LBNL 49223

LBNL-49223
AN ENERGY EFFICIENCY GUIDE

for use in
CLEANROOM PROGRAMMING
December 2001
Sponsored by the
NORTHWEST ENERGY EFFICIENCY ALLIANCE

&
CALIFORNIA ENERGY COMMISSION
Authors: Bill Tschudi, PE, Principal Investigator

Dale Sartor, PE, Principal Investigator
Tengfang Xu, Ph.D.
Legal Notice
The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720 is a National
Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) managed by the Regents of the University of California
for the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract Number DE-AC03-76SF-000-98. This report was
prepared as an account of work co-sponsored by the Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance (NEEA) and the
California Energy Commission (Commission, Energy Commission) and pursuant to an M&O Contract with
the United States Department of Energy (DOE). Neither the Regents of the University of California, nor the
DOE nor the California Energy Commission, nor the Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance, nor any of their
employees, contractors, or subcontractors, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal
liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus,
product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference
herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by The
Regents of the University of California, or the DOE, or NEEA, or the California Energy Commission. The
views and opinions of the authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of The Regents of
the University of California, the DOE, the NEEA, or the California Energy Commission, or any of their
employees, or the United States Government, or any agency thereof, or the State of California. This report
has not been approved or disapproved by the Regents of the University of California, the DOE, the NEEA, or
the California Energy Commission, nor has The Regents of the University of California, the DOE, the NEEA,
or the California Energy Commission passed upon the accuracy or adequacy of the information in this
report.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks are extended to industry participants for identifying key areas for
consideration and to the sponsors and other contributors to this guide.
California Energy Commission

Pramod Kulkarni
Anthony Wong, PE
Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance

Blair Collins
Michael Ponder, PE
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Steve Greenberg, PE
Anthony Yuen, PE
Facility Planning & Resources, Inc.

Thomas E. Hansz, AIA
Rumsey Engineers (formerly Supersymmetry)

Peter Rumsey, PE
Jacobs Engineering Group

Greg Owen, PE
i
Table of Contents
Mission Statement............................................................................................................. 1
Introduction....................................................................................................................... 2
Purpose............................................................................................................................... 3
Scope................................................................................................................................... 4
How to Use the Guide ....................................................................................................... 4
Cleanroom Energy Programming Guide........................................................................ 6
1 Architectural ........................................................................................................... 10
1.1 Architectural Programming Goals .................................................................... 10
1.2 Architectural Facts ............................................................................................ 11
1.3 Design Concepts for Energy Efficiency - Architectural Systems..................... 11
1.3.1 Integrate site planning, spatial allocations, and system layout............................... 11
1.3.2 Optimize clean space ............................................................................................... 11
1.3.3 Implement traditional efficiency measures for building shell and office areas....... 12
2 Mechanical............................................................................................................... 12
2.1 Mechanical Programming goals ....................................................................... 12
2.2 Mechanical Facts .............................................................................................. 13
2.2.1 Process generated HVAC loads............................................................................... 13
2.2.2 Contamination control............................................................................................. 14
2.2.3 HVAC Systems ......................................................................................................... 15
2.2.4 Chilled water system................................................................................................ 16
2.2.5 Climatic and geographic factors ............................................................................. 17
2.2.6 Availability and price of energy – Life-cycle-cost analysis ..................................... 18
2.3 Design Concepts for Energy Efficiency - Mechanical Systems ....................... 18
2.3.1 Efficient central plant .............................................................................................. 18
2.3.2 Efficient mechanical layout ..................................................................................... 19
2.3.3 Efficient air systems................................................................................................. 19
2.4 Functional requirements for mechanical systems ............................................. 22
2.4.1 Functional requirements to achieve an efficient central plant ................................ 22
2.4.2 Functional requirements for efficient mechanical layout........................................ 23
2.4.3 Functional requirements for efficient air systems ................................................... 23
2.5 Preliminary budgeting....................................................................................... 24
3 Electrical .................................................................................................................. 25
3.1 Electrical Programming Goals.......................................................................... 25
3.2 Electrical Facts.................................................................................................. 25
4 Control ..................................................................................................................... 27
4.1 Control Systems Programming Goals............................................................... 27
4.2 Control Facts..................................................................................................... 27
4.3 Design Concepts for Energy Efficiency - Control Systems.............................. 27
References ........................................................................................................................ 29
Useful Links and Related Publications ......................................................................... 30
Cleanroom Program Checklist for Energy Efficiency Considerations...................... 37
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Mission Statement
The mission of this Cleanroom Energy Programming guide is to 1) elevate the
importance of energy efficiency as a program requirement for cleanroom design, and 2)
provide guidelines for decisions made early in a cleanroom design project to assist
cleanroom owners, and designers to achieve energy efficiency while maintaining or
improving other program requirements. The guide provides useful information at the
programming phase of a project concerning issues that could have significant impact on
energy use. It is intended to stimulate the programming team to make informed decisions
to improve overall energy efficiency while addressing other program issues.
1
Introduction
Programming of cleanroom facilities is a complex planning exercise dealing with
hundreds of interrelated, and at times, conflicting goals and facts. Traditionally,
decisions affecting a number of major design features are made during this phase. These
decisions often have adverse energy implications and are made for a variety of reasons
such as scheduling pressures due to long lead-times, or availability of material. Or, the
owner and design team may have preconceived preferences based on prior experience,
company policy, or personal preferences. In many cases decisions are made to satisfy
other program goals with little consideration for long-term operational cost – including
the cost of energy. In addition, decisions, which lock-in inefficient design, are commonly
dictated by first cost considerations without benefit of life cycle, or cost of ownership
evaluations.
Most cleanroom design and construction projects are operating under very compressed
schedules putting additional pressure on the need for rapid decisions during the
programming phase. Previously, there was little publicly available guidance to aid in
evaluating the energy implications of certain cleanroom design options selected and
locked-in during this phase of the project.
This guide, while recognizing that there is no single, optimal design solution, provides
ideas for including energy as an important cleanroom design program requirement. By
considering the long-term energy implications of major design decisions, the
programming team consisting of designers, owner/operators, and other stakeholders will
be able to make informed decisions early in the project to meet their long-term interests,
as well as optimize first cost. Typically, as Figure 1 illustrates, cleanroom environmental
system energy use represents up to one half of the total in a typical cleanroom.
Since HVAC systems operate continuously, it is important to consider strategies and
designs to maximize efficiency in the operation of the facility. This guide provides
selected technical bases, and informational links to aid decision-making during the
programming phase. In addition, the methodology used to evaluate energy performance
will also be useful during later phases of the design. By highlighting the energy related
issues at this phase, some owners may choose to defer some of the key decisions pending
a more detailed evaluation during design development. The guide is meant to present a
framework for the programming team to evaluate energy efficiency with the same
robustness as many other design parameters.
By comparing different design options at the programming stage, the programming team
will be considering life cycle cost and total cost of ownership rather than strictly first
cost. The owner and design team will always have the option of selecting design features
that minimize first cost, but they will now also have information highlighting where to
make choices with energy efficiency impacts. Reduction of first cost and energy
efficiency are not mutually exclusive. Many strategies will result in lower first cost as
well as lower on-going energy cost.
2
Lighting
4% Misc
Plugs Chillers
4%
2% 14%
Tools
12%
Air Com pressors

