Mashona Cattle

of

Zimbabwe

Partly funded by
The Friedrich Ebert Foundation

Published in 1992 by
The Mashona Cattle Society
P O Box 909, Harare, Zimbabwe
Edited and compiled by Dr. D.H. Holness
Printed and Originated by
Print Holdings
 Preface

To Zimbabwean farmers and concerned beef producers everywhere

The review of the Mashona Breed of cattle by Dr. Dave Holnesshascomeat
Contents a most appropriate time in the history of beef production in Zimbabwe. This
year's devastating drought, coupled with the economic difficulties the
country is experiencing, is making farmers reconsider traditional methods
of beef production. These changes in our beef production methods will no
doubt become more permanent as droughts reoccur and current economic
changes continue under our structural adjustment programme.
This professionally produced review presents a thorough insight into the
1. FOREWORD and PREFACE role of the indigenous cattle in Zimbabwe. These cattle have proved
themselves to be survivors in some of the most severe environments and,
through the millennia of natural selection, we have today animals which are
2. THE BREED 1 hardy and productive.
2.1 History and description 3 The Mashona breed is no exception and the review includes a comprehen-
sive coverage on the history of the breed and the structure of the society.
2.2 Structure of the National herd in Zimbabwe 8 The review will be most useful for detailing to all farmers the value of
2.3 Research and the Mashona-an overview 9 indigenous breeds in both the communal and commercial sectors. The
reader will not fail to recognise the important qualities of these cattle and
2.4 Merits of the breed 35 their future role in the livestock industry.
2.5 Role of the Mashona in commercial, small-scale Veterinary observations in the field support research results showing that
and communal areas 39 the indigenous breeds are well adapted to our ever drying environment.
Their disease and parasite resistance and ability to withstand stress are
well recognised and they have become a valued part of our natural
3. THE SOCIETY 41 heritage. Among the local breeds the Mashona stands out because of its
3.1 History and development 43 unrivalled beef production per livestock unit. It is small, fertile and has low
3.2 Aims and objectivea 45 maintenance requirements.
3.3 Standards of excellence 46 My congratulations to the Mashona Breed Society for sponsoring this
review. It has made the results of the hard work and efforts of both its
3.4 Development of inspection and recording systems 49 members and the dedicated research community, available to a wide
3.5 Recording- the key. 50 national and international audience.
3.6 Achievements 50
S K Hargreaves
4. REFERENCES 53 DIRECTOR OF VETERINARY SERVICES
 Foreword

Not much more than a thousand years ago, a

wizened little yellow-skinned sentinel sat on his
granite ledge gazing into the blue haze of the big
river valley, waiting for the first sign of the new
season's migration of wild animals.
What he observed, however, trailing up the ele-
phant path, filled him with wonderment. There were
strange dark-skinned people with gleaming orna-
ments and weapons. They walked slowly behind a
herd of black, shiny animals such as he had never
seen before. He hastened back to his cave, mixed
his pigments, and faithfully recorded the start of the
the breed
Zimbabwean livestock industry.
I've heard told that somewhere in the hills, near
Guruwe, if you are fortunate enough, you can still
find his faded painting of those original Mashona
Cattle.
The timing of this publication could not be more appropriate. With the Beef
Industry reeling from the most devastating drought of this century, and with the cost
of all livestock feeds rising to prohibititive levels, the undisputed ability of the
indigenous breeds to make maximum use of the natural rangelands of the sub-
tropics, their functional efficiency in terms of production and reproduction, and their
wide spectrum of genetic diversity, must place them in the forefront of the planning
and development of future farming systems in Zimbabwe and those of neighbouring
countries as well.
This booklet chronicles the history, near extinction, and subsequent scientific
improvement of the Mashona breed.
The contents were compiled, edited and presented by an equally talented, if less
wizoned, modern sentinel. Dr. Dave Holness is one of an illustrious band of
professional advisors who have assisted the Mashona Cattle Society members in
their breed improvement programmes over the past fifty years.
Many of their names will be found in the comprehensive bibliography in the
concluding pages, but other names from earlier days also come to mind; Professor
'Canada' Davies, D.A.R. Robinson, Fritz Meyer, A.P. Conradie and Peter Davies.
However, it is the dedication and skill of the breeders themselves to whom most
of the credit is due. Often in the face of considerable scorn and ridicule, a
comparatively small number of ethusiasts built up their herds using the most
meticulous method of recording and selection based on performance results and
economic traits.
The breeders were encouraged and assisted by the professional staff and
facilities at the research stations, and by livestock specialists in the Ministry of
Agriculture. Consequently, the genetic merit and progress of this breed has been
investigated, authenticated and recorded by internationally accepted scientific
standards, over a long period of time.
The Society decided that these results were now worthy of publication and
publicity, for they more than justify the vision and determination shown by Frank
Willoughby and Allie McLeod, who started it all fifty years ago.
This booklet is dedicated to those two men.

R. KEITH HARVEY
"NYORORO"
OCTOBER, 1992
 2.1 History and description
Indigenous cattle of varying types are found throughout the length
and breadth of Africa, but only since the turn of the present century
has any attempt been made to study and classify them. Because of
the dearth of reliable evidence and the general lack of historical
records in Africa, the conclusions arrived at must be regarded as
somewhat speculative.
Although the indigenous cattle of Africa generally lack uniformity of
type, they may be placed in the following five main groups:
The Humpless Longhorn Cattle.
These were the original cattle of North Africa as illustrated in
paintings in the tombs of Egypt 7 000 years ago, but are today only
found in West Africa.
The Humpless Shorthorn Cattle.
These begin to be depicted in the Egyptian tombs from about
2500 B.C. from which time they obviously displaced the longhorns
to the south and west. The cattle of the Mediterranean region today
The perfect mashona bull. are mainly of this type.
The Neckhumped Lateral-horned Zebu.
There are records of this type of humped cattle from the old
civilisations north of the Persian Gulf and later records, about
1500 B.C., of their appearance in Egypt. It is thought that they may
have entered at the "horn" of Africa and become established in
Ethiopia, from whence they spread north and south. Today,
however, they are only represented by the Afrikaner breed which
was developed from Khoi Khoi cattle which the early settlers found
at the Cape.
The Chesthumped Shorthorn Zebu.
This appears to be the most recent type to enter the continent and
evidence indicates that it was introduced down the East Coast by
Arab and Indian Traders from about the middle of the seventh
century A.D. It is now the dominant type in East and Central Africa.
The Sanga Cattle.
This type is widely spread in South, Central and West Equatorial
Africa and is obviously the result of cross-breeding between the
original humpless cattle and the invading zebus. They are usually
neckhumped but vary greatly in the size and shape of the horns.
The indigenous breeds of Zimbabwe fall into this group.
A beautiful mashona heifer on the veld. As the migrating Bantu tribes moved down the continent they took
their cattle with them, crossing the Zambezi about 700 A.D.
Portuguese explorers reported the presence of cattle in what we
now know as Zimbabwe in the 16th Century, and the first white
settlers found large numbers of stock, estimated at 500 000, in the
hands of the local inhabitants. They were distributed mainly along
the central plateau, which was free of tsetse fly.
The cattle which the pioneering settlers found were almost
exclusively of the Sanga type. They were neck-humped, small in
stature, rounded in appearance with sloping rumps, their coats
were sleek and shiny, they were fine of bone, had small, broad, alert
heads and long, thin, active tails. The horns in the cow curved
outward and forwards and were round and fine in cross-section.

Reserve Champion
Mashona bull at
Salisbury Show in
1952
Note small mature
size
To help build up numbers again, cattle were introduced from
Zambia. They were mostly cows and were probably Angoni type
shorthorn Zebus, but it is not known what lasting genetic influence
they had on the native herds. From about this time both Govern-
ment and private individuals began importing bulls from South
Africa and overseas with which to grade-up and "improve" the
Champion Mashona indigenous stock. In most instances this process led to indiscrim-
heifer at Salisbury inate cross-breeding, without any corresponding improvement in
Show in 1952 management and resulted in heterogenous, degenerate animals
completely lacking the desirable characteristics of their parent
The horns in the bull were also rounded but shorter and heavier, stock.
curving out and upwards. The horns in the oxen were longer and The indigenous breeds which exist in Zimbabwe today, the
more widespread. A few of the animals were naturally polled. Mashona, Nkone and Tuli have developed from this original stock.
Colour patterns were many and varied. The predominant colour As might be expected there are close genetic similarities, especially
was black followed by reds and browns, with yellows and duns between the Mashona and Nkone, but surveys of transferrin types
being less common. These colours were often accompanied by and estimated haemoglobin gene frequencies from herds through-
white patches or stipples very broken in outline. Black and red out the country have shown that animals do in fact fall into distinct
were frequently mixed giving rise to variations of the attractive breed groups. It can be speculated, however that all the original
M'Sundu pattern or more rarely the brindle (Nhuru). genotypes must have been Mashonas.
In, 1896, disaster struck in the form of the Rinderpest epizootic The Nkone cattle have descended from the cattle belonging to the
which swept down from the north killing cattle and antelope alike, a'Mandebele tribe which settled in Matebeleland in 1838. The
to be followed a few years later by the introduction of East Coast largest concentrations of these animals are found in theGwaaiand
Fever from Mocambique. The herds were decimated and by the neighbouring communal areas in the western part of Zimbabwe. A
time these diseases were under control it was estimated that only small breeding herd was established at Tjolotjo, approximately
50 000 head remained in the country. 130 km north-west of Bulawayo in 1946, and this subsequently
 grew to become the main centre of research and development of
the breed. A second herd was established at Msengenzi Experiment future Mashona breed. Mr. McLeod bought most of his original
Farm in the Makwiro district of Mashonaland in 1953, and the animals in the Mhondoro area. He trekked them first to Gokwe and
Nkone Cattle Club was established with a number of commercial then to Essexvale as he was transferred, finally buying a farm in the
breeders in the early 1960's. latter district. He obtained some polled bulls from Ellerton and by
very rigorous selection built up a herd of fertile and prepotent,
In 1942, Mr. Len Harvey, who was a land development officer, small, black, hornless cattle of considerable hardiness and
noticed a distinct yellow type of animal in the indigenous herds in docility.
the lowveld south of Gwanda. Government subsequently decided
to purchase some of these cattle to see if the type could be The Ellerton herd was larger and more broadly based and although
improved, and established the Lowveld Cattle Breeding Station predominantly black, managed to perpetuate most of the colour
with Mr. Harvey as Officer-in-Charge. This became the centre of and colour patterns of the native stock. Here again selection was
work on the breed and became known as the Tuli Breeding Station. based strictly upon the most desirable functional characteristics of
Commercial breeders became interested in the breed and an the indigenous cattle, and over the years a remarkably productive
official Breed Society was formed in 1961. herd was achieved.
Prior to 1890, Thomas Baines, the explorer and big game hunter, The enthusiasm of these, two men led to the founding of the
recorded that he obtained "two little cows which being from Rhodesian Indigenous "Cattle Society on the 16th of January,
Mashonaland were excellent milkers". However, probably the first 1950, with Mr. Willoughby becoming the first President and Mr.
serious written record on Mashona cattle was contained in a letter McLeod as honorary secretary. A few years later the name was
written by a member of the Pioneer Column, Mr. Jack Carruthers- changed to the more specific Mashona Cattle Society.
Smith, to Mr. Frank Willoughby. In it, he wrote: The vision and enterprise of Messrs. Willoughby and McLeod have
"My first experience of Mashona cattle was in the beginning of been more than justified, and while the breed today has a much
1891 until the end of March 1897, when I left for Bulawayo in broader genetic base than either may ever have visualised, their
Matabeleland. I considered Mashona cattle a distinctive breed of original bloodlines still run very strong in the modern Mashona.
their own. They were a very small breed, with very small and fine
bone, very compact. They had lovely symmetrical horns. I should
think about 70 per cent of the cattle were jet black, 25 to 27 per
cent dark red, perhaps 1,5 percent darkyellow, probably 1 percent
dun coloured. Amongst the black, there was perhaps 1 or 2 per
cent hornless and in the red an odd hornless beast.
The true Mashona, as I remember it, had very short legs, bone very
fine, a long thin tail, with a bush at the end of it, not unlike the bush
on a lion's tail.
To the best of my memory, the pure bred little Mashona gave about
11/2 to 2 bottles of milk, at a milking.
I might add that the hairon the Mashona cattle was very short and
simply shone, when in perfect condition, which in the early 1890's
they generally were."
Meanwhile, in 1941, some forty years after these early recordings,
and independently of each other, two dedicated men, Mr. F.B.
Willoughby and Mr. E.A.B. McLeod began building up herds of
indigenous cattle in Mashonaland. They visited dip-tanks in
various remote communal areas and bought up animals which
conformed to the characteristics which they had fixed in their
minds. Mr. Willoughby obtained many of his foundation stock in the
Chilimanzi and Buhera Communal lands. One polled bull in
particular, which, as a three-month-old calf, walked the 200 miles
from Buhera to Ellerton Farm, had a tremendous influence on the
2.2 Structure of the National Mashona herd in
Zimbabwe 2.3 Research and the Mashona - an overview
The total complement of Mashona cattle in Zimbabwe can be
classified into three groups, namely, 2.3.1 Introduction
(a) Pure-bred recorded cattle run by commercial breeders. The considerable amount of research work that has been carried out
on Mashona cattle over the years in Zimbabwe can be classified into
(b) Non-recorded Mashona cattle in the large scale commercial two basic types. Firstly, experiments which have been designed to
sector. investigate specific aspects of the performance of Mashona cattle, eg.
(c) Mashona cattle in the communal sector. adaptability, fertility, cow efficiency, etc. and secondly, experiments
which have involved Mashonas purely because they were available as
(a) Pure-bred recorded cattle a source of experimental animals.
The number of Mashona cattle recorded with the Breed Society Although this overview attempts to cover all the documented
according to Volume (See Section 3.4) are shown in Table 2.1. These research work on Mashona cattle, it particularly concentrates on
are in the hands of some 15 breeders of which four are education summarising the former type of experiments, as these provide a more
institutions or research stations. The total number (1 790 head) specific insight into the attributes of the Mashona breed. Full details
represents approximately 61/2 percent of the total numberof all breeds of all the research data can be traced through the attached reference
of pedigree cattle registered with the Zimbabwe Herd Book. 'ist and bibliography.

