CHAPTER 1

THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Atmospheric air consists of a number of gases in just the right relationship to sustain life
on earth. The human body can tolerate only small changes in this composition unlike
foodstuffs which for instance can tolerate high levels of CO2. In fact, some varieties of
apples have a higher shelf life under high concentrations of CO2.

1.2 THE COMPOSITION OF AIR

Atmospheric air consists generally of 78.03 % nitrogen, 20.99 % oxygen, and a small
percentage of carbon dioxide (0.03 %) (all on a volumetric basis), water vapour and dust
particles. Though a small percentage, the presence of water vapour and carbon dioxide
are vital to life on earth.

1.3 THE HUMID ATMOSPHERE

There is always a small percentage of water vapour present in atmospheric air (of the
order of between 5 and 30 grams of water vapour for 1000g of atmospheric air). For each
temperature however, the air can support only a certain fixed maximum amount of water
vapour. The air is then considered to be saturated and any further water vapour added
will condense and appear in liquid form: it cannot be supported by the air in vapour form.
The maximum amount of water vapour that can be supported by the air is temperature
dependent : the higher the temperature the higher the maximum amount of water vapour
that can be held in vapour form by the air. Put in other words: in order to saturate the air
more and more water is needed. The reverse of this is also true; as the temperature of
saturated air is lowered, so too is the ability of the air to carry this water in vapour form and
some of the water vapour will condense and appear as a fine mist or as liquid water.
This property is easily illustrated when a glass of very cold water is exposed to
atmospheric air. Very soon drops of water will be formed on the outside of the glass. No!
the glass is not porous but the atmospheric air in contact with the cold glass surface is
cooled to below the temperature at which it can carry the amount of water vapour that is
present at that moment in the air and some of the water vapour will condense out of the
atmospheric air until it is just saturated. However, this colder air, due to its higher density
will drop down and fresh atmospheric air will take its place and so the process continues
and drops of water will continue to form as long as the temperature of the glass surface is
lower than the saturation temperature of the air. Of course when water vapour condenses
it gives off latent heat and this is partly conducted through the wall of the glass to the water
and in time the water and glass temperature will rise to that of the atmospheric air with
which it is in contact, equilibrium is reached and no further changes take place. The
temperature at which the water vapour in the air that is being cooled starts condensing, is
known as the dewpoint temperature of the air.
It has already been stated that the temperature of the air determined the amount of water
vapour that it can carry and that hotter air can carry more water vapour that colder air so
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that one can reason that the dewpoint temperature of hot air is much higher than the
dewpoint temperature of cold air. In order to understand why this is so let us investigate
the properties of ideal gases and the properties of steam.

1.4 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF AIR

As a first estimate and under normal atmospheric pressures, air may be viewed as a
mixture of ideal gases, viz. N2, O2, CO2 a few other gases in minute quantities and then
the “gas” water vapour. This mixture of gases may then be viewed as composed of two
entities, called dry air and water vapour. From Dalton’s law for ideal gases the following
applies:

p atm = p a + p v

Where
p=pressure
subscript atm=atmospheric air
subscript a = dry air
subscript v = water vapour

Partial pressure- what does this mean?

When a mixture of ideal gases in a container is considered it is helpful to remember that

pressure is caused by the molecules of the different gases bouncing off the walls of the
container. The air molecules and the water vapour molecules each contribute according to
the number of molecules of each gas present: that is why the partial pressure of the air is
so much greater than the partial pressure of the water vapour. Add more water vapour and
the relative contribution of the water vapour rises accordingly.

(a) Dry air consists of permanent gases at a temperature much higher than their
condensation point and follow the ideal gas laws. (Especially between the temperature
limits of -20 °C and 120 °C which is applicable for normal air conditioning and refrigeration
processes. )

For 1 kg of dry air as an ideal gas the following applies:

p a v a = R a Ta

Where pa is the partial pressure of the dry air and Ra the specific gas constant for dry air.

Since the composition of air is more or less the same in the world, for our purposes we will
consider dry air as being a single gas which has the following properties

Molecular Gas constant 8.314 kJ/kmol

Molecular weight 28.96 kg/kmol
Specific gas constant 0.2871 kJ/kgK
Specific heat cp = a+bt+ct2+dt3 (t= air temperature in °C)
Where a=1.006335x103
b=1.0259x10-2
c=4.867031x10-4
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 d=-2.705209x10-7

For general use in air conditioning processes the following are used for dry air

Table 1.1: Thermodynamic properties of dry air for various temperatures

Temperature Cp Cv Cp/Cv Density

°C kJ/kgK kJ/kgK
Kg/m3
0 1.0063 0.7192 1.399 1.292
20 1.0067 0.7196 1.399 1.204
25 1.0069 0.7198 1.399 1.184
30 1.0071 0.7200 1.399 1.164
100 1.0120 0.7249 1.399 0.946