HVAC Pum ps
2%
20%
Nitrogen Plant
12%
Fans
30%
Figure 1. Representative Cleanroom Energy End Use
Purpose
The purpose of this guide is to provide a resource to help cleanroom owners, operators,
and designers establish and implement an energy strategy early in the design process – at
the programming phase. Many critical decisions are made during the early phases of
design and can later become irreversible due to the progress of the project. Many key
program requirements if developed in a routine manner have potentially adverse energy
efficiency implications. This guide provides information to stimulate comparison of
alternatives and to set direction for issues with large energy impact. A further purpose of
the guide is to provide a framework to highlight significant design and operational issues
affecting energy use thereby encouraging cleanroom owners to make informed decisions.
The guide identifies issues potentially important to energy use, and related key
considerations. It is expected that the guide will stimulate a more robust investigation of
the issues and related energy implications that need to be addressed during later detailed
design phases. Programming methodology that gives equal weight to the efficiency of
energy intensive systems and components in addition to other key program requirements
can avoid “locking-in” an inefficient design.
3
Scope
This guide is intended to focus on selected energy intensive areas normally addressed in
the program for any cleanroom facility regardless of its application or cleanliness type.
As a result, it includes topics that may not apply to all situations. For example, raised
floors have various energy related issues, but are not a design feature in certain
cleanrooms. The guide primarily focuses on cleanroom elements that have importance to
energy use in the facility. Therefore, it is recommended that this guide be used along
with other traditional planning guidance, design resources, manuals, handbooks, tools,
etc. to address other important design issues. Each programming team should consider
the advice of this guide where appropriate, and also use other design criteria and cost-
benefit evaluations, including life cycle or cost of ownership evaluations. This guide is
intended primarily for new construction but we anticipate that many concepts can be
applied to retrofit situations as well.
This guide focuses on energy use in building systems important to the efficient operation
of cleanrooms. Prior benchmarking of energy use in cleanrooms (also see
http://ateam.lbl.gov/hightech/Cleanroom/Benchmarking/), and load characterization has
highlighted the fact that environmental systems in cleanrooms account for up to 50% of
the total electrical load in cleanroom facilities. Consequently, this guide focuses
primarily on design considerations affecting energy efficiency of those systems.
While process loads in cleanrooms usually are very energy intensive, there are so many
variations of processes in cleanrooms, that a standard treatment would not be appropriate
in this type of guide. Planning decisions for process systems often have significant
energy implications and there is difficulty in accurately estimating the loads. While not
the focus of this guide, the programming team can use the same type of approaches to
determine energy efficiency opportunities in the design of process systems and
components.
How to Use the Guide
Ideally, cleanroom owner/operators will see value in using this guide as part of the
planning process employed by the programming team. Its use should be included as a
requirement in the owner's Requests For Proposal for the selection of the
programming/planning team. Once the programming team is assembled and the program
is being defined, the guide should be reviewed to identify the topics of relevance to the
project. A checklist of some of the most significant topics is provided which can be used
to stimulate discussion amongst the programming participants as the program content is
developed. Issues that could have major energy implications are discussed, and links to
other available guidance (such as the LBNL Laboratory Design Guide, also see
http://eande.lbl.gov/R-LabDG/HELP3.HTM) are provided. The team may decide that
some decisions can be deferred pending further evaluation, or they may incorporate the
decision into later design phases. To make a determination, a simplified life cycle cost –
or cost of ownership - analysis may be required.
Since this guide focuses only on issues important to energy use, it is not intended to
address all aspects of a cleanroom program. It is recommended that it be used in
conjunction with other design guides and traditional practice. This guide references other
4
design guidance when appropriate. It is expected that the owner/design team will of
course make the final determination of what is best for the project.
5
Cleanroom Energy Programming Guide
Any cleanroom programming process requires close interaction and collaboration among
architects, engineers, and various representatives of the owner from the very beginning of
design. It is essential to gather inputs from all stakeholders in the project to begin the
integration of information, analysis, and decision-making. Because there are often
different and sometimes conflicting considerations that could affect the final decision-
making for certain critical issues, it is important to conduct a structured programming
exercise.
It is helpful to organize the information to allow the team to focus on issues that
eventually will influence the design of the project. A common method of organizing the
body of data to be developed during programming includes the following five categories
of information:
Goals:
Statements of cleanroom objectives in terms of function, form, economy,
and time. These are Owner’s intentions for the cleanroom performance
and design.
Facts:
Background information related to the cleanroom process, staffing,
materials, and existing building and/or site conditions. Process equipment
data and code requirements are facts.
Concepts:
Ideas for improving performance, indicating priorities and characterizing
space and systems. Conflicting concepts will be tested during the early
design phases.
Needs:
Spreadsheets quantifying area requirements, utility requirements, project
budget and critical project schedule milestones. The utility matrix, &
airflow rates are key needs.
Problem Statement:
Statements summarizing design directions and conclusions based upon the
four previous groups of information.
6
In keeping with this format, this guide provides selected information in these categories
for the following disciplines:
• Architectural;
• Mechanical;
• Electrical;
• Control;
• Other;
Each technical section lists planning and design information for various design issues,
such as functional requirements, codes, specific technologies, design concepts, etc. The
guide information is primarily focused on the following three categories:
• Goals – description of qualitative goals;
• Facts – description of the basis for concept development and definitions;
• Design concepts - description of technologies/ approaches used to achieve the
programming objectives. This may include metrics - generally quantitative data used
to set performance goals (if applicable)
7
Table 1 Structure of cleanroom energy programming guide
Goals Facts Design Concepts