Table 2.1 Numbers of Cattle recorded with the Mashona Breed Society 2.3.2 Adaptability
as at 31/12/91
Regardless of the controversy surrounding the actual dates of arrival
Volume Total of Mashona cattle in Central Africa, they have clearly had many
IV hundreds of years in which to become adapted to the local environ-
ment. As pointed out by Oliver (44), this is fundamental to con-
Males 45 40 25 15 125 siderations of the suitability of the Mashona as a breed to survive and
Females 887 415 293 68 2 1 665
produce in Zimbabwe. Of greatest importance in this respect are the
Total 932 455 318 83 1 790 nutritional constraints imposed by seasonal changes in the value of
the veld grazing particularly in high rainfall areas on leached sand-
veld. A wet summer season (December - March) is followed by a
longer dry winter season (April- November). The latter heralds a sharp
(b) Non-recorded Mashona cattle in the large scale commercial sector decline in the crude protein content of the grass, an increase in crude
It is impossible to estimate numbers of unregistered Mashonas, but fibre content and the consequent reduction in the digestibility of the
they have been used in increasing numbers in cross-breeding veld (11). Thus, although cattle can make rapid livemass gains during
programmes throughout Zimbabwe, particularly in the high and summer, their ability to survive and remain productive during the
middle-veld areas. winter period of sub-maintenance grazing is paramount.
Studies comparing Mashona with Afrikaner cows at Henderson
(c) Mashona cattle in the communal sector Research Station have shown the former to have smaller mass losses
during winter and higher gains during summer. These advantages are
Again, it is not possible to estimate the numbers of Mashona cattle attributed to their smaller body size and ability to graze more
among the 3,5 million head of cattle in the communal areas. However, selectively, thereby obtaining a more nutritious ration (12). Similarly,
it is probable that Mashona type cattle predominate in the highveld these attributes of the Mashona cow undoubtedly contribute to her
areas and are present to varying degrees throughout the middle veld ability to produce a weaner on an annual basis, as the pregnant
areas as well. They are also still the dominant genotype in the lowveld female has to carry her calf at a time when her plane of nutrition is at
communal areas of Manicaland and Masvingo. its lowest during the year. The ability of the Mashona cow to survive
Although the national pool of indigenous Mashona blood has been and breed under conditions of nutritional stress are further enhanced
diluted by introductions of exotic genotypes, there remain many by her mobility which allows her access to a larger harvesting area.
areas where relatively pure herds of Mashona cattle can be found. This is accentuated in rough country, particularly in comparison with
the heavier Bos taurus breeds.

8
 In common with other indigenous breeds, Mashona cattle have degree of genetic variation in age at puberty which exists within the
evolved as a well-adapted and hardy breed due to many generations Mashona breed. Moreover, individual heifer data from Makoholi
of natural selection in the communal land environment involving both studies indicate that puberty can be obtained at ages as low as 362
low nutritional status and levels of management. Typically, cattle are days and body masses of 149kg (Tiffin, 1989- private communication),
kraaled at night to allow for collection of manure, protection of fields thus classifying the Mashona as an early sexually maturing breed. No
and to prevent losses to predators, and then grazed by day under the data are available for young bulls, but it can be assumed that they will
supervision of a herdsman. The studies of Smith (see ref 44) have also become sexually competent at a relatively young age.
shown that this may restrict grazing time to seven hours per day,
providing another constraint to food intake. Cows are often separated
from their calves and hand-milked once daily in order to provide food The practical significance of this work is that Mashona heifers can be
for the family, thereby placing a further stress on the cow-calf unit. effectively mated at 15 months of age as long as the plane of nutrition
Although there has not been any specific work on the Mashona cattle, provides for sufficient growth and bodymass (Table 3.1). Although
comparative experiments at Matopos Research Station have conception can occur at bodymasses below 180 kg, it would appear
demonstrated that the teeth of indigenous cattle are better adapted that a bodymass of 235 kg, which represents approximately 70% of
and more durable than their exotic counterparts for grazing the mature cow mass in the Makoholi herd, is a safe target mass to ensure
natural veld. After the first four to five months of life, the central and high conception rates under ranching conditions (Fig. 3.1).
first lateral incisors of indigenous cattle were subject to about 70 per Figure 3.1 Conception rates in 15-month old Mashona heifers of different
cent of the attrition found in the corresponding deciduous teeth of body masses (76)
Herefords (49).

2.3.3 Reproduction
Puberty and early calving
Puberty, or sexual maturity, is normally measured as the age at which
the first behavioural oestrus (heat) occurs, and can be confirmed by
measuring the levels of the hormone progesterone in blood serum.
Many trials have shown that age at puberty in heifers can be markedly
influenced by their plane of nutrition, and this was confirmed in c
o
Mashona heifers by Tiffin's work at Makoholi (Table 3.1) (80). This
work, and other trials(eg. 46), also served to illustrate the considerable a
a>
o
Table 3.1 Livemass, body dimensions and reproductive responses of o
o
weaner Mashona heifers to three planes of nutrition (80)

Nutritional group High Medium Low

Number of heifers 49 49 48
Initial mass, 14 August (kg) 142,5 141,8 141,4
Mass at mating, 4 December (kg) 214,2" 193,4" 180,7**
Gain, (kg) 71,7 51,6 39,3 •=160 160 165 210 235 260
Height at withers, 4 December (cm) 100,8 100,6 99,4
Body length, 4 December (cm) 85,9 83,9 82,9 Body mass at mating (kg)
Heart girth, 4 December (cm) 139,6 137,0 131,1
Age at first oestrus (days) 407,0* 426,0* 447,0*
Mass at puberty (progesterone) (kg) 223,4** 212,8 197,4
% in oestrus by mating 67,5* 42,0 30,6 Follow-up studies (72) highlighted the fact that, due to body size and
% Calving 75,5** 49,0 45,8
condition, calving at two years of age tended to lead to a re-
Mean calving date 15/10 20/10 9/11*
conception problem after the first calf (Table 3.2). However when
estimated total weaner production in the first five years was compared
Significant difference between treatments: *p < 0,05
**p < 0,01 forcows calving at eithertwoorthree years of age, productivity was
higher in the earlier calving group.

10 11
 Table 3.2 Comparative performance of cows first calving at three years
and at two years (72) with the other pure breeds on the trial in terms of calving and weaning
percentage (Table 3.4) (131).
Dam age at first calving
Three years Two years
Table 3.4 Performance of purebred cows in the production of crossbred
Conception rates (%) calves, 1979- 1986(130)
— 1970 100,0 100,0
— 1971 84,5 45,0 Reproduction and calf survival (%)
— 1972 92,3 91,7
- 1973 94,9 96,6 Cow genotype n1 Calving2 Receiving Weaning4 Calf survival 5
Calf weaning mass (kg) (200 days)
— 1971 144,4 121,3 Purebred cows
— 1972 147,8 130,6 Afrikaner 553 59 39 54 92
- 1973 152,5 149,8 Mashona 315 77 70 73 95
Nkone 207 69 59 64 93
Weaning production per cow mated 407 70 68 96
Tuli 58
to May 1973 (kg) 422,2 321,6 Brahman 134 69 63 66 96
Weaning production per cow mated Sussex 229 62 37 60 96
per year of cow age to May 1 973 (kg) 84,5 80,4 Charolais 167 68 64 63 94
Estimated total weaner production
in first 5 years of life (kg) 269,6 317,4
Notes: 1. n = number of cows put to the bull 1979 - 1985
2. Calves born/cows put to the bullx 100
Gestation length 3. Calves born to cows that were nursing at bulling/all nursing
The limited evidence for Mashona cattle indicates that gestation cows x 100
4. Calves weaned/cows put to the bullx 100
length is within the normal range, but may tend to be slightly longer
5. Calves weaned/calves born x 100
than the averageforSosfat/rus breeds(47)(Table3.3). However, data
from 306 observations for heifers inseminated in the Matopos Cross- Components of reproduction
breeding Project (1 28) showed that the average gestation length for
pure Mashonas (282,4 days) was slightly less than the average for all Work at Henderson Research Station has concentrated on attempts
genotypes (284,2 days). to describe why the Mashona appears to be relatively highly fertile,
and as a model, Mashona cows have been compared with Afrikaner
cows under similar conditions of management. In a series of trials, the
Table 3.3 Mean calving intervals, gestation and post-partum periods of period of post-partum anoestrus has been shown to be considerably
four cattle breeds, days ± SE (47) shorter in Mashonas than in Afrikaners (Figure 3.2) (27, 29).
Breed Angoni Afrikaner Mashona Hereford
Mashona cows also appeared to be more sensitive than Afrikaners to
Calving intervals 379,7 425,7 387,8 411,3 the effect of the temporary interruption .of suckling on the stimulation
± 85,8 ±130,9 ±113,6 ±140,0 of oestrus during the post-partum period (30). Moreover, it was found
Gestation length 285,9 297,5 286,5 284,8 that in animals in which normal cyclic sexual activity had been
± 13,2 ±11,5 ± 12,4 ± 9,7 restored after calving, the levels of progesterone in peripheral blood
Postpartum anoestrus 79,9 96,9 70,9 83,3 were higher in Mashonas when compared with Afrikaner cows (26).
± 19,2 ± 20,9 ± 13,3 ± 27,9
This undoubtedly explains the markedly higher response of the
Calving percentage ovaries in Afrikaner cows to standard injections of Follicle Stimulating
Hormone when compared with Mashonas (31), and probably con-
That the Mashona cow is relatively highly fertile and can consistently tributes to the higher incidence of 'silent1 heats in Afrikaner cows
produce a calf each year is borne out by many studies carried out which have been recorded in comparative trials (27). Overall, these
throughout Southern Africa in different environments (eg. 1, 30, 37, data lend support to the concept that the relatively high fertility of
44, 111). Recent data from the comprehensive Matopos cross- Mashona cows may be associated with inherently different levels of
breeding trial over a seven-year period has confirmed these findings, endocrine function when compared with less fertile breeds.
and illustrated the superiority of the Mashona cow when compared
Of particular interest in this respect was a trial in which groups of dry

12 13
Figure 3.2 The influence of breed on the duration of post-partum anoestrus (27) Afrikaner and Mashona cows, which were assessed visually to be in
100-1 similar body condition, were subjected to chronic undernutrition
similar to that which might occur during winter on poor veld (22). The
Afrikaner cows stopped cyclic sexual activity after losing a mean of 19
V)
per cent of their initial body mass, whereas the Mashona cows lost a
3
*- mean 32,5 per cent of their initial body mass before sexual activity
4-.
at ceased (Fig. 3.3).
«
O
O) Estimates of percentage body fat in the cows, determined by tritiated
water techniques, at the time that the Afrikaners became anoestrus
I
did not differ to any extent between breeds. Hence the greater ability
of the Mashona cow to continue sexual activity during undernutrition

I
o
ro
cannot be attributed solely to an ability to maintain body condition.
Finally, some behavioural studies at Makoholi showed that in contrast
to some Bos indicus and Sanga breeds which exhibit very short and
'shy' heat periods, this was not the case in Mashonas. Signs of oestrus
2 were relatively clear and intense, and standing heat generally lasted
•5 for 3 to 5 hours (88).
30 W 50 60 70 80 90 100
Manipulation of reproduction
Over the years, Mashona cows have been involved in trials designed
to improve fertility, with particular reference to individuals with sub-
optimum reproductive performance. These have included the
manipulation of weaning (27, 31); the use of Human Chorionic
Gonadotropin (HCG) during the post-insemination period in syn-
Figure 3.3 Relationship between initial body-mass and percentage body- chronised cows (32), suppression of prolaction by treatment with
mass loss at onset of nutritional anoestrus (22) Bromocryptine (29), treatment with Naloxone (42) and assessment of
B-carotene levels (39). With the exception of temporary and partial
Afrikaner weaning, none of these trials led to the development of practical
50-
Mashona techniques.
It is noteworthy that the first development work on synchronised
breeding in Zimbabwe was carried out on Mashona cattle at
-: 1.0-

y = -6,11 . 0.10 x
Henderson Research Station using prostaglandin (23). Subsequent
trials have been designed to try and improve conception rates to
insemination at the synchronised oestrus (40, 41).
30-
Dystocia

aj
«« 20-
There is no evidence to contradict the generally held view that calving
ease is an attribute of the Sanga breeds, including the Mashona. In
c °>
5s Phase I of the Matopos cross-breeding work, the number of calvings
y = -33,62 »0.12x needing assistance at birth as a percentage of number of calves born
10- to heifers rose from 3,4% in purebred matings, to 4,3%, 8,0% and
13,3% when Mashona heifers were mated to Afrikaner, Sussex and
Charolais bulls respectively (63). This increase clearly reflected an
effect of the size of sire breed contributng to an increase in the birth
5M> 500 1.60 1.20 380 3M 300 mass of calves relative to cow mass at parturition. Moreover, of all the
purebred matings in Phase I, Mashona showed the lowest percentage
Initial maximum body-mass (kg) of calving difficulty after the Brahman, which is renowned for

