the correct functioning of cell processes. For example, the
yeast Saccharomyces can respire sugars aerobically or anaerobically depending on how much oxygen is available. Marram
grass shows the following physiological adaptations:
• The ability to roll its leaf is due to the action of specialised hinge cells in the lower epidermis. These cells lose water when
water is scarce and lose their turgidity — this rolls the leaf more tightly. When water is available, the hinge cells become
turgid, opening up the leaf to allow easier access for carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
• The guard cells work in a similar way to open and close the stomata. Non-turgid cells close the stomata and turgid cells
open the stomata.
• Marram is not very salt tolerant, but it maintains a cell water potential that is lower than other plants. This enables it to
survive in the salty conditions found beside the sea.
• The leaves contain many lignified cells that provide support when turgidity is lost — this keeps the leaf upright when water
is not available.

Moles- Since adaptations are selected by the environment, it is quite possible for two unrelated species living in similar
habitats to evolve similar adaptations. Where those species adopt a similar lifestyle they may evolve to look very similar. A
mole is a burrowing mammal that feeds on small animals in the soil. Marsupial moles live in Australia and are part of a group
of mammals that have been evolving separately from placental mammals for up to 100 million years. Despite this separate
evolution and being unrelated, marsupial moles and placental moles share a number of characteristics and look remarkably
similar. They have the following characteristics:
• cylindrical body
• small eyes
• strong front legs
• large claws on front legs
• short fur
• short tail
• nose with tough skin for protection
The similarity between these two species due to their ecological niche is called convergent evolution.

Natural selection
An individual that has a characteristic which helps it survive in its environment is more likely to live long enough to
reproduce. The process of evolution works by selecting individuals with particular adaptations to survive and reproduce.
These adaptations are therefore passed from one generation to the next. Over a long period of time — possibly over very
many generations — more and more individuals in the population will have that adaptive characteristic. We say that the
adaptation has been selected.

How natural selection works

1. Mutation creates alternative versions of a gene (alleles).
2. This creates genetic variation between the individuals of a species (intraspecific variation).
3. Once variety exists, then the environment can 'select'. When resources are scarce, the environment will select those
variations (characteristics) that give an advantage. There is a selection pressure.
4. Individuals with an advantageous characteristic will survive and reproduce.
5. Therefore they pass on their advantageous characteristics (inheritance).
6. The next generation will have a higher proportion of individuals with the successful characteristics. Over time, the group of
organisms becomes well adapted to its environment (adaptation).

Evolution today
Whenever a species or a group of organisms is placed under a new selection pressure, different characteristics will be
selected. Evolution will occur. This is most obvious in organisms that have a short life cycle.
Some insects are pests. They eat our food crops, or cause damage to them. They can also act as vectors which transmit
pathogens.Pesticides are chemicals designed to kill pests. Insecticides specifically kill insects. An insecticide applies a very
strong selection pressure. If an individual insect is susceptible then it will die. If it has some form of resistance, then the
individual may survive. This will allow the individual with some resistance to reproduce and pass on the resistance
characteristic. So resistance quickly spreads through the whole population.

Resistance to pesticides was first documented in 1914, when scale insects were found to be resistant to inorganic
insecticides. As we have introduced new classes of insecticide such as cyclodienes, carbamates, formamidines,
organophosphates and pyrethroids, cases of resistance have been documented within 20 years. Resistance can arise within
as little as two years.
Resistance to insecticides has developed in different ways. Here are two examples:
• Pyrethroid insecticides are used to treat mosquito nets (for protection over beds in countries where malaria occurs).
Mosquitoes, which carry the malaria parasite, have developed resistance to pyrethroids. They have evolved to produce an
enzyme that can break down the pyrethroids.
• DDT is an insecticide that binds to a receptor on the plasma membrane of certain cells in insects. Insect populations have
become resistant to DDT. Mutations in the genes coding for the cell-surface receptors have altered the shape of the receptor
molecules. As a result, the shape is no longer complementary to the shape of the pesticide molecule. The DDT molecule
does not bind to these modified receptor molecules.
When insects become resistant to pesticides, it can lead to another problem. It can cause the pesticide to accumulate in the
food chain. If insects are resistant, they survive applications of these chemicals. The insects may then be eaten by their
predators. The predators receive a larger dose of the insecticide, and it is quite possible for the insecticide to move all the
way up the food chain. In this way, humans may receive quite large doses of insecticide. Because of increasing resistance
and the fact that DDT accumulates in the food chain, it has been banned in many areas. However, DDT is still used in
household-spraying programmes in some countries.

The problem of accumulation in food chains is caused because insecticides like DDT are persistent. They do not break down
in the ecosystem. DDT accumulates in fat tissue, and can now be found in almost all organisms, from the penguins of the
Antarctic to the polar bears of the Arctic.
Antibiotics are a very powerful selection pressure on bacteria. When you take antibiotics, most of the bacteria are killed. But
there may be one, or a few that are resistant to the antibiotic. They are rarely completely unaffected by the antibiotic — but
they are more resistant than most. Once most of the bacteria have been killed, you tend to feel better. So many people stop
taking antibiotics before they have finished the prescribed course. This allows the resistant bacteria to survive and reproduce
to create a resistant strain of bacteria. Overuse and incorrect use of antibiotics has led to strains of bacteria that are resistant
to virtually all the antibiotics in use. Some doctors now prescribe multiple antibiotics. This greatly reduces the chances that
some bacteria will survive.

Before selection there is a variety of levels of resistance. This variation is caused by mutations that create genetic variation
within the species.
Directly after selection the least resistant individuals have been killed. All that remains are the individuals that possessed
some level of resistance.
The population of partly resistant individuals reproduces. The next generation contains a much higher proportion of resistant
individuals.
Some bacteria have gained a particularly wide range of resistance. The so-called `superbug', MRSA, is one. MRSA stands
for meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. But it might as well stand for multiple-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. This
bacterium has developed resistance to an ever-increasing range of stronger and stronger drugs. This is an example of an
'evolutionary arms race'. Medical researchers are struggling to develop new and effective drugs, but the bacterial populations
rapidly become resistant to them.