General • Achieve energy efficiency • Life cycle cost evaluation
while maintaining or • Functional requirements
improving production, quality, • Construction schedules
comfort, health, and safety • Growth Projections
• Maintain or improve time to • Climate/ geographical impact
market • Price of Energy
• Make informed decisions to
meet capital budget limits,
considering Life Cycle Cost
• Facilitate future expansion or
retrofit
Architectural • Achieve efficient layout • Site plan and analysis • Integrate site planning
• Optimize clean space • Applicable Codes and space/system layout
• Use traditional building • Cleanliness and space • Plan minimum clean
efficiency measures requirements space
• Consider future growth • Adopt traditional building
efficiency measures
Mechanical • Achieve high energy- • Process • Lowest energy use per

(HVAC) efficiency and maintain other • Contamination control unit of useful work
benefits • Thermal environmental system • Efficient central plant
• Save 25% of energy use over • Climate/ geographical impact • Efficient mechanical
current methods • Chilled Water system layout
• Code and standards • Efficient air system
Requirements
• Budget
Electrical • Achieve efficient distribution • Process and HVAC electrical • Efficient electrical
• Monitor electrical loads loads equipment
Control • Achieve effective monitoring • • Sufficient monitoring
• Achieve ability to achieve points
efficiency for all load • Interoperable controls
conditions
Table 2 illustrates a common framework utilized in programming cleanroom projects.

The framework is applicable both for new “Greenfield” projects and for retrofit projects.
A project programming team should understand that “programming” considers activities
throughout the life cycle of a project to ensure that critical issues with an impact on
energy use are taken into consideration appropriately.
8
Table 2 Cleanroom energy programming framework
Goals Facts Concepts Needs Problem
Statement
Cleanroom • Achieve energy efficiency • Process • Right Size • Reliability • Process and
Functions - Right-size process & facility - Description - Optimize cleanroom space • Safe and performance
Systems - Contamination requirements - Optimize process loads comfortable work requirements
- Achieve thermal efficiency - Accurate load estimate, - Use of mini-environments environment accurately defined to
Process - Thermal integration diversification, and safety factors allow efficient
- Meet best practice metrics
operation
People • Maintain or improve comfort and - Exhaust requirements - CW - kW/ton
system safety - Growth or change forecast - RA - cfm/kW
• Maintain or improve production and • Environmental systems - MA - cfm/kW
product quality - Environmental conditions and their - Exhaust – cfm/kw
control • Efficient Operating strategies
- Occupancy • Efficient chilled water and air
- Energy budget systems
• Commissioning
Cleanroom • Optimize cleanroom for production • Site Utility Analysis • Reduce airflow or increase • Air Flow Analysis • Identify major space
form and contamination problem • Climate/geographical Analysis HEPA Units with same airflow • Redundancy and contamination
• Consider Future Growth • Code and standards Requirements • Minimize clean Volume, • Expansion considerations and
• Consider local geography and • Process requirements Static Pressure capability optimize each for
Site plan climate • Incremental Build-Out energy consumption
Facility • Control clean envelop
Quality leakage
Economy • Efficient Energy Use per Unit of • Utility (Energy) rate schedules • Meet Process requirements • Energy budget • Evaluate capital cost
Initial Budget Useful Work • Climate/ geographical impact • Perform life cycle cost • Project capital and operating cost in
Operating • Decisions made considering Life • Company policy on Return on analysis budget making program
Costs Cycle Cost Investment • Lowest energy use per unit of decisions
Life Cycle • Meet Project Budget Limits useful work