14 15
 producing calves of relatively low birth mass. When, in Phase II, expected from the relatively small mature cow size and calf birth mass
heifers were deliberately exposed to small sires, the incidence of in the Mashona, weaning masses tend to be lower than in other
dystocia was negligible (Tawonezvi, 1989 - private communication). breeds. This is well illustrated in the cumulative results from the
Matopos cross-breeding Project(130)(Table3.6). Overtheyears, this
Calf viability, milk yield and weaning has proved to be a marked commercial disadvantage forthe Mashona
The only trial which makes specific comparisons of calf survival rates breed.
is the Matopos cross-breeding trial, where calf mortality did not differ
markedly between the various purebred cow genotypes (see Table Table 3. 6 Mean weaning masses from purebred dams(1 979-1 986) (1 31 )
3.4), and the survival of 315 calves from Mashona cows run under
range conditions was 95%. The consistently high weaning rates Cow genotype Calf mass (kg) at:
Birth 90 days Weaning 18 months
(eg. 78 - 88%) which were achieved at Makoholi over the period 1969 -
1973 in spite of various experimental treatments, is also indicative of Afrikaner 32 109 202 291
relatively low calf mortalities in Mashona cows (111). Mashona 27 97 185 278
Nkone 31 104 201 297
Low calf mortalities result from good mothering ability and adequate Tuli 31 106 195 287
milk yields. Early work estimated milk yield in a sample of cows from Brahman 30 114 222 321
the Makoholi herd as 1047 kg in a 37 week lactation (95) (Table 3.5). Sussex 35 105 196 295
Charolais 35 109 205 296
Subsequent studies by Holness and Jeffers (29) and Tiffin (69, 79)
provide figures of similar magnitude, with average peak yields of 8 to
9 kg and a daily average of 4 to 5 kg of milk per cow. Cow productivity
Table 3.5 Milk yield of four Mashona cows (kg) (95) The commercial value of a beef cow must be measured by the output
of calf, or meat, per livestock unit of cow over a given time span. This
Cow No. Hand Suckled Total Ratio Suckled: Hand
will most closely equate to output per hectare or per dollar invested
659 403 869 1 272 2,16 Thus when all the various components of reproductive performance
461 338 742 1 077 2,21 which were considered in Section 2.3.3 are brought together in the
0372 46 486 532 10,48 data from the Matopos cross-breeding trial, it can be seen that the
709 401 844 1 245 2,11
high calving percentage, pre-weaning survival rate and weaning mass
Mean 296 735 1 031 2,48 per unit of cow size of the Mashona combine to give an annual
SE ±169 ±175 ± 344 ± 4,62 production (kg of calf) per LU of cow above all other breeds
(Table 4.1) (66).
A more recent detailed study involving 30 cows at Makoholi (35).
however, recorded markedly loweryields(mean 2,4 kgperdayovera Table 4.1 Comparative productivity of indigenous and exotic cows in the
173 day lactation). The reasons forthese loweryields are not clear but production of crossbred calves (adapted from Tawonezvi et al,
may reflect the influence of different seasons, levels of management, 1988, Tawonezvi, unpublished data) (63)
milking techniques, and the fact that young cows were used in this
particular study. This trial also served to illustrate that Mashona cows Calf pre-
may tend to have milk let-down problems unless they are stimulated Breed No. of Calving weaning Calf Mass (kg) Annual production
cows survival (kg per LU of cow)
by a suckling calf. Cows that were milked in the absence of the calf % % Birth Weaning 18 mths Pre- Weaned 18 mth
stimulus had relatively short lactations and low milk yields. At the time slaughter calf calf
of going to press, the Makoholi team have presented the results from
Indigenous
a further study which more fully addresses the effects of method of Mashona 159 76 89 28 172 287 385 184 270
milking on milk production and milk quality in Mashona cows (35a). Nkone 105 63 88 33 187 300 410 151 220
A notable feature in all these studies was the large variation between Tuli 191 70 91 33 184 291 400 162 215
individuals in estimated milk yield (eg. see Table 3.5). This variation Exotic
Afrikaner 262 56 83 33 184 294 396 120 170
provides the potential for improvement of milk yield by selection. Brahman 64 70 83 31 207 320 415 162 220
Numerous studies have reported weaning masses in Mashona cows Sussex 117 60 84 36 178 301 420 118 185
under different systems of management (37, 45, 69). As might be Charolais 85 67 82 37 186 303 431 120 175

16 17
 The extent of this superiority can be illustrated if we compare the 2.3.5 Growth and carcass conformation
relative productivity of cow genotypes as a percentage ot
Afrikaner (taken as 100) (see Fig. 4.1). Growth
Numerous studies have observed growth in Mashona cattle both on
Figure 4.1 Relative productivity of pure-bred cow genotypes (annual veld and in the feed pen, and these have ranged from early descriptive
production of weaned calf, kg per LU of cow) expressed as a work (44), to more detailed investigations of the factors influencing
percentage of the Afrikaner (100) in the MatoposCross- post-weaning growth (55, 56) and comparative studies (6, 23, 24).
breeding Trial (adpated from Tawonezvi et al, 1988) (67)
Clearly, absolute rates of growth are meaningless as they reflect the
large variation in feed available to the cattle. This is highlighted by the
o data from growth of foundation heifers at two different sites in the
-C
Matopos Cross-breeding Project (118) (Fig. 5.1). In summary, the
160-
c
smaller Mashona animal started at a lighter mass than other
150-
o geneotypes, and this difference was largely maintained through to 18
months. Similar patterns were evident in the growth to 18 months of
o o
3 KO-
t_
CD
age in calf crops one and two (118), and in calf crop two steers
O slaughtered off the veld at approximately 31 months of age (126).
a 130-
0)
120-
Figure 5.1 Growth of foundation heifers by breed and site in Matopos
O Cross-breeding Trial (118)
{_
0) 110- a
cc •
Makoholi ( M ) and Gwebi IG] .'*"
100 - Afrikaner
(100) A• • Afrikaner
90- 1.00- M« • Mashona

a S» • Sussex

MM
_ V
200-

150
D F A J' A 0 a F A

1975 1976

When the various steer genotypes were exposed to ad-lib high energy
feeding from 18 months for 60 and 100 day periods, both daily
High cow calf ratio carcass mass gains and food conversion efficiencies of Mashonas
were lower than in the other genotypes, particularly of the exotic

18 19
 breeds (see Table 5.1). It is notable that the differences in carcass
gain between the Mashona and Sussex (approx. 25%) were the same Table 5.2 Least-square means for environmental influences on live mass
as those recorded in earlier trials at Henderson Research Station and mass gain (after Tawonezvi, 1 988) (56)
comparing Mashona and Angus steers on high energy diets (23).
Variable Birth Pre-weaning Weaning Post-weaning
Mention must also be made that in the Henderson trials, performance mass gain
18 month
mass gain mass
of indigenous cattle was often affected by higher levels of laminitis (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
when compared with Bos taurus types on high energy, low roughage
Year of birth *** ... ***
feeding regimens. It may well be that different breeds require ***
***

different rations, and as proposed by Tawonezvi (55), the future may Dam age (years) ***
*** *** NS NS
see the development of more appropriate fattening rations for our 3 20,7 0,50 122,2 0,24 204,3
4 21,4 0,54 131,7
indigenous breeds. 5 22,2
0,24 215,0
0,53 130,2 0,24 214,4
6 22,4 0,54 134,0 0,24 216,8
7 22,9 0,56 137,7
Table 5.1 Mean carcass mass at four slaughter stages, and carcass mass 8 22,0
0,23 216,0
0,53 131,4 0,24 213,8
gain (kg/d) and food conversion efficiency (kg food/kg carcass 9+ 23,0 0,56 136,8 0,23 215,1
mass gain) afterBO and 100 days of fattening in purebred steers Sex ***
... *** ***
***
(6) Female 21,0 0,52 127,8 0,23 205,8
Male 23,0 0,55 135,8 0,24 221,3
Food conversion Previous parous
Genotype Mean carcass mass (kg) Carcass mass gain (kg food/kg state of dam ** ** + ** NS
.

Weaning 18 mths 60 days 100 days 60 days 100 days carcass gain) Non-lactating 22,3 0,54 133,7 0,24 216,4
fattening fattening 60 days 100 days Lactating 21,7 0,53 129,8 0,23 210,7
Period of birth3 NS *
Afrikaner 93,7 141,7 201,8 222,7 0,95 0,74 10,2 13,6 Early
* NS NS
Nkone 94,1 140,4 207,2 229,1 0,97 0,88 10,1 13,2 21,9 0,52 129,5 0,23 210,2
Mid 22,0 0,54 132,5 0,24
Mashona 77,8 134,2 179,1 198,1 0,72 0,60 12,9 16,1 Late
213,6
Brahman 130,5 183,0 239,1 263,5 0,89 0,74 10,8 13,6 22,1 0,54 133,6 0,24 216,8
Sussex 103,7 150,9 221,6 245,2 1,01 0,88 9,5 12,3
Charolais 114,6 177,4 265,0 276,1 1,25 0,89 9,7 14,7
Statistical significance of differences:
NS = not significant
Using comprehensive data from Makoholi Research Station, over a * = P < 0,05, significant
28 year period under extensive conditions, Tawonezvi (56) has ** = P < 0,01, highly significant
analyzed the main effects of environmental influences on livemass *** = P < 0,001, very highly significant
and livemass gains in the Mashona breed, and the results are a = Early Period: 1 S e p - 2 1 Oct
summarized in Table 5.2. Mid Period: 22 Oct- 21 Nov
Late Period: 22 Nov - end of calving season
Both pre-weaning growth rates and weaning masses were significantly
influenced by year of calf birth, age of dam, sex, previous parous state
of the dam and time of calving, and the effects carried through to 18
month masses in the case of year of birth, sex and previous parous
state of the dam. Of particular practical significance is the fact that the
previous lactation status of the dam appears to have a permanent
influence on the performance of the progeny, in spite of any post-
weaning compensatory growth. Failure to account for this effect in
selection programmes within the Mashona breed could result in bias
against the progeny of more fertile dams.
Carcass composition and conformation
For steers fattened intensively on the Matopos Cross-breeding
Project, examination of the distribution of wholesale joints in the
Feed lot steers carcass of steers at each stage of slaughter revealed little difference

20 21
 between the pure genotypes. It is important to note that in spite of fleshing" of the Mashona (Tawonezvi 1 989 - private communication).
some differences in shape, there were no higher proportions of the Trials have compared the Mashona with Angus x Tuli and Hereford
lower priced joints, such as chuck and neck, in Bos indicus when steers, slaughtered serially after 0, 60, 90 and 1 20 days of feeding.
compared with Bos taurus carcasses (Table 5.3). Mashona steer carcasses had a significantly higher lean percentage
and less bone and fat percentage than either of the other two breeds.
Table 5.3 Proportion (% of carcass side mass) of selected groups of joints
for the six pure bred genotypes at the end of fattening (6) As a consequence, the Mashona carried 0,25 kg more lean per kg of
bone (3,25 vs. 3,00 kg/kg) than the Hereford. Because the Matopos
Joint Genotype results were based on the "fleshing index" (an index based on
Afrikaner Brahman Mashona Nkone Sussex Charolais length/m?ss relationships in the carcass side) (see Table 5.5), and the
Topside, rump, aitch bone mass : length ratio increase with breed size, the fleshing index
and thick flank 22,8 25,2 24,0 24,3 25,0 24,6 measure tends to discriminate against the lighter Mashona carcass.
Sirloin, wing and prime ribs 15,1 15,0 15,3 15,0 14,7 14,4 Also of interest was that fat distribution appeared to vary between
Chuck and neck 20,1 19,7 19,4 20,5 20.2 19,6 breeds, as the Hereford will deposit more fat subcutaneously, while
Hind and fore shins 16.1 16,3 15,6 16,2 16,9 16,7
Kidney and channel fat 4,8 4,8 4,9 4,8 3.3 4,8 the Mashona deposits more as channel and kidney fat.
Table 5.4 Average dressing percentage, fleshing index and fat cover
Moving on to actual tissue composition, the Henderson work which scores for pure bred steers slaughtered after 60 and 100 days
compared the intensive fattening of Mashona and Aberdeen Angus of fattening (6)
steers showed that in spite of large differences between the breeds in
rate of carcass gain from 240 to 420 kg bodymass, unit change in Mean dressing
carcass dry matter comprises 78 per cent fat, 18 per cent protein and Breed percentage Fleshing Index % A Fat cover score % 2
3 per cent ash for both breeds (23). 60 days 100 days 60 days 100 days 60 days 100 days
Afrikaner 51,4 55,8 16 53 32 11
Data generated by the Matopos Nkone 51,7 55,2 33 57 13 67
Cross-breeding Project provides Mashona 53,0 57,4 29 50 0 17
carcass information for steers both Brahman 54,4 57,4 43 75 0 0
Sussex 51,0 54,7 83 100 50 14
fattened intensively and slaughtered Charolais 53,5 54,6 75 86 38 43
at approximately 31 months of
age. The main trends that were
evident from this data were that Table 5.5 Average dressing percentage, fleshing index and fat cover
the dressing out percentage in the scores for purebred steers slaughtered off veld at approximately
Mashona was equal or better than 31 months of age (124)
the other genotypes (Tables 5.4
and 5.5). Breed Mean dressing Fleshing Index Fat cover
percentage % A's % B's % 1's % 2's
Fleshing qualities in the lighter,
earlier maturing genotype carcasses Afrikaner 49,3 0 33 33 37
Nkone 50,2 0 27 20 47
such as the Mashona were gene- Mashona 50,7 0 20 67 33
rally poorer, but carcass fat cover Sussex 49,2 13 69 13 33
was superior to the later maturing
Bos taurus breeds.
In terms of value per kilogram, the 2.3.6 Nutrition and management
relatively low carcass mass and
lack of fleshing in the Mashona Protein and energy
tended to be compensated for by Mashona cattle were used in the pioneering work of Elliott and co-
their early fattening characteristics. workers at Henderson Research Station which started in the early
However, recent work at Grasslands 1950's. These studies provided a major breakthrough in our under-
Champion carcass eye muscle Research Station is shedding new standing of the feed requirements of cattle in the African context,
of a three-quarter Mashona light on the supposed "lack of particularly the interaction between protein and energy.