(b) The water vapour in the air is usually not very far from its phase changing temperature
(vaporizing and condensing temperatures) and the steam tables need to be referred to.
The most important relationships are those between the saturation pressure and saturation
temperature.
For the usual atmospheric states, where air conditioning is concerned, the following
properties of steam or water vapour may be used:

Molecular weight 18.00 kg/kmol

Specific gas constant Rv =0.462 kJ/kgK

For steam or water vapour in the following temperature ranges and at atmospheric
pressure the following applies:

Table 1.2: Thermodynamic properties of water vapour

Temperature cp cv Cp/cv
°C kJ/kgK kJ/kgK
0 1.890 1.428 1.323
100 1.952 1.490 1.31

1.5 EXPLANATORY EXAMPLE

Consider saturated atmospheric air at 20 °C. The atmospheric pressure is 101.328 kPa.
Calculate the specific humidity of the air in kg water vapour per kg of dry air.

The air is saturated with water vapour at this temperature. The partial vapour
pressure is therefore that which corresponds to the saturation pressure of the water
or steam since the properties of water or water vapour are not affected by the
presence of air or any other gas. This is an extremely important concept to grasp and
will facilitate all psychrometric calculations if this is properly understood.
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From the steam tables at 20 °C one finds that the corresponding saturation pressure is
2.337 kPa.
Since the total atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa the contribution of the dry air
molecules to the total pressure must be
p a = p atm − p v,sat = 101.325 − 2.337 = 98.988 kPa

The volume occupied by 1 kg of dry air molecules can now be determined:

R T 0.2871 × (20 + 273.15)
va = a = = 0.8498 m 3 / kg
pa 98.988

According to Dalton’s Law, the volume occupied by the mixture of gases is the same (each
at its own partial pressure) and applying the ideal gas law for water vapour as an ideal
gas, find:

v a ≡ Vv
and
p v Vv = wR v T
where w is the kg of water vapour that goes together with 1 kg of dry air molecules
so that
p V p v 2.337 × 0.8498
w= v v ≡ v a = = 0.01467 kg water vapour / kg dry air ≡ 14.67 g / kg dry air
R vT R v T 0.462 × (20 + 273.15)

Or otherwise stated: 14.67 grams of water vapour are needed to saturate 1kg of dry air at
20 °C
w is known as the specific humidity or the humidity ratio of the air.

1.6 THE SATURATION LINE

Similar calculations as those above may be done for a variety of temperatures and a graph
drawn up. Of course a different graph needs to be drawn for each value of atmospheric
pressure. For example, the atmospheric pressure at sea level is much higher than that in
Johannesburg which is approximately 2000 m above sea level.
(As an exercise for yourself determine whether more or less water vapour is needed to
saturate air which is at an atmospheric pressure of 84 kPa, just by looking at the above
equations without doing a calculation!)

When steam tables are not available the following equation gives an accurate enough
value of the saturation pressure for a given saturation temperature

Log pv,sat = 28.59051-8.2log (t+273.15)+2.4804x10-3 (t+273.15)

-3142.31/(t+273.15)+2
The pressure is in kPa and the temperature in °C

The graph of saturation temperature vs saturation pressure is shown below and is the
starting point for drawing up a psychrometric chart.

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Figure 1.1: The saturation line indicating the relationship between the saturation
temperature and the saturation partial vapour pressure. The other vertical axis shows the
specific humidity of the air.

1.7 THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

This provides a picture of the way in which the state of moist air alters as an air
conditioning process takes place or a physical change occurs. Familiarity with the
psychrometric chart is essential for a proper understanding of air conditioning.
From the previous example it is obvious that a chart must be drawn up for each barometric
pressure. Observation of a psychrometric chart shows that various properties can be read
off the chart and that the state of the air can be obtained when any two independent
properties are known. Detailed explanation of the various properties and states follow.

1.8 UNSATURATED AIR

Consider the previous explanatory example : if the saturated air at 20 °C were to be

heated to 30 °C various changes will take place viz.

• The temperature will rise

• The energy state or enthalpy will rise
• The specific volume will increase
On the psychrometric chart, since w remains the same the process will be a horizontal line
to the right. One can then observe the changes in all the other properties as shown on the
chart.

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 w, kg/kg Vapour
dry air pressure,
kPa

C 4.242 kPa

A B 2.337 kPa

20 °C 30 °C

Figure 1.2: Heating saturated air at 20 °C (A) to 30 °C (B) at constant specific humidity, w
kg water vapour per kg dry air.