Costs
Project • Provide design time to evaluate • Design and Construction schedules • Incremental build out • Growth projection • Implications of
Time efficient options • Growth Projections • System life change and growth
• Facilitate future expansion/retrofit expectancy on long range
• Consider real time energy energy performance
pricing/peak load reduction • Minimize peak load/
• Maintain or improve time to market cost
• Provide reliable
power
• Back-up capability
9
CLEANROOM ENERGY PROGRAMMING GUIDE
1 Architectural
The programming process referred to here is described in the book titled “Problem
Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer,” by William Pena, et al [1].
Outside of pure luck, the degree of success for any endeavor can be directly related to the
preparation that precedes it. The design of a facility is no different. The preparatory
phase of facility design is known as programming. An energy efficient design is based
upon relevant programmatic information that is timely, accurate, pertinent, and
innovative. Considering energy issues during programming is especially important in the
design of cleanrooms. While this guide focuses on energy efficiency concepts for
cleanroom design it is important to have an understanding of the programming process.
The timing of information in the design process is critical. Untimely input or decisions
can cause the project to undergo redesign, to be over budget, to be inefficient, or to be
entirely inappropriate. Therefore, programming needs to be the first step in the design
process and by focusing on energy issues at this phase, the design team will be able to
make integrated decisions that will lead to lower first cost while achieving a high level of
energy efficiency. Developing project information and considering energy implications
prior to beginning design allows the team to make informed decisions that support other
key program requirements and achieve high operating efficiency. Decisions made at the
programming phase will direct the design process.
The programming approach described above is both analytical and creative. The
analytical aspect of programming involves the collection and examination of pertinent
data, beginning with management’s objectives for the new cleanroom. This should
include input on operating cost as well as first cost, the corporation’s environmental
concerns, etc. The creative aspect seeks to discover new combinations of ideas from
individuals with a stake in the new cleanroom. The results may include new applications
of old ideas, concepts adapted from other cleanrooms, or ideas developed with
stakeholders during organized brainstorming sessions. In this guide, the elements that
have potentially large impacts on energy use are organized into familiar categories so that
the programming team can focus on the energy implications with the same importance as
other program requirements.
The information developed in this approach provides a framework for decision-making
before the design begins. The programming process organizes information to facilitate
feedback and evaluation. Data and concepts are often recorded in graphic form, using
5”x 8” analysis cards, which are then organized into a wall display. This provides all
interested individuals with an easy to understand, visual reference of programmatic ideas
and is easily modified as new information is discovered.
1.1 Architectural Programming Goals
One of the general objectives of this guide is to provide ideas for achieving energy
efficient environmental systems while maintaining or improving production, quality,
comfort, and safety. In order to achieve this goal, the stakeholders must collaborate and
coordinate with each other from the beginning. Issues such as optimizing clean space
10
allocation, planning for an efficient layout, and developing mechanical system concepts
will all require coordinated efforts.
The architectural focus of this guide is to 1) Optimize clean space; 2) Influence an
efficient layout of the facility and site; 3) Implement best practices in traditional building
systems; and 4) Incorporate efficient specialty architectural components related to
cleanrooms.
1.2 Architectural Facts
• Codes and standards – Agree on targets to exceed minimum energy code

standards.
• Planning for future growth - Provide concepts for efficient incremental growth
• Optimization of clean space - Minimize clean space; utilize optimal cleanliness
class; use of mini-enclosures, etc.
• Adjacencies - Plan for adjacency of major equipment
• Building shell efficiency – Utilize best practice design of building envelop to
achieve high energy efficiency.
• Coordination for efficient mechanical systems – Early coordination with
mechanical engineer to provide space for efficient systems.
• Air management systems – With mechanical engineer, perform preliminary life
cycle cost evaluations and trade-offs for air systems.
1.3 Design Concepts for Energy Efficiency - Architectural Systems
The architectural team should provide an integrated space plan that provides for efficient
product and personnel circulation while providing necessary space for efficient
mechanical, process, and electrical systems. Some architectural considerations are as
follows:
1.3.1 Integrate site planning, spatial allocations, and system layout
The team should plan for efficient system layout considering the following:
• Location of major equipment - close to end use
• Location of central plant - as close as possible to cleanroom
• Location of make-up air systems
• Location of exhaust/scrubber systems;
• Adequate space for efficient equipment
• Adequate space for large piping and ductwork
• Adequate space for efficient return air pathways
• Efficient, low pressure drop cleanroom flooring
1.3.2 Optimize clean space
• Define contamination control problem and select cleanliness class(es) to mitigate

the problem
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• Minimize clean space

• Consider use of mini-environments and enclosures and lower cleanroom
cleanliness requirements accordingly
• Optimize cleanroom ceiling HEPA coverage.
! More coverage for the same airflow will improve efficiency
! Coverage in critical areas to minimize airflow
! Plan for use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis
• Evaluate cleanroom protocol vs. higher cleanliness;
1.3.3 Implement traditional efficiency measures for building shell and office areas
• Locate major equipment close to end use