22 23
 After first quantifying intakes of veld herbage during the year(11,12)
the work went on to estimate protein biological values and to show the production as a result of an interaction with protein supplementation
relatively low requirements of protein for maintenance of African (Table 6.1). This has led to widespread practical adoption of phosphate
cattle (9, 12, 13, 15, 16). Of particular importance were the findings supplementation, especially in sandveld areas of the country. It is
that voluntary intakes of dry matter and energy by the beef cow are pertinent to note, however, that Mashona cattle failed to show any
markedly depressed by low protein intake (15), and thus the major
nutritional limitations for the beef cow grazing veld in the dry season Figure6.1 Weaning rate (shaded areas) in relation to the body mass distri-
is likely to be a combined deficiency of energy and protein. bution of lactating Mashona cows at mating (102)
Confirmation of the importance of protein intake was illustrated by
experiments at Makoholi, where Ward (105) showed that protein
supplementation of Mashona cows grazing veld increased calving 0 - Control
rate irrespective of the bodymass of the cow (see Fig. 6.1). + - Protein supplement
^proved knowledge of the nature and extent of body tissue changes
is obviously essential for a clearer understanding of the response of
animals to changes in nutrition. Attempts have been made at Hender-
son Research Station, using Mashona, Afrikaner and Hereford
heifers, to develop appropriate techniques for measuring fat changes
in the live animal using tritiated water as a marker (7). In addition to
highlighting the problems involved in developing accurate techniques
for measuring fat changes in the live animal, the results showed that it
was necessary to use separate equations for each breed in order to
predict body fat.
30-
As it seems likely that the proportions of bone, muscle and fat in a cow
have a greater influence on her ability to conceive and lactate than
bodymass alone, recent trials designed to study relationships
between body composition in mature Mashona cows and subsequent
lactation and reconception hold promise of some interesting results
(83).
Current trials at Grasslands Research Station are investigating
changes in body composition resulting from winter mass losses and I 20
subsequent compensatory growth in Mashona steers, a cycle which
is inherent in dry season/wet season grazing systems. The potential
significance of this work is that management systems can be
developed which will involve minimum supplementary feeding of
Mashona cattle during the winter period (20).
At the same time, research at Grasslands Research Station is placing
emphasis on the evaluation of winter feeding strategies which are 10 -
likely to be adaptable to the communal areas. In this respect, work is
in progress to determine the cost effectiveness of replacing standard
winter supplements such as cottonseed meal with dried poultry
manure for young Mashona steers on dry season grazing (18, 19).
Minerals
The benefits of phosphate supplementation of Mashona cattle
grazing veld during summer on fertility, weaner production and o + 0 * 0 +
growth were demonstrated by the comprehensive studies of Ward 227-273 273 - 318 318- 364
(102). Moreover, there were additional improvements in weaner
Dam body mass at mating (kg)

24
25
 response whatsoever to "free choice" minerals offered over a three
year test period (48). All of these factors have potential practical significance if manipulated
to improve performance under different systems of production.
Strategic use of relatively small amounts of concentrate to fatten
Mashona steers off the veld in late summer has been shown to be cost In the context of the communal land environment, Tiffin and co-
effective, particularly in relation to improved carcass characteristics workers (81) have theorised that if Mashona calves could be weaned
(75). It may well be that this type of approach is more appropriate for at an early age, as is a conventional dairy calf, it could be reared in a
the fattening of pure Mashona cattle than high energy pen feeding. central nursery. This would largely eliminate the stress of lactation on
Early work by Ward (94) has also illustrated the benefits that may the cow and lead to improved cow fertility, better calf growth rates and
accrue from the supplementation of steers grazing veld with low reduced calf mortalities. A series of trials were therefore carried out at
levels of energy and protein. Makoholi from 1975-78 to examine the feasibility of artificially rearing
Mashona calves. However, in contrast to Friesland calves, the
Table 6.1 Response in weaner production per cow to bonemeal and Mashona calves showed a consistent reluctance to consume sufficient
protein supplements (10, 56) milk or dry food, and consequently, mortalities were uneconomically
high and growth rates very poor (81).
Supplement Weaner production/ Response At Henderson Research Station, Mashona cattle have been used in
cow mated Kg %
trials to evaluate the effect of age of castration on the subsequent
Nil 432,2 performance of male calves (34), and the comparative performance of
Bonemeal 510,7 + 20,7 entire bulls, 'short-scrotum' bulls, steers and heifers (28, 33). In
Protein 558,8 + 32,0
Protein + bonemeal 672,7 + 58,9
summary, it was shown that age of castration is unlikely to have any
significant effect on bodymass at weaning. However, entire bulls and
bulls which had been modified by the 'short-scrotum' technique grew
Management faster, converted food into carcass mass more efficiently and were
In relation to management techniques, mention must be made of the leaner than castrates and heifers.
time of weaning studies carried out at Makoholi (69). It was clearly
shown that over a four year period (Table 6.2), weaning Mashona 2.3.7 Genetic improvement
calves at nine rather six to seven months enhanced calf mass at 280 Most of the development of central performance test procedures as a
days. In fact, for the same gain in mass, late weaned calves required selection tool for beef bulls in Zimbabwe has been carried out with
approximately one half the digestible protein fed to normally weaned Mashona cattle, and central performance testing of young Mashona
calves. bulls from various herds started at Makoholi Experiment Station in the
early 1950's (43, 54, 78). As a consequence a large amount of data
Table 6.2 Response in calf mass to date of weaning supplemented in has been generated (eg. 70,85, 97,100,101,119,122), and this has
different seasons (70) been used to refine the test (59), and to analyse factors which may
influence its effectiveness as an aid to selection (68, 77, 78).
Season of kg Calf mass at ± 280 days %
supplementation weaned weaned response The objective of the test is to assess the growth and food conversion
200 days 280 days efficiency of potential sires in order to identify those of higher genetic
Nil 138,8 150,3 + 8,3 merit for use in breeding programmes. Mashona breeders from all
Winter 144,9 162,2 + 11,9 over the country have sent weaner bull calves to Makoholi for central
Summer 141,1 163,2 + 15,7 testing. All calves must have been derived from mature cows which
Winter + Summer 149,5 163,0 + 9,0 have reared a calf the previous year, as Tiffin (77) has shown that
Mean 143,6 159,7 + 11,2 preweaning growth patterns should be considered where weaner
bulls are performance tested.
Although late weaning resulted in greater losses in cow mass, this After a settling in period, they are tested over a 140 day period while
did not affect reconception rate if cows were adequately supple- individually penned and fed ad-libitum. The ration is formulated to
mented (70). promote average bodymass gains of 0,9kg per day. Based on eleven
Many studies have investigated the possible factors affecting models derived from six years' data, it was concluded that the final
performance of the Mashonacow, including age, bodymass at various mass at the end of test best described the performance of the bull
stages throughout the productive cycle, calving interval, season of after adjusment for initial mass and food intake (43). This information
calving, sex of calf and levels of feeding (eg. 4, 27, 71,105,117,134). is combined in regression equations for each bull in order to derive a

26 27
 "predicted" final mass.
Bulls are then ranked according to the extent to which their actual Table 7.2 Effect of performance test ranking of Mashona bulls on the
mass at the end of the test deviates from their predicted mass. Recent performance of their progeny when pen fattened at 18 months
and current work is re-examining the efficiency of the equations used of age (70)
for prediction of final mass (68, 59).
Sire rank high Sire rank low
Steers Heifers Mean Steers Heifers Mean
Number of animals 18 17 18 14
Initial mass (kg) 205,9 196,8 201,4 189,2 172,5 180,9
Final mass (kg) 304,3 276,6 290,5 278,2 251,0 264,6
Gain (kg) 98,4 79,8 89,1 89,0 78,5 83,8
Gain/day (kg) 0,854 0,705 0,780 0,717 0,669 0,693
Food eaten (kg) 935,7 843,6 889,7 834,7 795,6 815,2
Kg food/kg gain 9,51 10,57 9,99 9,38 10,13 9,76
Carcass mass (kg) 169,9 152,0 161,0 157,7 141,2 149,5

Another interesting aspect of the progeny testing work at Makoholi

was an analysis of the response of calf growth to variation in dam
growth as measured when the dam itself was a calf in the progeny test
herd. It was apparent that some 30% of the variation in calf growth can
be accounted for in terms of the dam's own growth, and this effect
persisted at least until the progeny were 20 months old (43, 110).
However, although these results may be pertinent to the selection for
growth among replacement heifers, the contribution of genetic and
non-genetic influences to this relationship are confounded, and their
relative contributions are therefore difficult to apportion.
For the future, central performance testing may have a specific role to
play in the communal or small-scale sector, where herds are too small
Two year-old performance tested bull for realistic selection of bulls within herds. Accordingly, trials are in
The validity of the central performance test as a means of assessing progress at Makoholi where Mashona bulls from both the communal
genetic merit was tested by means of trials which amounted to areas and the station are being performance tested on veld and will
progeny tests of bulls ranked either high or low on the performance subsequently be progeny tested (54). The aim is to assess the
test. Whether the progeny were grown out on veld (Table 7.1) or pen- effectiveness of central testing on veld of bulls from the communal
fattened (Table 7.2), the progeny of bulls of high rank consistently areas with a view to establishing an effective improvement scheme.
grew faster than the progeny of bulls of low rank. This justifies the use The development of realistic selection programmes depends upon
of a central performance test for selection of weaner bulls at the accurate assessment of the genetic merit of animals. Thus,
moderate levels of nutrition, regardless of the plane of nutrition of Tawonezvi has used the data generated from the trial investigating
their progeny. environmental influences on livemass and mass gain (56) to determine
Table 7.1 Influence of sire rank on progeny performance on veld (54) heritability estimates and genetic and phenotypic correlations for a
whole range of growth traits (58). He was able to show that with
Progeny performance on veld retention of 10% of males and 60% of females, expected genetic
Sire Pre- Post- improvements per generation from direct selection for weaning mass
Sire final No, of Birth Weaning 15 month weaning weaning
rank. mass progeny mass mass mass gain gain or 18-month mass were 8,1 and 12,1 kg respectively.
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg/d) (kg/d) However, weaning mass is positively correlated with birth mass, so
that selection for weaning mass can lead to calving problems. If
High 306 153 22,0 150,8 222,0 0,591 0,226 selection indices are used to produce no correlated change in
Low 244 141 20,4 138,9 203,9 0,543 0,206
birthmass, the above improvements are reduced by 18 and 35%
1. Six high and six low rank bulls were tested. respectively.

28 29
 Looking further ahead, local researchers are aware, and have genotypes (Table 8.1) (which appears on the following page) in terms
documented (2, 56), the benefits in terms of accelerated genetic of output of either weaned calf or 18-month calf per Livestock Unit
improvement that are likley to accrue from group breeding schemes. (LU), Mashona crosses were relatively productive whether with other
The Mashona Breed Society is the first in the country to embrace this Sanga breeds (eg. Afrikaner x Mashona, Mashona x Afrikaner) or with
concept as a means of improving their breed and, although in the Bos taurus (Sussex x Mashona, Charolais x Mashona).
early stages of development, the Mashona scheme is likely to It was interesting to note the substantial differences in cow productivity
generate a lot of interesting data in the future. between reciprocals of Afrikaner crosses with Mashona The mechanisms
of this maternal influence on differences between reciprocals in cow
>.3.8 Potential for cross-breeding productivity is attributed genetically to maternal granddam effects.
Clearly, where these differences are significant such maternal
Introduction granddam effects are important in deciding the direction of the cross
The two principal advantages of cross-breeding are heterosis or in the F1 cow (67).
hybrid vigour and complementarity. Complementarity means the Of particular importance was the finding (Table 8.1) that none of the
matching of breeds so that a high number of desirable traits are crossbred cow genotypes was more productive than the pure-bred
combined, or alternatively, so that deficiencies in one breed are Mashona in terms of the annual mass of weaned calf per LU of cow,
covered by strengths in another. nor were the best crosses significantly superior to the Mashona in
terms of annual mass of weaned calf per unit metabolic mass of cow
(67). There is thus no point in using cross-bred cows, especially when
the superiority of the more productive crosses may be offset by the
cost of maintaining inferior parents to produce the cross.
$ ' *>'*•'•' • /'• »*$''•'i An exception to the above conclusion is if milk yield is an end in itself
for human consumption, as there has been increasing interest in
recent years in ways of improving milk production from communal
and small-scale farmers. In trials at Makoholi, the use of either Jersey
or Friesland as a cross with the Mashona, led to considerable im-
provement in milk production and length of lactation (Table 8.2) (65).
Table 8.2 Genotype means for total lactation milk yield, lactation length
and milk yield per day of lactation (65)
Cow genotype Lactation milk Lactation length Yield/day of
yield (kg) (days) lactation (kg)

: y-i:.:;* ***
Mashona 249 67 2,4
F1 Mashona x Sussex heifers % Mashona V* Jersey 457 43 8,3
'/2 Mashona Vi Jersey 2683 299 9,0
The outstanding strengths of the Mashona breed which have been Jersey 2607 349 7,4
highlighted in the previous sections, eg. adaptability, reproduction % Mashona 1A Friesland 431 86 4,1
and survival traits, make the Mashona cow particularly suitable as a Vz Mashona 1/2 Friesland 2394 283 8,3
dam line in systematic cross-breeding programmes with larger exotic 'A Mashona % Friesland 3208 310 10,4
sire breeds. Friesland 3084 352 8,6

Over the years, it has often been proposed that the Mashona should
play a larger part in cross-breeding programmes within the industry as *** Significant differences between genotypes (P<0,001)
a whole (eg. 17, 50), and this can be assessed objectively by the large Growth and Carcass Characteristics
amount of data generated by the Matopos Cross-breeding Project (8,
53, 62,64, 67, 113, 114, 118, 123, 127, 130, 131, 132). In general, traits which are more highly heritable, such as growth and
carcass conformation will exhibit less heterosis, and stand to gain
Cow Productivity less from cross-breeding. In the Matopos trials crossbred cow
genotypes (MA, SM and CM) had lighter(±230 kg), shorter carcasses
In a comparison of the various reciprocal and one-way crossbred cow which were of lower value than their contemporaries (Table 8.3)
(8).