Since the specific humidity of the air remains the same so does the partial vapour pressure
(2.337 kPa). However, since the temperature of the air has increased to 30 °C, the air is
actually able to support more water vapour and, if so wished, can be added until the partial
vapour pressure increases to 4.242 kPa. The air at state A is called saturated and that at
state B as unsaturated.
How does one indicate how unsaturated the air is at state B? The most common way is by
the relative humidity which is defined as follows

p vap at B 2.337
φ= × 100% = × 100% = 55.09%
p sat atC 4.242
You will find lines of constant relative humidity on the psychrometric chart.

1.9 DEWPOINT

This is defined as the temperature of saturated air which has the same vapour pressure as
the unsaturated air. Considering once again the explanatory example and figure 2, if air at
state B were to cooled to state A, then temperature A is the dewpoint temperature of the
unsaturated air at state B. If the air is cooled down even further, the air cannot support all
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the water vapour so just enough water vapour condenses to keep the air saturated and the
state of the air follows the saturation line and since there are less water vapour molecules
in the air, the partial vapour pressure decreases accordingly. The amount of water vapour
that will condense out of the air will be (wA-wD) kg per kg of dry air cooled down.
If the partial vapour pressure at state B is known, then one can find the dewpoint
temperature from the steam tables, since temperature A will be the saturation temperature
which goes together with a saturation pressure of 2.337 kPa. The water vapour at state B
will be 10 °C superheated (ie. 30 °C -20 °C ) or otherwise stated, the water vapour is 10 °C
above its saturation temperature for that pressure.

w, kg/kg Vapour
dry air pressure,
kPa

C 4.242 kPa

A wA,B 2.337 kPa

D
wD

20 °C 30 °C

Figure 1.3: The psychrometric chart showing saturated and unsaturated air states.
Process A to D shows cooling with condensation or dehumidification of the air.

1.10 ENTHALPY

When the temperature of the air is changed then so does the energy content or enthalpy of
the air. Most air conditioning processes are flow processes and therefore the enthalpy is
the parameter used rather than the internal energy.
Every kg of dry air molecules is accompanied by w kg of water vapour molecules. On the
psychrometric chart, the enthalpy that is given takes both into consideration and the basis
is one kg of dry air (which of course is always accompanied by w kg of water vapour). The
total enthalpy of atmospheric air which consists of 1 kg of dry air molecules and w kg of
water vapour molecules is therefore given by the following equation :

h = h a + wh v
( )
= c pda t + w 2501 + c pv t kJ per kg da and w kg water vapour
or just kJ / kg da

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Where da= dry air
v=water vapour
cpda=specific heat capacity of dry air
cpv = specific heat capacity of water vapour
t = temperature of atmospheric air in °C

Enthalpy,
kJ/kg da

60 Pressure,kPa

Constant
enthalpy line

60
Temperature

Figure 1.4: Finding a line of constant enthalpy on the psychrometric chart

The base reference for this equation is an enthalpy value for dry air of zero for a
temperature of 0 °C and an enthalpy value for liquid water of zero at 0 °C. the 2501 kJ/kg
is the energy required to turn 1 kg of liquid water into 1 kg of water vapour at a
temperature of 0 °C.
For the usual temperature range of application in the air conditioning field it is sufficiently
accurate to use the following values for the specific heat capacities:
cpda = 1.007 kJ/kg da
cpv = 1.89 kJ/kg water vapour
on the psychrometric chart, lines of constant enthalpy are straight lines and found by
alligning the sloping scale on the left of the saturation curve with the values on the
horizontal axis.

1.11 SPECIFIC VOLUME

This is the volume in cubic metres of one kilogram of dry air together with the mass of
water vapour associated with it. In the mixture the steam/vapour occupies the same
volume as the dry air but each of these two constituents is at its own partial pressure. By
Dalton’s law the sum of these two partial pressures is the total pressure of the mixture.
Refer to the Dalton document which is separate from this document.The specific volume of
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atmospheric air is always designated as m3/kg dry air : this volume is of course also
occupied by w kg of water vapour.

p a Va = m a R a Tmix
for 1 kg dry air
m = 1 kg
1 × R a Tmix
va =
p mix − p v

Lines of constant specific volume are shown as straight lines on the psychrometric chart at
quite a steep angle.

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 CHAPTER 2
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES

2.1 WETBULB TEMPERATURE

This is a temperature which is physically measured using a wetbulb thermometer. A

distinction must be drawn between measured wetbulb temperature and the temperature of
adiabatic saturation. The wetbulb temperature is a (measured) value indicated on an
ordinary thermometer, the bulb of which has been wrapped round with a wick, moistened
in water. The wetbulb temperature is usually of the “sling” type in which the thermometer is
swung around in the air until an equilibrium temperature is obtained. The process is thus a
little water and plenty of air. In the beginning the energy needed for the evaporation of the
water in the wick comes mainly from the mercury in the wetbulb itself and also from the air,
until a certain temperature is reached. Thereafter all the energy for evaporation comes
from the surrounding air. This certain temperature is known as the wetbulb temperature
and the drier the air, the lower will be the wetbulb temperature.