• Reduce lighting and cooling loads by maximizing use of daylight
• Use high-performance windows - use glazing with appropriate visible
transmittance and shading coefficient
• Apply cutting edge industry references (Also see http://eande.lbl.gov/R-
LabDG/HELP3493.htm, or http://www.wbdg.org)
• Reduce cooling loads through application of best practices in envelop design
• Use appropriate roof coatings (also see http://eetd.lbl.gov/CoolRoofs/)
• Shade impervious surfaces with trees and other landscaping elements.
2 Mechanical
2.1 Mechanical Programming goals
HVAC systems typically have a lifetime of twenty years or longer, as compared to three-
to-five-year return rate of many processes operating in cleanrooms. Implementing
energy-efficiency strategies in the design and operation of cleanroom HVAC systems can
have lasting beneficial impact on the reduction of energy use, reduction in first costs, and
can result in a more reliable cleanroom facility.
The primary programming goals related to mechanical systems are to 1) establish a
process to develop accurate process heat load estimates, 2) evaluate air management and
chilled water cooling systems; 2) maintain or improve worker comfort and safety; 3)
maintain or improve production and quality; and 4) provide design concepts that support
“time to market” issues. In order to achieve highly energy efficient HVAC systems, the
mechanical engineer must coordinate with the owner and other stakeholders. The team
will need to define cleanroom cleanliness and environmental requirements, and then
optimize mechanical systems through close coordination with other disciplines. The
team must also take into consideration future changes or growth; and current and
projected energy pricing.
For mechanical systems serving cleanrooms, areas holding the greatest energy efficiency
opportunities are: 1) Efficient Central Plant, 2) Efficient Mechanical Layout, and 3)
Efficient Air Systems. For each area, facts important to energy use in energy intensive
mechanical systems need to be identified during programming. Based upon these project
facts, design concepts are suggested for further investigation by the design team. Where
different design options have widely varying energy use (and varying long term operating
12
cost) it may be appropriate to conduct preliminary life cycle cost evaluations to aid the
program decision-making. While there are some functional requirements that cannot be
quantified at the programming phase, most functional requirements can be defined by the
use of specific performance metrics. For example, the team may establish design
efficiency targets such as kW/ton for chilled water systems or cfm/kW for air systems.
These metrics can then be compared to best practices to provide guidance. The
programming team can utilize performance metrics to make informed decisions and to set
performance targets. Performance metrics for selected systems and components with
significant energy use are provided to highlight best practice and comparison to other
benchmark data. Examples of their use are summarized in a recent study on cleanroom
energy benchmarking [2], The details results can also be downloaded from
http://ateam.lbl.gov/hightech/Cleanroom/Benchmarking/).
2.2 Mechanical Facts

To design energy efficient mechanical systems that meet process contamination control
requirements, the process, contamination sources/effects, environmental requirements,
and relevant Codes/Standards must be defined. The topics below are particularly
important to be defined during programming:
2.2.1 Process generated HVAC loads
Since process heat loads and HVAC recirculation systems account for the majority of
environmental energy use in cleanrooms, it is important to determine accurate heat load
requirements for the process. This information will dictate the sizing of the most energy
intensive mechanical systems and therefore needs to be carefully considered. Most of the
heat load to be removed by the HVAC system is input to the cleanroom and surrounding
areas by the process occurring in the cleanroom. Heat is generated by converting
electrical energy into useful process related work, lighting, fan energy, other plug loads,
etc. For this reason, it is appropriate to focus on planned electrical energy use. The
project team will eventually determine the total electrical design load, load diversity
(loads occurring at the same time), and then establish and understand design margins to
account for uncertainty. During programming, all loads will not be known, however
estimates will be needed to support planning for space allocation, critical adjacencies,
support spaces, etc. In addition, the programming team will identify key needs such as
production growth potential that will have a major impact on the design. Defining how
process related loads vary over time is critical since the cleanroom HVAC systems and
process-cooling systems will remove essentially the entire heat load from the process
systems. The design for efficient part load operation will require different strategies than
for full load operation. Process utility estimates are typically provided by vendors of
process equipment through name plate data, however the project team should carefully
examine the information to arrive at actual operating energy requirements. Designer’s
use of nameplate data to define maximum energy requirements typically results in
excessive safety factors by factors of three or more. During detailed design, actual peak
operating electrical load should be determined for each piece of process equipment and
these loads summed to determine total process load. One method to determine a realistic
value is to measure and trend actual electrical load in similar facilities. Benchmark data
13
can provide realistic operating load information. If this is not available, equipment
vendors should be queried in detail to obtain an accurate load value. Once the total
energy requirements are known, a diversification factor must be applied to arrive at actual
combined loads. The diversification factor accounts for sequencing and combination of
electrical loads. This factor can be applied individually to process equipment, if known,
and then the individual diversified loads summed, or an overall diversity can be applied.
Once a total diversified load is determined, factors can then be added to account for
safety margins, and future growth.
Specific guidance on the margin to be included above the estimated needs should be
determined as one of the key program decisions. The design team, including all affected
disciplines and the owner's process representative(s) as a group, should make the
determination of the amount of margin to include during the programming phase to avoid
individually introducing excessive conservatism as each discipline deals with design
details later in the design. Traditional design processes often introduce conservatism
(margin) that the owner did not intend and may not discover until operation. It is critical
that the owner be involved in determining the process utility needs and help to determine
the overall margin for uncertainty or growth. This is extremely important in that
mechanical equipment may operate extremely inefficiently if operated at part load
conditions. Although passive components such as oversized piping and ductwork
actually improve efficiency, oversized equipment often operates extremely inefficiently.
Strategies which involve over-sizing passive components yet “right sizing” active
components can provide reasonable options for future growth and minimize first cost. If
process load growth is anticipated due to “ramping up” the process, changes in process
technology, or simply production growth, then other strategies need to be explored at the
program phase to provide for widely varying load and growth potential, yet allow
efficient operation at all levels.
2.2.2 Contamination control
Contamination control is the key reason for the cleanroom. The program should
therefore revolve around defining the contamination problem. One of the first
programming steps then is to define the contamination that is to be controlled or
contained by the cleanroom by identifying the unique sensitivities of the cleanroom
activity. This is often done by defining critical contaminant quantities and/or
contaminant sizes that could adversely affect the activity occurring in the cleanroom.
Sources of potential contamination need to be identified, e.g. process equipment,
personnel, etc. Definition of potential contamination sources, characteristics, and limits
important to the activity in the cleanroom is required in order to define appropriate
cleanroom concepts. To achieve an energy efficient design, the contamination control
issues needed to support the activity occurring in the cleanroom must be well defined.
The most economical solution to the contamination control problem when considering
life cycle cost will result in an optimized cleanroom design. Providing more stringent
cleanliness than is needed increases capital cost and energy consumption throughout the
life of the facility with no offsetting gain in production.
14
The team must develop a thorough understanding of the activity to be carried out in the
cleanroom, and any impact that specific contaminants can have on that activity. The
team can then identify the issues that are most critical to the cleanroom activities.
Figure 2 illustrates a typical hierarchy approach of information gathering. First the
cleanroom activities (e.g., process, production, etc.) are defined. Then contamination
control and environmental requirements are defined, leading to development of
cleanroom concepts (e.g., equipment, desired clean space, cleanroom design, etc.). Once
these are determined, the overall facility, and finally, the site plan are defined. This
approach allows developing an understanding of the functional requirements of the
facility before addressing the form of the facility, which is dependent upon them.
Site plan
Facility
Cleanroom concepts
Contamination
problem
Cleanroom
activities, e.g.,
process,
production, etc
Figure 2 A hierarchy approach of information gathering for cleanroom programming
With a clear understanding of the cleanroom activity and contamination control in the
earlier programming steps, the team can develop a series of cleanroom concepts that can
meet the full functional requirements of the owner.
2.2.3 HVAC Systems
The temperature and humidity requirements for cleanrooms have a direct and significant
impact on total energy consumption. Depending upon the application and cleanliness
class, the acceptable ranges of environmental conditions (i.e., temperature, humidity, air-
change rate, vibration, and noise) for specific zones are defined based on cleanroom
15
functions. Recommended air recirculation to achieve various cleanliness classes is