30 31
 Table 8.3 Mashona and crossbred dam influences on carcass characters
CD i CO
and values of their crossbred steer progeny : 1982/86 (After
oo co in o oo m co cvj CN - - E oE CO Dlodlo and Ward, 1987)1 (8)
CD
CM
nCDOh-'-OCNOO S -QCO .cca c?2
c Carcass Fleshing4
o £ c CQ : Dam breed n2 CCM3 length (cm) score Value5
E m inoomoocn^-oio «-• CO T3 :o
cos.cor--r-~o>c\ih- o~o 5 Q)• ; II 47 233,9 417,70
l-1-T-,-,-,-C\ll- *- ® CO :o MM 119 8,1
•o ^ = .a BA 21 255,1 122 9,3 470,55
MA 23 236,2 120 9,0 426,87
NA 27 249,1 122 9,2 458,90
x SM 31 237,2 120 9,0 426,82
in ^ co SN 15 251,5 123 9,1 468,57
CO CNCOCMCOCOinCNCO OOOOTTCOCNJTfCOCNJ CB 32 253,9 125 8,9 463,13
C^ i O • CM 20 237,0 119 9,0 435,43
« ffl-t-t • CN 18 267,7 124 9,4 489,77
oo ^•C35ocococno>co

•^30)^ 1. Data from steers offered 1 140 kg/steer of a 66% TON and 12,4% CP
g-Q g>o _ diet from 18 months and slaughtered at 21 to 22 months.
-a in CD CD CM m co CN i-CM i-coininooooTOr-- i^ii ^ « 2. n = number of steer carcasses pooled over seven sire breeds.
CD
T- i-i-OJCNCNCMcMCN
OO'-CMO'-CNO
CNC\J<NC\1<NCNCNC\
» » « e co E
.a 3. CCM = Cold carcass mass (kg).
CO
co 8=§^5m 4. Fleshing score is the average value of the fleshing index expressed
O
« T3
i^- incocMcnincocDco < -Q O J3 4 on scale E- = 1, E+ = 2, etc to A+ = 10.
5. Value = average producer price as per Cold Storage Commission
0 S co schedule week commencing 23rd September, 1985.
•- P
o co
3 O) COCNJCOCOCOCOCOCO cocococooocococo m •£ It would appear that the use of a terminal sire breed on pure Mashona
•o i- co ro cows will balance the benefits of cow productivity with a suitable end
o _ 05 D)
o product. The choice of terminal sire will depend on the system of
II If
0 t
incocos-comooco
Y
O) O 'co
c
X
production and the maize: beef price ratio. As pointed out by Ward
and Dlodlo (132), where high quality food is abundant the growth
— T3 *~ X potential of progeny of the larger size breeds is likely to be realised,
CO C = = CD •°§1o and it is sound economics to increase output by the use of such
3 co CD° E
8? cooocoof-i-co breeds. Alternatively, where there are constraints in the food supply,
-a « B§ O
coh-cococor-coco COCOCOCOCOCOS-CD or finishing is off the veld, medium-sized breeds of earlier finishing
o characteristics are likely to prove more appropriate.
.a >-
co CD
co $;
? o
-o "3 t^ co 5 °" co O 2.3.9 The bottom line
o V a. 3 > o w CD in
!= OOinh-COCMh-'tCN
„ in in CD in co m i^-in
CO
<? a o o g-ir All of the performance traits that have been considered over the
years in cattle research make their own differing contributions to
o CD o
CDO> overall productivity, and this has been highlighted in the Matopos
T3
o
CD
E i_ C i~ ^ 35 !5 O
Cross-breeding Project. Cattle producers are in business to make a
i-- a r~- c\ CM co en in O) co > o oo co ro CD oo r~ oo
a ^ ^ o co r^-co CD in s. co co r t~~ co r-. co co co i^- CD i||s8 Sto profit, and Dlodlo and Ward (8) have used 1986 data to estimate the
CU CO
0) 6 gross financial realisation from some of the more productive cow
DC O
rr
•c > O -i CO CO ^ CO CO •-;
^ CD CD C CD CD —' genotypes (Table 9.1). It can be seen that although a large cow like
0)ffl m o T- co co T- oo n oo the Charolais x Brahman shows the highest gross realisation on a per
Q- o ^— h-.incoh^^tmi—co ojoooco^fiocvjo II lo lo "5 To "co Z)
CO i-T-i-i-T-*-C\JCO CMT-»-^T-<NCNCM cow basis, when the size of cow and crossbred progeny are taken into
co co account on a livestock unit basis, the realisation of the Mashona and
c
JD o CM co in CD her progeny exceed the Charolais x Brahman by as much as 14% in
.O
CO CO the environment of the trial.
O a) co WCOCOOOOOO m
O en

32 33
 In relation to profitability, it must be remembered that the Matopos
Cross-breeding Project has shown that the choice of cow genotype
2.4 Merits of the Breed
can increase weaner and 18 months production per livestock unit by
40% and 60% respectively. Adaptability
The interaction between the animal and its total environment is of
Table 9.1 Estimated gross returns per cow and per livestock unit from crucial importance in relation to its ability to perform and thrive in that
sales of crossbred progeny (8) environment. The Mashona, in common with other Bos indicus
Gross realisation $
breeds, has evolved both anatomical and physiological adaptations in
Progeny
Cow survival LU per cow Per breeding order to cope with the Central African environment.
genotype to 18 mth1 + followers2 cow3 Per LU4 Firstly, the Mashona possesses certain adaptations which facilitate
0,71 1,34 271 147 loss of heat from the body, therefore rendering it less susceptible to
MM
NN 0,62 1,43 259 125 heat stress under conditions of high ambient temperatures. In
TT 0,66 1,45 268 130 comparison with Bos taurus breeds, the coat is smooth and glossy
BB 0,65 1,60 288 126 thereby reducing insulation, and the skin is relatively thick and
BA 0,69 1,59 298 135
0,66 1,41 262 130 movable, and possesses numerous sweat glands and high vascularity
SM
CN 0,64 1,59 293 128 allowing for rapid heat dissipation.
CB 0,72 1,62 317 129 Heat loss is also enhanced by the large surface area per unit mass,
with the skin surface area often being increased by extra folds in the
1. Weaning rate x 0,98 region of the dewlap, neck and scrotum. A further advantage is that fat
2. (Cow mass in May + calf mass at weaning + (yearling mass in May x tends to be deposited intramuscularly rather than subcutaneously,
survival x 7/12) + (mass of replacement heifers in May + 5/12))/500. and this reduces any effects of tissue insulation. Moreover, Mashonas
have a relatively low metabolic rate and thus under conditions of heat
3. (Steer realisation + heifer realisation)/2 x 18 mth survival. stress, there is less metabolic heat to be dissipated.
4. Gross realisation per breeding cow- replacement heifers retained*. A natural hazard for cattle in Zimbabwe is the high degree of
Livestock units per cow and followers ultraviolet radiation which occura The Mashona possesses a pigmented
hide and secretes quantities of a substance called sebum from the
* It is assumed that 20% breeding cows are replaced annually, skin which spreads over the hair and acts as an ultraviolet filter. It is
therefore about 60% of heifers are retained. thus well equipped to resist the damaging effect of ultraviolet
radiation.
These include the formation of cancers and hyperkeratosis of the
hide, and cancer of the eyelid which can become a major problem in
certain breeds. Bad inflammation of the skin due to photosensitivity
can also become a problem in cattle with unpigmented hides.
A major advantage of the Mashona is that it is relatively tick-repellent.
This is due to the thick movable hide, combined with well developed
panniculus muscles and a sensitive pilomotor nervous system. The
hide will thus react more rapidly in the face of the slightest irritation,
which is in marked contrast to breeds with longer woolly hair and thin
hides.
These traits make the Mashona not only resistant to physical tick
damage but also reduces their susceptibility to infection with tick-
borne diseases. The same mechanisms that help repel ticks are also
helpful in overcoming attacks from flies and other biting insects. The
secretion of sebum is further believed to act as a form of fly
repellent.
As the Mashona is adapted to the leached Mashonaland sourveld,
Mini Mou Max! Mhuru! with acid soils, both skeletal development and body size are small. As

34 35
 a consequence, maintenance requirements of cows are lower, and
combined with a low metabolic rate, the chances of production and Reproduction
survival under adverse nutritional circumstances are better than for Mashonas reach puberty at a relatively early age, and heifers can
larger breeds. This is an important attribute of the dam in relation to therefore be bred early (± 14 months) if feeding and management are
specialised cross breeding programmes. adequate. This will lead to greater lifetime productivity from females
There is no evidence that the Mashona possesses any special in comparison with those bred at a later age.
mechanisms for the digestion or utilisation of low quality diets. Females are sexually active and tend to resume ovarian activity
However, the combination of their small body size and mobility, their relatively soon after calving. Expression of oestrus is strong, and this
ability to forage under conditions of high ambient temperatures and can prove a particular advantage in an artificial insemination programme.
radiation, and their durable teeth, make them very efficient and
selective grazing animals, particularly when compared with the larger Males possess good libido and are very mobile under ranching
conditions. The scrotum is adapted and designed for the maintenance
Bos taurus breeds. of the correct testicular temperature under sub-tropical conditions.
Moreover, the Mashona does show a natural propensity to browse, Females are highly fertile and a feature of the breed is that cows will
thereby making wider use of food resources. Many of the highveld give a consistently high annual calving percentage.
tree species bear copious quantities of fruit and pods of high nutritive In common with other Bos indicus breeds, calving ease is a strong
value. Freshly fallen leaves from Decidious species have been shown point of the cow and, if bred pure, calving difficulties are virtually
to have a crude protein content in excess of 10%. These natural unknown. Even with cross-bred calves the birth mass appears to be
supplements are readily sought after and play a significant nutritional contained by the dam influence.
role in late autumn and early winter.
Cow productivity
Practical observations by Keith Harvey indicate that Mashona cows
exhibit a high degree of urgency in their grazing and browsing Combined with her high fertility, the Mashona cow is an excellent
behaviour and appear to get their fill and start ruminating early in the mother with a good milk supply. Taken together, this leads to very high
morning. This may well be due to adaptation to long hours of kraaling cow productivity, and research has confirmed unequivocally that, in
to which they were traditionally subjected. Also their very deliberate terms of weaner output per unit mass of cow, the Mashona cow has no
identification and selection of grass and browse species (apparently peer on natural veld. This is extremely important in economic
by smell), definitely varies with the seasonal patterns and may be terms.
influenced by a natural instinct to achieve a nutritional balance
particularly of protein. Certainly the large variety of indigenous Growth and efficiency
legumes such as the indigofera, which abound in the highveld and are The adaptive traits of the Mashona (see section 2.4.1.) render it
usually regarded as unpalatable to bovines, are readily taken on particularly suitable for the efficient utilisation of, and the maximisation
a seasonal basis. of growth from, the veld under more extensive systems of production.
This ability may increase in importance in relation to the current trend
Temperament and behaviour in Zimbabwe away from pen fattening to more extensive systems of
fattening off the veld.
The Mashona is a docile animal and in contrast to some other Bos
indicus breeds, both bulls and cows adapt well to handling. The Carcass conformation and quality
relatively small body size further facilities handling and management.
The main advantages of the Mashona are the relatively high dressing
Under ranching conditions, the herd and maternal instincts are well percentage and the ability, because of its early maturity, to fatten and
developed. As a consequence females tend to graze in groups and this finish at a low body mass. In addition, recent evidence has shown that
allows for more efficient use of bulls during the breeding season. At the proportion of lean to bone and fat in the carcass is relatively
calving time, a few matrons will guard the calves in a nursery area high.
while their dams are grazing, and they serve to protect the calves and The most economically important muscle in the carcass, the round or
warn the rest of the herd if danger threatens. The bulls take naturally eye muscle, is particularly well developed in Mashona males. As the
to single sire herds and exhibit herd control to a remarkable degree in Mashona lays down a relatively high proportion of its fat in intramuscular
much the same manner as certain polygamous antelope like the form, this renders the meat juicier and more tender than in breeds
impala. which deposit a greater proportion as subcutaneous fat.

36 37
Summary Valuable growth and efficiency traits
— maximal efficiency of veld utilisation
The main merits of the breed may be summarised as:-
— optimal growth under extensive systems of production
— very competitive output per hectare
* Thoroughly adapted to the local sub-tropical environment
— resistance to high temperatures and heat stress
Specific carcass conformation and quality traits
— resistance to tick infestation
— high dressing percentage
— resistance to ultraviolet radiation
— early maturity and carcass finish
— minimal damage from flies and biting insects
— high proportion of lean to bone and fat in the carcass, with
— reduced susceptibility to tick borne diseases excellent commercial merit
— small body size and low maintenance requirements are — tender and juicy meat
survival factors under adverse nutritional conditions
— high degree of mobility
— efficient and selective grazers
— propensity to browse 2.5 The role of the Mashona in the communal, small-
— durable teeth scale and large-scale farming areas.
* Ideal temperament Communal areas
— relatively docile
It is now accepted that earlier"genetic improvement" programmes in
— amenable to frequent handling our communal areas which involved the introduction of various exotic
breeds of cattle were misguided and resulted in a deterioration of the
* Beneficial behavior patterns health, thrift and output from communal cattle. The major reason for
— herd instinct is well developed, females graze in groups this is that exotic cattle are not adapted to the African environment.
and facilitate breeding success The various adaptive mechanisms listed in Section 2.4 have all
— well-developed maternal instincts, dams will guard and evolved in these often harsh environmental conditions. Many of these
protect calves mechanisms are common to other Sanga type cattle, but the
Mashona cow has a specific advantage in terms of its small body size.
* Excellent fertility The low maintenance requirements and high selective grazing ability
— early sexually maturing leading to enhanced reproductive which this confers renders it better able to survive and reproduce
longevity under conditions of nutritional deprivation.
— sexually active females There is thus every justification for indigenous cattle to form the basis
of the communal herd, with the Mashona type predominant in the
— short post-partum anoestrous period areas to which it is adapted. Cattle improvement schemes within the
— strong expression of oestrus communal lands can then concentrate on the introduction of
— high annual calving percentages improved Mashona or Sanga type sires into programmes which
involve a concomitant improvement in management and nutrition.
— males are very mobile with good libido
It is unlikely that cross-breeding will confer any advantages in the
* Outstanding cow productivity communal situation, unless carried out for a specific purpose under
— high quality milk supply controlled management. An example is the production of milk for
human consumption, as the Mashona x Jersey has been shown to
— excellent mothering ability produce appreciably more milk than the pure Mashona under
— unbeatable weaner output per unit mass of cow conditions of improved nutrition (see Section 2.3).
— maximum output per hectare

38 39
Small-scale commercial areas
The same considerations that apply to the benefits of adapted cattle
in the communal areas will also be important in cattle production
systems in the small-scale commercial areas. Combined with the high
productivity of the Mashona cow, it is likely that Mashona cattle will
give the highest output and returns for the production of beef from the
veld.
Clearly, as his management will be at a higher level than for his
communal counterpart; the small-scale commercial farmer has more
scope forthe purchase and effective use of improved Mashona sires.
These will improve performance of commercial traits without any loss the society
of adaptability, and provide cost effective increases in the performance
of progeny.
If the system of production is geared towards the production of
weaners for intensive fattening, the terminal sires of exotic breeds
can be used for the production of larger framed cross-bred weaners
for this purpose.
Large-scale commercial areas
The future of the Mashona must be to emphasize the role and abilities
of the cow. Now that the high level of productivity of the Mashona cow
under veld conditions has been clearly established, these benefits
can be harnessed to provide a productive advantage to the beef
enterprise.
Whether the Mashona cow is used in a pure-breeding system or as a
dam line for terminal cross-breeding with larger exotic sire breeds,
these benefits will still accrue. In the latter situation, further production
advantages can be achieved by careful consideration of the most
effective cross for the particular enterprise (see Section 2.3).
The efficiency of reproduction remains by far the most important
economic trait in beef production. Wider use of Mashonas in
commercial enterprises can be expected to increase calving and
weaning percentages. In turn, this will lead to increased offtake of
slaughter stock.

41
40
 3.1 History and development
It is abundantly clear from the letters of Willoughby and McLeod that
the initial setting up of the Indigenous Cattle Society was no easy
task. Indigenous cattle in general were held in contempt by both the
early administrators and the cattle establishment, and the little
Mashona was continually ridiculed.
It is thus very much to the credit of these two intrepid breeders that
they were able to establish the Indigenous Cattle Society in 1950.
The President and the Secretary funded the initial costs of advertising
and secretarial services, and after much negotiation with the
Agricultural Show Societies, the Indigenous Cattle Society obtained
partial recognition of its breed and of its certificates of registration.
A Herd Book was opened for the registration of foundation stock and
at a ceremony in Bulawayo, the names of four outstanding bulls were
the first entries to be made; two were from Ellerton, one each from
McLeod and the Native Agriculture Department's Central Breeding
Station at Murehwa.