2.2 ADIABATIC SATURATION AND THE ADIABATIC SATURATION TEMPERATURE

The temperature of adiabatic saturation is obtained from an equation representing an

adiabatic heat exchange. Air flows adiabatically through a very fine mist of water until the
air is saturated with water vapour. Water vapour may also be injected into an air stream in
order to saturate it. The energy needed for the evaporation of the water comes from both
the water and the air and, with recycling of the water, the saturated air and water attain the
same temperature, viz. the adiabatic saturation temperature. The process therefore
consists of plenty of water and not so much air as compared to the wetbulb process. It is
somewhat fortunate, in air and water vapour mixtures, that the two are almost numerically
identical at normal temperatures and pressures: this is not the case in mixtures of other
gases and vapours but does facilitate calculations in air conditioning processes.

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 CHAPTER 3
AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES

3.1 THE MIXING OF AIR STREAMS

mX

mz=mx+my

my

Figure 3.1: Adiabatic mixing of two air streams at states x and y to form a mixture at
state z.

For the adiabatic mixing process shown above the conservation of mass, both of the dry
air and the water vapour, and the conservation of energy are applicable.

m ax + m ay = m az
this is for the dry air mass flowrate

m ax w x + m ay w y = m az w z
this is for the conservation of water vapour mass flowrate

m ax h x + m ay h y = m az h z
This is for the conservation of energy

The mixture state can be determined from the above and if the psychrometric chart is
considered it is very important to note that the mixture state z must lie on the straight
line connecting the two states and that the mixture state will lie closest to the state
of the greatest mass flowrate of air.

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 w

Y
wy

X Z
wz

wx

T Tx Tz Ty

Figure 3.2: Adiabatic mixing of two air streams where mx>my.

From the conservation equations one find the following for the mixture state:

m ax w x + m ay w y
wz = and
m ax + m ay
m ax h x + m ay h y
hz =
m ax + m ay

The following approximation may also be used:

m ax Tx + m ay Ty
Tz ≈ and
m ax + m ay

Rearranging the same formulae one finds the following relationships which are applicable:

m ax w y − w z h y − h z Ty − Tz
≡ ≡ ≡
m ay w z − w x h z − h x Tz − Tx

Explanatory example:
Return air from a room at drybulb temperature 30 °C and wetbulb temperature of 25 °C are
adiabatically mixed with outside air at a drybulb temperature of 15 °C and wetbulb
temperature of 11 °C to form a mixture at a drybulb temperature of 25 °C. The atmospheric
pressure is 101.325 kPa.

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The problem is easily solved using a psychrometric chart.
For a calculated solution one needs the following empirical formula which gives the
vapour pressure as a function of the drybulb temperature and wetbulb temperature
of the air:

 ( t db − t wb ) × (p atm − p sat ,wb )

p v = p sat ,wb −   , kPa
 1550 − 1.44 × t wb 
From this the specific humidity can be determined and from there all other properties and
the calculation is relatively simple. The answer can be checked by using the psychrometric
chart. Of course the psychrometric chart must be for the correct atmospheric pressure.

3.2 DEHUMIDIFICATION OF AIR USING A COOLING COIL.

Air is cooled by blowing it over a series of pipes called a cooling coil in which either a
refrigerant or cold water is circulated. The temperature of the surface of the coil pipes must
be must lower than the dewpoint temperature of the air which is to be dehumidified. When
the air comes in contact with the surface of the pipes, the air which is directly in contact
with the surface will be cooled down to the surface temperature: this temperature is
referred to as the apparatus dewpoint (ADP). However, all the air is not in direct contact
with the surface, and, depending on the number of rows in the coil more or less air will be
cooled down and dehumidified. The air between the pipes will pass through relatively
unchanged in temperature. At the end of the cooling process, when the air leaves the
cooling coil, all the air is mixed, some of the air cooled down to the ADP and some
unchanged and yet some more at a variety of states. The end result will be that the leaving
air state will lie on a straight line which joins the entering air state to the ADP, depending
on the spacing of the pipes, the number of pipes and the number of rows in the cooling
coil. This is therefor a function of the physical construction of the cooling coil. The greater
the number of rows and the smaller the spacing between the pipes, the more effective the
dehumidification and the closer the leaving air temperature will be to the ADP. This comes
however at a price, firstly the purchase price of the coil and secondly the running cost,
since the resistance to air flow through the coil will be much larger and will require a
stronger fan in terms of kW.
The effectiveness of the coil is usually described in terms of the coil bypass factor. The
bypass factor is illustrated by the following diagram:

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 C

B
pv
kPa
A

T,°C
,

Figure 3.3: Diagram showing coil bypass factor

BA TB − TA w B − w A
The coil bypass factor is defined by the ratios BF = ≡ ≡
CA TC − TA w C − w A

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