defined in the Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST) ISO
Standards. ISO 14644-1 Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments--Part 1:
addresses Classification of air cleanliness (also see
http://www.iest.org/publctns/isopubs.htm). The project team also needs to consider
more traditional environmental factors such as exhaust requirements, occupant comfort,
noise and vibration associated with the HVAC system ([3], [4], and [5]).
Make-up air and exhaust systems are determined primarily by applicable codes and their
mandated minimum exhaust rates. In addition, Insurers may require minimum exhaust
rates that exceed code values. The design must meet or exceed specified rates. For some
cleanrooms, ASHRAE Standard 62-1999 may be referenced for make-up air
requirements. Currently this standard suggests minimum fresh air change rates for a list
of building types including laboratories [3]. There is no data in the standard that
specifically addresses make-up air requirements for cleanrooms; however, a minimum of
10 L/person (20 cfm/person) is suggested for an institutional laboratory, provided that
special contaminant control systems be provided for processes. Also refer to [6] and [7]
for threshold limit values (TLVs) and biological exposure indices (BEIs). Codes and
standards requirements take precedence for many cleanroom applications such as those
with hazardous materials (H - occupancies) and Biotech or Pharmaceuticals (governed by
FDA regulated cGMP requirements).
2.2.4 Chilled water system
Chilled water requirements for cleanrooms frequently are determined based upon past
experience or gross estimates to allow procurement of long lead-time items such as
chillers and pumps. Chilled water system design for a cleanroom project represents a
significant opportunity to minimize energy cost for the life of the facility. At the program
level, the team needs to carefully define the following:
1. Chilled water temperature – The chilled water system should be designed to operate at
the highest temperature possible. Although the design details will be developed later, the
design team should adopt this philosophy from the beginning. If small amounts of lower
temperature chilled water are determined to be required, there may be significantly less
life cycle cost to provide separate point of use chilled water.
2. Level of redundancy – Many cleanrooms provide redundancy for the chilled water
system or a portion of the system. Once the need for redundancy is identified (during
programming), there are often several design options available to achieve it. For each
option, energy efficiency, space requirements, operating flexibility, etc. varies
considerably. A simplified life cycle analysis should be used to narrow options for
further evaluation. For example, the number and size of chillers can vary depending
upon the team’s approach to redundancy.
3. Part load operation – In many cleanrooms, full process loads are developed over a
considerable "ramp-up" period resulting in long periods of operation at part load
conditions. In addition, process changes, or production increases may impact the overall
chilled water needs. The chilled water plant and its associated components need to be
sized to allow efficient operation at the various load conditions that the plant may see
16
over time. This will affect space planning, sizing of components and distribution
systems, chiller types, control strategies, etc. and should be considered in the program.
4. Efficiency targets – Chillers and chilled water systems energy efficiency issues are
well documented in the literature and industry publications. In addition, benchmark data
is available to provide guidance. The program team should establish efficiency targets
for the major chilled water components and the overall system. Targets for part load and
full load operation should be established. These become guidelines for the designers
during detailed design.
5. Future expansion - To establish a strategy for future growth, the project team needs to
consider the following:
1) Estimated current and future process loads – Various methods can be used to estimate
process loads. These include using actual load from similar process systems, using load
density (kW/sq ft) estimates, or developing detailed process equipment utility
requirements. Each of these methods can yield appropriate design values but careful
consideration of actual load vs. name-plate values, load diversity, and conservatism
factors must be included. The estimated timing for additional load is also important and
can be used to delay capital expenditure until load growth occurs.
2) Efficient part load operation – Variable speed devices and/or incremental build-out
will allow the systems to operate efficiently initially and as additional process load is
added. Future connection strategies to add additional capacity such as adding additional
pumps, chillers, etc. without impacting operation should be addressed in the program.
3) Sizing of passive distribution systems for maximum flows – Piping, Ductwork, and
Electrical wiring systems should be sized for the maximum anticipated flow or current.
Sizing these elements for the maximum conditions will result in efficient operation at part
load conditions.
4) Space and access required for future equipment – Adequate space for future expansion
and appropriate adjacency to existing systems should also be addressed in the program.
Guidelines for chilled water systems and components are well documented. Some
representative information can be found at the following websites:
http://www.hvacexchange.com/cooltools/guides_frm.htm
http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp/procurement/begin.html
http://www.energydesignresources.com/publications/design_briefs/index.html
2.2.5 Climatic and geographic factors
Localized climatic and geographic factors can sometimes have a large influence on the
site layout and the building itself. A good understanding of system energy implications
due to climatic and geographic information can lead to more efficient mechanical system
design. For example, the design of the make-up air supply and exhaust for cleanrooms
will be based on outside air ventilation rates, yearly temperature and humidity data, while
considering any site constraints due to local geography. The team should specify the
most optimal condenser water temperature, using free cooling, and use of efficient
17
humidity control. Microclimate analysis can be conducted when needed in combination