Progeny tested bull

Mashona bull
MCS1 the first
animal to be
registered in the
Herd Book was
bred in Buhera
Reserve. It walked
200 miles at the
age of three
months with its
mother.

Rules were drawn up for a system of registration based on records

and visual inspection of both parents and progeny which is today
accepted as the most advanced and enlightened system practised by
any of the breed societies.
Mr. Frank Willoughby had a very clear idea of what was required for
the ideal Mashona to become registered. As recorded by Ian de la
Rue in a visit to Ellerton in 1950, he was particularly fanatical about
the head and tail, as he believed they were the best points at which to
ascertain if any'contamination' with exotic blood had occurred.
The enthusiasm and vision of Willoughby and McLeod were evident
Steers on veld throughout their letters, and is reflected in a letter from McLeod to Mr.
"Plum" Wilkinson, the Chairman of the Lomagundi branch in 1956 in

42 43
which he said: phase one of the cross breeding trial. These were subsequently used
"Using the same genetic material, we are creating by selection as foundation animals for the existing College herd. As part of a more
something very superior, just as Bates and Booth did when re- complex breeding experiment, the performance testing of Mashona
creating the long horned English cattle into the modern Shorthorns, bulls in individual feed pens was started at Makoholi in 1961. Since
and Cruikshank in Scotland turned them into square blocks of beef, that date, the use of high performance bulls selected from annual
very unlike the original stock. We shall do the same and our cattle's tests has undoubtedly had a profound influence on the development
name must be worthy of it." of the breed.
Right from the start, the Society has always fostered the technical Through the difficult years of the 1970's and in the 1980's, the Society
advice and input from Government officials and others with something has remained relatively small but vital. As of 1992, membership
to contribute, and in fact, of the 24 people present at the inaugural stands at 38, of which fifteen are registered breeders. The Society
meeting in 1950, only two were private breeders. Today, the Society continues to actively promote the breed by means of Field Days,
co-opts such people onto Council as formal 'special advisers'. Seminars, "Indabas", Inspectors' Days, College Bursaries and Trophy
In the early 1950's, herds were being established throughout competitions, and by way of literature and the media.
Mashonaland as far apart as Mvurwi, Macheke and Masvingo, while at
Banket membership was sufficiently strong for the formation of the
Lomagundi East Branch of the Society in 1954. The Branch had a 3.2 Aims and objectives
membership of fourteen, and its objective was to encourage the
development of the breed in the Lomagundi area. The Society declares the following to be its aims and objectives:-
One of the projects of the Branch was to create a more performance- a To study, explore and conduct research into the types,
oriented on-farm competition to replace showground competitions of features and qualities of the Mashona cattle of Zimbabwe.
breeding stock, and in 1956, the Sir Robert Wilkinson Trophy b. To encourage food production by the breeding of Mashona
competition was established. Originally, the competition was based on cattle, and to improve and develop the purity of the breed.
the assessment of six cows with three of their progeny, but in 1961,
the entry was changed to a bull with his entire calf-crop for one year, c. To take steps to gain full recognition of the breed as a separate
and this persists to the present. and pure breed of cattle and to keep records of the pedigrees
of all inspected animals.
In 1962, the competition was opened to all members of the Society,
and when the Lomagundi East Branch was disbanded in 1969 as d. To establish a standard of excellence and to draw up a score
membership had fallen to two, the Sir Robert Wilkinson Trophy was card.
transferred to the parent Society. e. To investigate and decide any cases of doubt in the records; to
settle differences and disputes in connection with the breeding
Meanwhile, the parent Society continued to develop. In his President's and purity of Mashona cattle.
annual report for 1955, Mr. Bryson Willoughby said: "Many more f. To secure government support of the aims and objects of the
farmers have started this year to breed Mashona cattle and the main Society.
reasons for doing so have been our successes with slaughterstockat
the Shows, the great resistance of these cattle to Epi-Vag and the g. To make rules to govern the showing of Mashona cattle, to
polled factor. The demand for bulls and heifers from Ellerton has been appoint judges and utilise funds of the Society for prizes at
more than we can supply." Shows and elsewhere.
The initial enthusiasm of the founder members was continued h. To make propaganda for and stimulate interest in the breed by
through the 1960's by the likes, among others, of J.P. Wilkinson, R.K. means of shows, sales, lectures and articles indicating the
Harvey, Brig. D.J.A. Stuart, P.P.W. Peech and the Barren and virtues of the breed.
Colborne families. i. To give assistance, support and advice to any individuals who
Apart from the Central Testing Station at Murehwa, herds were are breeding Mashona cattle in order to develop a desirable
established at Grasslands Research Station, Makoholi Experiment type.
Stationand DomboshawaTraining Institute. In more recentyears, the j. To acquire land, buildings and/or other possessions on behalf
Grasslands herd was transferred to Chibero College of Agriculture. of the Society for its use or for lease or sale in the interests of
Fifty heifers from Makoholi were sent to Henderson Research Station the Society.
and some 40 selected heifers were assembled at Gwebi as part of k To appoint and discharge officials for the execution of the
services of the Society.

44 45
 i. To raise funds for the carry ing out of the aims and objects of the
Society. Dewlap Bull Small, extending from between the
m. To encourage, when practical, the formation of branches of the and forelegs. No rolls of loose skin
Society Cow
n. To undertake the genetic improvement of the breed through Brisket Bull Well proportioned and not prominent
participation in beef performance recording and bull Cow Finely proportioned and not prominent
performance testing.
o. To undertake any other functions in order to achieve the Shoulders Bull Very strong and firmly attached
objects of the Society. Cow Light and firmly attached
3. GIRTH AND BARREL
3.3 Standards of excellence
General Bull
1. HEAD and Deep, well sprung and well
Bull Alert; short and dished; wide Cow proportioned
General
and between the eyes; a line drawn
4. BACK AND LOIN
Cow immediately below the eyes divides the
face in half, giving a well balanced General Bull Strong, curving up and over a fairly
appearance. In the bull the head is and broad muscular loin. Lower at the
masculine, in cows feminine Cow withers than at the hook bones; this
Horns and Poll Bull Horns curve outward and upward and aspect more pronounced in the cow
are circular in cross-section. In bulls, 5. HINDQUARTERS
and
Cow the horns are heavy at the base, curving General Bull Deep, sloping from hook bones to pin
slightly inward and forward. In cows, and bones; broad between hook bones but
very neat and sharp pointed; heavier in Cow not square; good length between
oxen. In horned cattle the poll is high hook bones and pin bones
and often surmounted by a nob Tail setting Bull
Eyes Bull and Well set on and not high
Deep set; well protected and surrounded Cow
and with pigmented skin
Cow Tail Bull Very long and nicely tapered; well
Ears Bull and carried, very active; no long hair on the
Small, pointed, clean and active with no Cow tail until the brush is reached. Large
and excessive hair
Cow brush nearly reaching the ground.
Muzzle Bull Broad and strong Cows frequently carry the brush of the
Cow Neat, strong and of good width tail between the hind legs. Tails of
calves are short and hairy, growing
Teeth Bull longer and fining down and tapering
and Small, strong and very durable off as the calf grows
Cow
6. LEGS, FEET AND MOVEMENT
2. FOREQUARTERS legs Bull
General Bull Strong and muscular and Straight, fine boned, not cow-hocked
Cow Much lighter than in the bull Cow
Neck Bull Short, thick and muscular Feet Bull Hard, compact and small; front feet
Cow Lean and moderately short slightly larger
Cow Hard, compact and small
Hump Bull A well pronounced cervico-thoracic Movement Bull
hump and Brisk and active
Cow Small and inconspicuous. Merging with Cow
the shoulder

46 47
7. GENERAL IMPRESSION 3.4 Development of inspection and recording
Hair and coat Bull Very short, straight; glossy in sunshine systems
and at all times of the year. Suckling calves Without doubt, a major strength and achievement of the Society has
Cow may display a minor degree of hairiness. been the development of the inspection and recording system. Right
Colour Bull Black is the most frequent colour, then from the start, progressive and objective recording standards have
and red. Other true colours are brown with been integrated into the system. As a consequence, breeders have
Cow yellow muzzle, brownish black with been able to take the many benefits of the Mashona genotype which
lighter coloured stripe down the back, had evolved over centuries of natural selection and further improve it
brindle, dun, yellow, cream and white. for the purposes of beef production.
Mixed and speckled colours are also Detailed regulations governing the recording of Mashona cattle are
found, but the division is never clear available from the Secretary. Some of the main points of the system
cut are:-
Skin Bull Inspections. Every breeder's herd is inspected annually by a
Tough and well pigmented, very fine
and texture, supple team of two inspectors. The inspectorate is drawn from other
Cow established breeders and special advisers to the Society, who
Bone Bull have had experience with Mashona cattle. Apart from providing
and Fine; high quality, dense bone an efficient inspection system, this arrangement allows breeders
Cow to visit other herds around the country and leads to an identity
Genitals Bull a) Sheath: neat, not pendulous with no of purpose in the progress of the breed.
excessive hair; b) Scrotum; smallish; Volumes. The principle of volumes for recording is that each
pigmented; not pendulous, not deeply successive generation of progeny from finally certificated
split parents becomes eligible for preliminary inspection for entry
Cow Udder is moderately small, teats well into a volume one higher than that of the lower volume
spaced and always pigmented parent.
General Bull In good condition the cattle are Preliminary recording. Forthis purpose, animals are inspected
Appearance and beautiful to look at, lythe, graceful and visually as individuals in order to ensure true Mashona type.
Cow glossy, with active movements and a Any phenotypes which show evidence of exotic influence or
wide-awake, intelligent look other undesirable features are failed and discarded. Animals
Conformation Bull Very muscular, small framed, of rounded which are preliminary recorded are then eligible for final
barrel-like appearance, capable of inspection in that volume.
carrying plenty of meat and fat Final recording. In order to qualify for final recording, the
Cow Neat, compact, small framed, of rounded animal must be presented for inspection with some of its
barrel-like appearance, capable of carry- progeny. In the case of a bull for volume three, for example, he
ing plenty of meat and fat must have a minimum of 20 progeny and 90% of this crop must
be true to type, uniform, and prove an overall improvement on
Temperament Bull Steers are very tame and tractable and the quality of their dams.
and easy to handle; so are cows except
Cow when their calves are newly born. Bulls Beef Recording Scheme. It is mandatory that Mashona
are remarkably docile breeders are members of a Beef Recording Scheme. This
information is then used in the selection and inspection
Maturity Bull procedure.
and Sexual maturity is early
Cow Bull performance testing. The Society now run an on-farm bull
performance testing scheme, and breeders also use this
Size Bull Small to medium when compared with information for selection purposes.
and other breeds
Cow Finally, the Society helps foster further progress within the breed by
running three annual competitions. Firstly the Sir Robert Wilkinson
Extremes In all aspects of general impression, extremes are Trophy; secondly a slaughter competition; and thirdly the Tony
undesirable Stubbs Memorial trophy for performance tested groups of bulls.

48 49
3.5 Recording - the key This Mashona Nucleus herd was founded with three hundred top
performing Mashona cows, which were selected from commercial
The severe limitations of visual appraisal as the sole tool in achieving herds. These females are being mated with selected bulls and their
genetic progress in cattle has often been shown, and has recently production and calf performance are being tested.
been highlighted by visiting University of Georgia geneticist Professor
Larry Benychek, (ZHB/ZSAP Seminar, 7/3/90). However, the amount A detailed monitoring and evaluation system has been established to
of objective performance recording carried out in the Zimbabwe trace historical records within the breeder herds and determine what
cattle seed-stock industry is abysmally low. Tiffin (ZHB/ZSAP Seminar, progress is being made by each breeder. These records are used to
7/3/90) has shown that only 90 of the total beef producers in the develop common selection criteria, based on performance, for use by
country are members of the National Beef Recording Scheme. all herds within the scheme.
Moreover, at the National Pedigree Bull Sale in 1989, only 5% of the Future plans include co-operation with government Mashona herds,
58 breeders with bulls on the sale could provide comprehensive other commercial herds, and screening of suitable indigenous bulls
information on their animals, and 21% could not provide any and cows from communal herds into the group herds.
information at all. The scheme will increase the production of improved indigenous
Against this background, the Mashona Cattle Society has been way cattle which are suited to efficient beef production off natural veld.
ahead of the other breed societies in the integration of objective This will benefit both communal and commercial farmers and could
recording into their registration and selection system over many assist the development of grazing schemes.
years. The scheme will provide a focal point for publicity and extension
3.6 Achievements programmes by both commerical breeders and government to help
— Cleany, the major achievement of the Society has been the promote indigenous cattle in the national herd. Facilities are being
stabilisation and refinement of the Mashona genotype into the established for central performance testing under natural veld
beautiful, productive animal we have today. In recorded herds conditions.
throughout the country, a very high standard has been The scheme will allow access by all breeders to a wide range of
reached, not only in the fecundity and productivity of cows, genetic material to meet their breeding aims. This could help develop
which have no peer in production per unit of veld, but in the dairy or beef crosses suitable for Zimbabwe and also meet the
production of both pure and crossbred steers which have growing international demand for indigenous plants and animals
enjoyed considerable success in the slaughter classes at which are adapted to their local environments.
agricultural shows.
— By maintaining their enthusiasm and continuing to develop the
breed over the past four decades, the breeders have allowed
time for research data to 'catch up', and there are now ample
objective research results which conclusively show the major
advantages of the Mashona breed under Zimbabwean condi-
tions (see Sections 2.3 and 2.4).
— The activities of the Society have contributed to a greater
realisation within the cattle industry of the benefits of indigenous
cattle, and Mashona cattle in particular. This includes a
marked change in attitude as to the breeds of cattle which are
most appropriate for the continued improvement and develop-
ment of cattle production in our communal and 'small-scale
farming areas.
— The strict adherence to an enlightened inspection and record-
ing system. Together with the utilisation of both central and on-
farm performance testing schemes, this has led to steady and
marked improvements in performance.
The setting up of a nucleus herd project to ensure continued
genetic progress.