with published weather data, which are available from a variety of sources. External
airflow analysis is required to determine location of air intake and exhaust when
considering discharge of potentially hazardous materials. The results of this study may
have an effect on space allocation, placement of intakes and exhausts, efficient
distribution, etc.
2.2.6 Availability and price of energy – Life-cycle-cost analysis
An analysis of reliability and available energy options should be performed to determine

a range of possible rates and uncertainties. These rates will be used to perform
preliminary life cycle cost analysis for key decisions. The cleanroom owner will need to
define policy for considering return on investment (ROI), or cost of ownership models to
be used for life cycle cost analysis. An example of a building life cycle cost analysis tool
is provided at the following website:
http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp/techassist/softwaretools/softwaretools.html - blcc.
2.3 Design Concepts for Energy Efficiency - Mechanical Systems

A fundamental energy efficiency concept for mechanical systems or components is to
achieve the most useful work for the least amount of energy (lowest energy cost). To
achieve a design with the lowest energy use, the programming team should focus on the
following:
2.3.1 Efficient central plant
2.3.1.1 Concepts for design of an efficient central plant

• Design for real heat load requirements (see earlier discussion)
• Define appropriate environmental requirements - contamination, temperature,
humidity, vibration, and noise level;
• Consider strategies for potential growth - incremental build-out, extra valves, etc.;
• Use free cooling whenever feasible;
• Design efficient chilled water system
• chiller sizing
• part load efficient pumping
• cooling towers
• refrigerant specification
• dual temperature loop vs. single loop
• minimization of flow resistance, i.e. pressure drop
• load vs. chiller rating close to one
• optimized chilled water temperature
• target system and component efficiency in kW/ton
• Design efficient pumping systems
• Pump efficiency
• Motor efficiency
18
• Pipe sizing and layout to minimize resistance. Larger piping and

minimizing fittings or providing space for large diameter bends improves
efficiency.
• Design efficient boiler systems
• Boiler efficiency
• Avoid use of high pressure boilers (operator issue, code issue)
• Humidification schemes
• Redundancy, back-up, and normal operation efficiency- Take advantage of redundant
equipment for efficient normal operation.
• Layout major ductwork and piping then major equipment to minimize flow resistance
• Study alternative systems and perform life cycle analysis through use of appropriate
metrics.
2.3.2 Efficient mechanical layout
Mechanical and architectural coordination is important to achieve layouts that are energy
efficient. The space available for mechanical systems will often dictate the economics,
types, sizes and capacities of individual components. Space for mechanical equipment,
ductwork, and piping may also impact system reliability, maintenance, and system
flexibility for immediate or future needs.
2.3.2.1 Mechanical layout design concepts

Design concepts for efficient mechanical layout include the following:
• Estimate and determine equipment sizing and resulting space requirements
• Interact with architect to allocate space for major equipment such as large pipes and
ducts
• Develop strategies for potential future growth
2.3.3 Efficient air systems
Maintaining cleanroom cleanliness conditions requires a tremendous amount of air

circulation. Fan power is a major contributor to energy demand in these air systems.
Since fan power is used to overcome system resistance in the air delivery system, and in
theory fan power is proportional to the cube of air velocity, even a slight reduction in air
velocity will result in considerable decrease in fan power. For example, a 10% reduction
of supply airflow would theoretically require roughly 30% less power for the supply fan
to transport the air. Consideration should be given to
• Achieving low pressure drop while meeting the required air supply;
• Utilizing energy-efficient components as well as appropriate duct and air recirculation
path sizing;
• Adopting efficient control methods such as variable volume air (VAV) when
appropriate; and
• Minimizing and avoiding energy losses induced by cleanroom envelope air leakage
19
2.3.3.1 Air Systems Design Concepts
The project team needs to consider specific strategies and techniques to achieve efficient
make-up, recirculation, and exhaust systems. The reduction of resistance to airflow
(pressure drop) in air delivery systems is a key consideration. Pressure loss should be
kept as low as possible through low-velocity sizing of ducts, coils, filters, and other
components. This can be achieved by design that minimizes changes of direction, and
provides layouts that minimize use of fire dampers, etc. Because air leakage from ducts
can induce considerable energy losses, the programming team should consider measures
to minimize duct lengths and pay particular attention to duct routes. The following
concepts should be considered whenever feasible.
2.3.3.1.1 Efficient make-up air systems

Make-up air systems represent an excellent opportunity for improving efficiency. The
programming team should consider the following factors in developing make-up air
system concepts.
• Reduce delivery pressure loss by operating at low air handler face velocity;
• Provide for optimal air-flow and reduce fan power by use of Variable Speed Drives
(VSD’s);
• Plan for use of efficient filters;
• Locate make-up air handlers as close to cleanroom as practical. Consider pressure
drop, material cost, noise, and vibration for optimum location. Life cycle cost
analysis may be warranted.
• Implement accurate temperature and humidity control
• Minimize exhaust and pressurization (losses) so as to minimize make-up air.
Understand process exhaust requirements and account for diversity.
2.3.3.1.2 Efficient air recirculation systems