50 51
 references

52
 1. Animal Productivity Research Team, Zambia (1969). Technical reports, 1968 and 19. Grasslands Research Station (1989). The use of dried poultry manure as a source of
1969. nitrogen in feedlot diets for cattle and sheep. In Grasslands Research Station,
Marondera. Recent and current trials. Mimeo 36 pp. 1989.
2. Baffour — Awuah, O. and Ward H.K. (1987) Group Breeding; and opportunity for
accelerated improvement of Mashona Nkone and Tuli cattle. In: The Indigenous 20. Grasslands Research Station (1989). Measurement of compensatory growth from
Cattle Breeds of Zimbabwe. Proc. of a workshop held at Matopos Research wet season grazing following underfeeding in the dry season in Mashona cattle
Station. February 1987. Ed. J.L. Grant. of different ages. In Grasslands Research Station, Marondera. Recent and
3. Carr, W.R. (1964). The haemoglobin of indigenous breeds of cattle in Central Africa. current trials. Mimeo 36 pp. 1989.
, Rhodesian Journal of Agricultural Research. 2 : 93-94. 21. Hale, D.H. (1978). The effect of underfeeding on sexual activity of Mashona cows.
4. Carr, W.R., Condy J.B. and Burrows, P.M. (1960)., Transferrin polymorphism of Modern farming. April 1978.
indigenous cattle in Rhodesia and Zambia. Animal Production 8; 59 — 64. 22. Hale, D.H. and Holness, D.H. (1977). Low plane nutrition and sexual activity in Africander
5. Chigaru, P.R.N. (1977) Comparative growth and carcass composition studies: Beef and Mashona cows. In: Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual Report 1976-
Crossbreeding Project. In Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual Report 77. pp. 28-34. Department of Research and Specialist Services. Harare:
1976-77 pp 80-83. Department of Research and Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer.
Government Printer. 23. Henderson Research Station (1972). In: Henderson Research Station Annual Report.
6. Chigaru, P.R.N., Holness, D.H., Hopley, J.D.H. and Maundura L (1978). Comparative 1971-72 pp 22-24. Department of Research of Research and Specialist
growth and carcass composition studies: Beef Crossbreeding Project. In Services. Harare: Government Printer.
Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual Report 1977-78 pp 191-202. 1978- 24. Henderson Research Station (1973). In: Henderson Research Station Annual Report
79 pp 70-78. Dept of Research and Specialist Services. Harare: Government 1972-73. pp 8-11 Department of Research and Specialist Services. Harare:
Printer. Government Printer.
7. Chigaru, P.R.N. and Holness, D.H. (1983). Estimation of body water and fat in cattle 25. Holness, D.H. and Hopley, J.D.H. (1975). A synchronised breeding trial using a
using tritiated water space and liveweight with particular reference to the prostaglandin analogue. In: Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual Report
influence of breed. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge. 101 : 257- 1974-75 pp 22-25. Department of Research and Specialist Services. Harare:
264. Government Printer.
8. Dlodlo, S. and Ward, H.K. (1987). Performance of Zimbabwe Indigenous and some 26. Holness, D.H., Ellison, J.A. and Wilkins, L.M. (1977). Conception of beef cows in
exotic breeds and first-cross cows in the production of cross-bred progeny. In: relation to the concentration of progesterone in peripheral blood. Rhodesia
The Indigenous Cattle Breeds of Zimbabwe. Proc. of a Workshop held at Journal of Agricultural Research 15 : 3-9.
Matopos Research Station. February 1987. Ed. J.L. Grant. 27. Holness, D.H., Hopley, J.D.H. and Hale, D.H. (1978). The effects of plane of nutrition,
9. Elliott, R.C. (1961). A preliminary study of protein requirements of African cattle. Journal liveweight, temporary weaning and breed on the occurrence of oestrus in beef
of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 67 417-420. cows during the post-partum period. Animal Production 26 : 47-54.
10. Elliott, R.C. (1967). Voluntary intake of low-protein diets by ruminants. 1. Intake of food 28. Holness, D.H. and Hopley, J.D.H. (1979). Growth, food conversion efficiency and
by cattle. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 69: 375-382. carcass classification of entire and'short-scrotum' bulls. In: Division of Livestock
11. Elliott, R.C. and Fokkema, K. (1961). Herbage consumption studies on beef cattle. Part and Pastures. Annual Report 1978-79. pp 27-31. Department of Research and
1. Intake studies on Africander and Mashona cows on veld grazing — 1958-59. Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer.
Rhodesia Agricultural Journal 58 : 49-57. 29. Holness, D.H. and Jeffers, C. (1980). Oestrus and ovarian activity in lactating beef cows
12. Elliott, R.C., Fokkema, K. and French, C.H. (1961) Herbage consumption studies on treated with 2-Bromoergocryptine. South African Journal of Animal Science 10 :
beef cattle. Part II. Intake studies in Africander and Mashona cows on veld 77-82.
grazing — 1959-60. Rhodesia Agricultural Journal 58 : 124-130. 30. Holness, D.H., Hale, D.H. and Hopley, J.D.H. (1980). Ovarian activity and conception
during the post-partum period in Afrikaner and Mashona cows. Zimbabwe
13. Elliott, R.C., French, C.H. and Folkersten, K. (1961). Protein biological values for beef
cattle. Part II. The influence of various levels of supplementary proteins to low Journal of Agricultural Research. 18 : 3-11.
quality grass hay. Rhodesia Agricultural Journal 58 : 3-7. 31. Holness, D.H., Hale, D.H. and McCabe, C.T. (1980). Ovarian response to Pregnant
Mare Serum Gonadotrophin and Prostaglandin F2a in Africander and
14. Elliott R.C., and Topps, J.H. (1963). Studies of protein requirements of ruminants 1.
Nitrogen balance trials on two breeds of African cattle given diets adequate in Mashona cows. Theriogenology 14 : 375-381.
energy and low in protein. British Journal of Nutrition 17 : 539-547. 32. Holness, D.H., McCabe, C.T. and Sprowson, G.W. (1982) Observations on the use of
Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin (HCG) during the post insemination period on
15. Elliott'R.C. and Topps., J.H. (1963) Studies of protein requirements of ruminants. 2. conception rates in synchronized beef cows with sub-optimum reproductive
Protein requirement for maintenance of three breeds of cattle. British Journal of
Nutrition 17 : 549-556. performance. Theriogenology 7 7:.133-140.
33. Hopley, J.D.H. and Holness, D.H. (1977) Growth rates and carcass grading of short-
16. Elliott, R.C. Reed, W.D.C. and Topps, J.H. (1964). Studies of protein requirements of scrotum bulls, steers and heifers. In: Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual
ruminants. 4. Liveweight changes of two breeds of African cattle given three
levels of dietary protein each with varying amounts of digestible energy. British Report. 1976-77 pp 36-47. Department of Research and Specialist Services.
Harare: Government Printer.
Journal of Nutrition 18 : 519-528.
34. Hopley, J.D.H. and Holness, D.H. (1977) Age of castration and growth rates of male
17. Francis, A.B.F. (1978). The Mashona in a 3-way cross-breeding programme. Modern beef calves. In: Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual report 1976-77 pp
Farming. April 1978. 41-42. Department of Research and Specialist Services. Harare: Government
18. Grasslands Research Station (1989). A further study of the use of poultry manure as Printers.
supplement for young cattle on dry season grazing. In Grasslands Research
Station, Marondera. Recent and current trials. Mimeo 36 pp. 1989. 35. Khombe, C.T. and Dube, I.A. (1986). The influence of milking system on yield and
lactation period of Mashona cows. Zimbabwe Agricultural Journal (in press).

54 55
35(a) Khombe, C.T., Tawonezvi, H.P.R., Khombe, M.R.S. and Dengu, A.P.D. (1989). The 52. Tawonezvi, H.P.R. (1984). Comparison of beef breeds for weaner production on range.
effects of the method of milking on milk production and growth of Mashonacows. Paper presented to a Symposium of the Zimbabwe Society of Animal Production
Paper presented to the Department of Research and Specialist Services, Bulawayo. August 1984.
Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement Symposium. August 6-8th 53. Tawonezvi, H.P.R. (1986). Weaner production by pure and cross-bred cows. Paper
1989. University of Zimbabwe. presented to a Symposium of the Zimbabwe Society of Animal Production.
36 Khombe C.T., Tawonezvi, H.P.R. and Nyamuda, M. (1988). Evaluation of the effective- Matopos Research Station, March 1986.
ness of central performance testing of Mashona bulls through progeny testing. 54. Tawonezvi, H.P.R. (1987). Performance testing of Mashona Cattle. In: The Indigenous
Paper presented at the Mashona Cattle Society's Field Day. 10th November Cattle Breeds of Zimbabwe. Proc. of a Workshop held at Matopos Research
1988. Nyambo Ranch. Station. February 1987. Ed: J.L Grant.
37. Maule, J.P. (1973). The role of the indigenous breeds for beef production in Southern 55. Tawonezvi, H.P.R. (1988). Indigenous cattle: their potential in Zimbabwe. In Proceedings
Africa. Southern African Journal of Animal Science. 3:111-130. of the Pedigree Livestock. Industry Seminar, Harare, Zimbabwe. 7th July,
1988.
38. McCabe, C.T. (1980). A preliminary survey of the B-carotene level in the peripheral
plasma of beef and dairy cows. In: Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual 56. Tawonezvi, H.P.R. (1988). Group breeding with a nucleus herd and introduction of non-
Report 1979-80. pp 40-48. Department of Research and Specialist Services. Mashona genes. Paper presented at a Mashona Cattle Society Symposium,
Harare: Government Printer. Inyanga. 1988.
39. McCabe, C.T. (1981). A preliminary survey of the B-carotene levels in the peripheral
plasma of beef and dairy cows in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe Journal of Agriculture 57. Tawonezvi, H.P.R. (1989). Growth of Mashona cattle on range in Zimbabwe. 1
Environmental influence on liveweight and weight gain. Tropical Animal Health
Research 19 : 23-28. and Production. 21 : 37-42.
40. McCabe, C.T., Sprowson, G.W. and Holness, D.H. (1 980). The conductivity of cervical 58. Tawonezvi, H.P.R. (1989). Growth of Mashona cattle on range in Zimbabwe. 11.
mucus as a predictor of ovulation in beef cows synchronised with cloprostenol. Estimates of genetic parameters and predicted response to selection. Tropical
South African Journal of Animal Science JO 119-124. Animal Health and Production. 21 : 170-175.
41. McCabe, C.T., Holness, D.H. and Wells P.l_ (1982). Cervical mucus conductivity as a 59. Tawonezvi, H.P.R. and Khombe, C.T. (1986). Growth and food consumption of
predictor of time to administer a GnRH analogue at artificial insemination in beef Mashona bulls from different herds tested together. 2. Regression equations for
cows synchronised with cloprostenol. Mimeo. Henderson Research Station predicting final mass. Zimbabwe Journal of Agricultural Research 24 • 125-
1982. 129.
42. McCabe, C.T., Robey, M. and Wells, P.L (1982). The effect of daysposf-partum and treat- 60. Tawonezvi, H.P.R. and Khombe, C.T. (1986). Growth and food consumption of
ment with naloxone on the release of LH following administration of a Gn RH Mashona bulls from different herds tested together. 1. Factors affecting
analogue to Afrikander and Mashona suckled beef cows Mimeo. Henderson individual bull performance. Zimbabwe Journal of Agricultural Research 24 • 113
Research Station 1982. - 124.
43. Mills, W.R. and Ward, H.K. (1971). Aspects of progeny and performance testing of 61. Tawonezvi, H.P.R. and Sibanda. D. (1987). A summary review of animal production
Mashona bulls in the Makoholi herd. Paper presented to the Third Symposium of research at Makoholi Experiment Station. Paper presented at the Agritex
the Rhodesia Branch of the South African Society of Animal Production. Livestock and Pasture Specialists meeting. 27th January 1987. Makoholi
Salisbury. June 1971. Experiment Station.
44. Oliver, J. (1966). The origin, environment and description of the Mashona cattle of 62. Tawonezvi, H.P.R., Ward, H.K., Trail, J.C.M. and Light, D. (1987). Beef breed
Rhodesia. Experimental Agriculture 2 : 81-88. evaluation for weaner production in Zimbabwe. ILCA Research Report. Inter-
national Livestock Centre for Africa. Addis Ababa (in press).
45. Oliver, J. (1966). The productivity of Mashona cattle in Rhodesia. Experimental Agricuh
ture2 : 119-128. 63. Tawonezvi, H.P.R. and Ward, H.K. (1987). Breed influences on birth mass, frequency of
dystocia and perinatal loss. Zimbabwe Agricultural Journal (in press).
46. Rakha, A.M., Hale, D.H. and Igboell, G. (1970). The age of puberty in local breeds of
cattle in Central Africa. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. 22 : 369-371. 64. Tawonezvi, H.P.R., Ward, H.K. and Dlodlo, S. (1988). Productivity of indigenous exotic
and crossbred beef cattle on range. Paper presented to the First National
47. Rakha, A.M., Igboell, G and King, J.L. (1971). Calving interval, gestation and post- Symposium on Science and Technology. Harare. January 1988.
partum periods of indigenous Central African cattle under a restricted system of
breeding. Journal of Animal Science: 32 : 507-510. 65. Tawonezvi, H.P.R., Dube, I.A. and Khombe, C.T. (1987). Milk production from
crossbred dairy cattle on range. Zimbabwe Agricultural Journal (in press).
48. Rudert, C.P. and O'Donovan, W.M. (1976). The productivity of beef cows and their
progeny when offered different mineral supplements over three breeding 66. Tawonezvi, H.P.R., Ward, H.K., Trail, J.C.M. and Light, D. (1988). Evaluation of beef
seasons. Rhodesia Journal of Agriculture Research 14 : 3. breeds for rangeland weaner production in Zimbabwe. 1. Productivity of
purebred cows. Animal Production 47 357-359.
49. Steenkamp, J.O.G. (1969). Comparison of the dentition of cattle indigenous to Rhodesia
and cattle representative of the British breeds, as measured by physical, 67. Tawonezvi, H.P.R., Ward, H.K., Trail, J.C.M. and Light, D. (1988). Evaluation of beef
histological, histochemical and chemical means. PhD thesis, Faculty of Science, breeds for rangeland weaner production in Zimbabwe. 2. Productivity of cross-
bred cows and heterosis estimates. Animal Production. 47 361-367.
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
68. Tawonezvi, H.P.R. and Ward, H.K. (1989). Weaner production by crossbred beef cows
50. Stubbs, A.T. (1974). Crossbreeding for maximum returns. In "The Modern Mashona" on veld. Proceedings of the Zimbabwe Society for Animal Production
Supplement to the Rhodesian Farmer. October 1975. 44 : 25-27. 2 (in Press).
51. Stubbs, A.T. and Ward, H.K. (1961). Mashona cattle: past, present, future. Paper 69. Tiffin, J. de W. (1973), Weaning studies in range cattle. In Stock and Crops
presented to the Animal Husbandry Conference of the Southern Rhodesia Salisbury 4 : 12-21.
Department of African Agriculture. Salisbury 1 961.

57
56
70 Tiffin J de W. (1974). Performance test evaluation. In Division of Livestock and
Pastures. Annual Report 1973-74. Department of Research and Specialist
Services. Harare. Government Printer.
71 Tiffin J de W (1974) Beef cow productivity on veld. In Makoholi Experiment Station 88. Ward, H.K. (1964). The potential of indigenous cattle. Paper presenied to the Northern
Annual Report, 1973-74. Department of Research and Specialist Services. Rhodesia Ministry of Agriculture Colloquy, Mount Makulu. February 1964.
Harare: Government Printer. 89. Ward, H.K. (1966). Veld supplementation trial. Makoholi Experiment Station Annual
72 Tiffin J de W (1974) Productivity of Mashona heifers first calving at two years of age report 1965-66 p. 15.
' compared with those first calving at three years of age. Makoholi Experiment 90. Ward, H.K. (1966) Bone meal supplementation trials. Mimeo Makoholi Experiment
Station Annual report 1972-73. Department of Research and Specialist Station 1966.
Services. Harare: Government Printer.
91. Ward, H.K. (1966) Bone meal supplementation trials Makoholi Experiment Station.
73 Tiffin J deW (1975). Planeof nutrition and fertility of heifers mated at 15 monthsof age. Annual report. 1965-66 pp 16-17. Ministry of Agriculture. Rhodesia.
In- Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual Report 1974-75 pp 25-28.
Department of Research and Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer. 92. Ward, H.K. (1966). Effect of bone meal supplementation during veld growth on
subsequent feed weight gain, carcase and payout. Makoholi Experiment Station.
74 Tiffin J de W. (1976). Plane of nutrition and fertility of Mashona heifers mated at 15 Annual report, 1965-66. p. 17. Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia.
months of age. In: Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual report 1975-76 pp
39-44, 1976-77 pp. 34-36. Dept of Research and Specialist Services. Harare: 93. Ward, H. K. (1966). A study of the effects of salt and phosphate supplementation on the
growth of veld grazed yearling cattle. Makoholi Experiment Station Annual
Government Printer.
Report 1965-66. pp 17-18. Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia.
75 Tiffin J deW (1977). Fattening steers on veld in late summer. In: Division of Livestock
and Pastures. Research and Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer. 94. Ward, H.K. (1966). The effects of energy and protein supplementation on veld grazing
steers during summer. Makoholi Experiment Station. Annual Report 1965-66 pp
76. Tiffin, J. deW. (1978). Puberty and fertility of Mashona heifers in relation to nutrition and 18-20. Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia.
body size. Paper presented to the Zimbabwe Society of Animal Production 95. Ward, H.K. (1966). Milk yield of Mashona cows. Makoholi Experiment Station. Annual
Conference 1978. Report 1965-66 pp 20-22. Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia.
77. Tiffin, J. de W. (1983). The influence of pre-weaning environment on post-weaning 96. Ward, H.K. (1966) Weight and gains of calves. Makoholi Experiment Station. Annual
performance in beef cattle. Paper presented at Zimbabwe Society of Animal Report 1965-66 pp 22. Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia.
Production AGM 29/3/83.
78. Tiffin, J. deW. (1984). Performance testing of Beef bulls in Zimbabwe. Paper presented 97. Ward, H.K. (1966). Performance test 1965. Makoholi Experiment Station. Annual Report
to the first Annual Congress of Zimbabwe Society of Animal Production April 1965-66 pp23. Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia.
1984. 98. Ward, H.K. (1967). Cumulative response of breeding females fed bone meal from wean-
79. Tiffin, J. de W. (1987). Relationships between factors of prepartum bodymass and ing. Makoholi Experiment Station. Annual Report 1966-67 pp 16. Ministry of
subsequent milk yield in mature suckler Mashona cows. Reprint from Ph.D. Agriculture, Rhodesia
Thesis. University of London. 1987. 99. Ward, H.K. (1967). The effects of level, source and period of phosphate supplementation
80. Tiffin, J. de W. (1989). Puberty and fertility of Mashona heifers first mated at 15 months of on the weaning output of veld grazed cows. Makoholi Experiment Station.
age. Proc. Zimbabwe Society of Animal Production 2 (in press) Annual Report 1966-67 pp 16-18. Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia.
81. Tiffin, J. de W., Hutley, C.A. and Dube, I.A. (1978). Responses of Mashona cows and 100. Ward, H. K. (1967). The effects of calcium and phosphate supplementation on the growth
their calves to early weaning and nursery rearing, pp 128-134. In: Division of of veld grazed tollies. Makoholi Experiment Station. Annual Report 1966-67 pp
Livestock and Pastures Annual Report 1978. Department of Research and 18-19. Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia.
Specialist Services, Harare: Government Printer. 101. Ward, H.K. (1967). Performance test 1966. Makoholi Experiment Station. Annual Report
82. Tiffin, J. de W. and Dube, I.A. (1981). The effects of preweaning factors on post weaning 1966-67 pp 19-22. Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia.
growth and efficiency of food use among beef calves. In: Division of Livestock 102. Ward, H.K. (1967). Summer phosphate supplementation improves cattle growth.
and Pastures. Annual Report pp 70-75; 1981-82 pp 36-41. Department of Rhodesia Agricultural Journal 64 : 125.
Research and Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer. 103. Ward, H.K. (1968). Supplementing the veld grazed animal. Makoholi Experiment Station.
83. Tiffin, J. de W. and Grant, J.L. (1989). Body composition in mature, pregnant Mashona Annual Report 1967-68 pp7-10. Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia.
cows and its effect on subsequent lactation and reconception. Unpublished 104. Ward, H.K. (1968). Studies in selection— Performance test 1967. Makoholi Experiment
results. 1989. Station. Annual Report 1967-68 pp 10-11. Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia.
84. Ward, H.K. (1964). Progeny test evaluation of performance tested sires 1963. Makoholi 105. Ward, H.K. (1968). Supplementation of beef cows grazing on veld. Rhodesia Journal of
Experiment Station Annual Report 1963-64. p. 10. Ministry of Agriculture.
Agricultural Research 6 93-101.
Rhodesia.
106. War.i, H.K. (1968). Phosphate supplementation of beef cattle on veld. Proceedings of
85. Ward, H.K. (1964). Performance test of Mashona, Tuli and Manguni weaner bulls 1963.
the Rhodesian Branch of the South African Society of Animal Production / 31-
Makoholi Experiment Experiment Station. Annual Report 1963-64. pp 10-12.
39.
Ministry of Agriculture. Rhodesia.
107. Ward, H.K. (1969). Beef cow productivity on veld. Makoholi Experiment Station. Annual
86. Ward, H.K. (1964). Conception evaluation of deep frozen semen of indigenous bulls on
Report 1968-69 pp 9-10. Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia.
indigenous cows. Makoholi Experiment Station. Annual Report 1963-64. p. 13.
Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia. 108. Ward, H.K. (1974). Performance testing the Mashona. In "The Modern Mashona"
Supplement to the Rhodesian Farmer. October 1974. 44 11-14.
87. Ward, H.K. (1964). Mating behaviour of Mashona type cows. Makoholi Experiment
Station. Annual report 1963-64. p. 13 Ministry of Agriculture, Rhodesia. 109. Ward, H.K. (1974). Bone meal and fertility. Summary mimeo 1974.
110. Ward, H.K. (1978). Performance testing the Mashona at Makoholi. Modern Farming
6: 47-49.

58

59
 1
125. Ward, H.K., Davidson, J.M. and Prentice, A. (1979). Rhodesia Beef Cattle Cross-
111. Ward, H.K. (1978). Indigenous Cattle Research — a review. Rhodesia Agricultural breeding Research: Performance of foundation females and their progeny.
Journal 75: 45-54. Papepr presented to the Annual General Meeting of the Rhodesia Branch of the
112. Ward, H.K. (1981). Livestock production: breeds and breed evaluation in Zimbabwe. South Africa Society of Animal Production. Salisbury. March 1979.
Paper presented to the First OAU expert Committee Meeting an Animal Genetic
126. Ward, H.K., Tawonezvi, H.P.R., Milner, C., Harvey, H.R., Moyo, G., McLaren, G. and
Resources in Africa. Nairobi. April 1981. Prentice A. (1980). Improvement of beef cattle productivity through cross breeding. In:
113. Ward, H.K. (1983). Feedlot performance and carcass grades of rising two-year-old Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual Report 1979-80 pp7-18. Depart-
crossbred cattle in relation to sire breed, sex and the amount of food consumed. ment of Research and Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer.
Proceedings of the Zimbabwe Society for Animal Production 1 : 43-55. 127. Ward, H.K., Tawonezvi, H.P.R., Milner, C., Harvey, H.R., Moyo, G., McLaren, G. and
114. Ward, H.K., Andrew, M., Rhodes, F.B., Tiffin, J. de W., Brownlee, J.W.I., Harvey, Prentice, A. (1981). Improvement of beef cattle productivity through cross-breeding. In:
H.R., Arrowsmith, S.P., Bennett, S., Fisher., B.H. and Sairai, J.N.(1975). Improvement Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual Report 1980-81. pp 1-13. Depart-
of beef cattle productivity through crossbreeding. In: Division of Livestock and ment of Research and Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer.
Pastures. Annual Report 1974-75. pp 16-20. Department of Research and 128. Ward, H.K., Tawonezvi, H.P.R., Chifamba, I., Moyo, G. and Magwenzi D. (1982)
Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer. Improvement of beef cattle productivity through cross-breeding. In: Division of
115. Ward, H.K. and Tiff In, J. de W. (1975). Bull performance testing. In: Division of Livestock Livestock and Pastures. Annual Report 1981-82. pp 1-18. Department of
and Pastures. Annual Report 1974-75. pp 20-21. Department of Research and Research and Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer.
Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer. 129. Ward, H.K. and Tawonezvi, H.P.R.(1983). Production traits of Mashona, NkoneandTuli
116. Ward, H.K. and Tiffin, J. de W. (1975). Effect of supplementary feeding and time of cattle and of some beef breeds exotic to Zimbabwe. In: Animal Genetic
weaning on cow and calf performance. In: Division of Livestock and Pastures. Resources in Africa-high potential and endangered livestock. 86-95. OAU/IBAR.
Annual report 1974-75. pp 60-62. Department of Research and Specialist 130. Ward, H.K. and Dlodlo, S. (1986). Post-weaning growth and carcass characteristics of
Services, Harare: Government Printer. cross-bred cattle. Paper presented to the Zimbabwe Society of Animal
117. Ward, H.K. and Tiffin, J. de W. (1975). Progress in beef cow productivity. Rhodesia Production "Productivity of Cross-bred Beef Cattle" Field Day. Matopos
Agricultural Journal 72 : 1-7. Research Station. March 1986.
118. Ward, H.K., Davidson, J., Prentice, A., Tiffin, J. de W., Brownlee,J.W.I., Harvey, 131. Ward, H.K. and Dlodlo, S. (1987). Crossbreeding: the Matopos experience. In: The Beef
H.R., Arrowsmith, S.P., Bennets, S., Salral., J.N. and Dube, I (1976). Improvement of Production Manual (Revised edition). Published by the Cattle Producers
beef cattle productivity through cross breeding. In: Division of Livestock and Association of Zimbabwe. Ed. D.H. Holness.
Pastures. Annual Report 1975-76 pp 8-16. Department of Research and 132. Ward, H.K. and Dlodlo, S. (1987). Dam and sire breed influence on cross bred cattle
Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer. production. Paper presented to the Field Day to mark the 75th Anniversary of
119. Ward, H.K. and Tiffin, J. de W. (1976). Bull performance testing. In: Division of Livestock Spring Grange Farm, Nyamandlovu. August 1987.
and Pastures. Annual report 1975-76. pp 20-22. Department of Research and 133. Ward, H.K., Kent, S., McLaren, C.G. and Dlodlo, S. (1989). Prediction of yield of export
Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer. beef cuts. Proceedings of the Zimbabwe Society of Animal Production. 2 (in
press).
120. Ward, H.K., Davidson, J., Prentice, A., Tiffin, J. de W., Brownlee, J.W.I., Harvey H.R.,
Arrowsmith, S.P., Bennett, S., Salral, J.N., Dube, I., and Moyo, G. (1977). Improve- 134. Ziswa, L.C. (1986). Factors affecting the reconception of Mashona cows on veld.
ment of beef cattle productivity through cross breeding. In: Division of Livestock Zimbabwe Agricultural Journal (in press).
and Pastures. Annual Report 1976-77 pp 14-23. Department of Research and
Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer.
121. Ward, H.K. and Tiffin, J. de W. (1977). Supplementary feeding and time of weaning on
cow and calf performance. In: Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual Report
1975-76. Department of Research and Specialist Services. Harare: Government
Printer.
122. Ward, H.K. and Tiffin, J. de W. (1977) Bull performance testing. In: Division of Livestock
and Pastures. Annual Report 1976-77 pp 26-27. 1977-78 pp 119-121.
Department of Research and Specialist Services. Harare: Government
Printer.
123. Ward, H.K., Tawonezvl, H.P.R., Davidson, J., Prentice, A., Tiffin, J. de W., Bennett,
S., Brownless, J.W.I., Arrowsmith, S.P., Harvey, H.R., Le Cordeur, A., Salral, J.N.,
Dube, I., Moyo, G. and Le Grange., A. (1978). Improvement of beef cattle productivity
through cross bredding. In: Division of Livestock and Pastures. Annual Report
1977-78 pp 105-118. Department of Research and Specialist Services. Harare:
Government Printer.
124 Ward, H.K., Tawonezvl, H.P.R., Davidson, J., Prentice, A., LeCordeur, A., Harvey,
H.R., Moyo, G., Tiffin, J. de W., Brownlee, J.W.I., Salral, J.N. and Dube, I. (1979).
Improvement of beef cattle productivity through cross-breeding. In: Division of
Livestock and Pastures. Annual Report 1978-79 pp 1-14. Department of
Research and Specialist Services. Harare: Government Printer.

60 61