Different air Recirculation system configurations should be evaluated. Different
recirculation systems have widely varying energy use.
Figure 3 shows actual benchmark results for efficiency of several types of systems.
During the programming phase, the team may consider the use of advanced cleanroom
airflow modeling to assist in determining ceiling coverage, and airflow rates. Through
this type of analysis, it is possible to minimize air change rates resulting in significant
energy reductions.
Recirculation air systems for cleanroom designs can maximize energy savings by
reducing airflow rate and the pressure drop in the air recirculation loop. Significant
energy savings are also possible when high-efficiency components are used for
circulating the large quantities of air.
• Consider advantages and disadvantages of different types of air recirculation concepts
(e.g., fan-filter; plenum, ducted HEPA, fan-tower, return from under floor or side-
wall, etc.); For a comparative discussion of air management systems see the reference
[11]; and another article by Grout, also see
20
http://cr.pennnet.com/Articles/Article_Display.cfm?Section=Archives&Subsection=
Display&ARTICLE_ID=95027&KEYWORD=recirculation%20systems&x=y.
• Consider controls that allow air flow reduction when cleanrooms are unoccupied;
• Minimize recirculation airflow - Specify minimal IEST recommended values for air
change requirements when appropriate for the process;
• Use high efficiency HEPA or ULPA filters.
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2.3.3.1.3 Efficient exhaust systems

• Comply with code requirements but avoid excessive exhaust – consider re-use of non-
toxic exhaust;
• Apply multiple exhausts as compared to a single exhaust to reduce space and fan
energy use;
• Optimize exhaust air velocity. Provide adequate velocity to avoid re-entrainment yet
not exceed needs.
• Consider heat recovery from exhaust systems
2.3.3.1.4 Special equipment

• Evaluate Scrubbers/filters for efficiency.
21
• Evaluate the need for burn-boxes or other exhaust options.
2.4 Functional requirements for mechanical systems

Every decision during programming must lead to designs that meet applicable Codes and
Standards. The project team should also define and use metrics whenever possible to set
design targets and quantify energy implications. In the Appendices section, a list of
metrics important to cleanroom energy use is presented.
The following is a brief description on the functional requirements for mechanical system
design.
2.4.1 Functional requirements to achieve an efficient central plant
To establish functional requirements for chilled water systems, the project team needs to
identify the resources for chiller selections, based on application types, critical design
values (e.g., entering condenser water temperature, evaporator leaving water temperature,
flow rates, etc.), and available equipment on the market.
Similar to chiller efficiency (also see http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp/procurement), use
kW/ton as the metric for the performance of chilled water systems. Adding the energy
used for chilled water pumps, condenser water pump and cooling tower, a state-of-the-art
chilled-water system has an efficiency of about 0.54 kW/ton [8]. Planned incremental
build-out and/or part load operation should consider the part load operation to design an
efficient plant. For chiller information, refer to Air-Conditioning & Refrigeration
Institute (ARI) – also see http://207.140.180.11/ari-prog/direct.nsf, which publishes
standards and directories of chillers and other air-conditioning equipment.
Benchmark results for several operating cleanroom chiller systems are shown in Figure 4.
Chilled water system performance can vary significantly and the programming team
should establish target metrics and general design philosophy so as to achieve an efficient
design.
To establish functional requirements for efficient pumping systems, the project team can
use pump energy efficiency, electrical energy demand (kW) used by pumps per unit of
flow rate delivered (gallons per minute), as the target metric. This will determine the
appropriate minimum efficiency level (kW/GPM). The project team can recommend
other strategies for efficient pumping system design (e.g., lower water flow, less friction
loss, variable frequency drive), and require optimal efficiency pumps.
To establish functional requirements for efficient boiler systems, the loads need first to be
optimized, and then the boiler(s) need to be selected to minimize cost of ownership. The
loads (preheat, reheat, and humidification) should be optimized to minimize the amount
of reheat required, and then to minimize the temperature of the heat required. For
example, atomizing-type humidifiers with larger heating water coils should be considered
instead of steam-powered humidifiers; preheat and reheat coils should be designed for
low return water temperatures to allow the use of highly efficient boilers with condensing
heat exchangers. Overall boiler efficiency should be considered (including steady-state
and standby); boilers that are designed for cold standby and rapid startup greatly reduce
22
standby losses. If more than one temperature is required (and especially where steam and
hot water are both needed), consider splitting the boiler plant so that only the necessary
temperature is delivered to each load.
Figure 4 Chilled Water System Energy Efficiency
2.4.2 Functional requirements for efficient mechanical layout
To determine the space requirements for HVAC systems, the project team will develop
the relationship between system size (e.g., ducts, pipes) and its efficiency because these
factors are tied directly to system economics (i.e., first cost, and operating cost). The
project team members (e.g., mechanical engineers, architects, and owners) need to
interact closely and make informed decisions as to space layouts.
Examples: economic analysis on pumping cost through optimum piping sizing. Also see
http://www.pumps.org/acb/showdetl.cfm?&DID=9&ObjectGroup_ID=247&Product_ID
=373&CatID=35
2.4.3 Functional requirements for efficient air systems
To achieve energy-efficient air systems (also see http://eande.lbl.gov/R-

LabDG/HELP3219.htm), specific system approaches can be defined utilizing the design
concepts described above. Another consideration once the systems are efficiently sized is
to select highly efficient components for use in the mechanical air systems. Utilizing
existing benchmarking data will guide selection of energy-savings options [9].
A study has shown up to 7% of cleanroom electricity usage can be realized by requiring a
low system pressure drop. This includes use of low face-velocity cooling coils, low
23
velocity in ducts, return air chases, and filters. Implementing low face velocity in air
delivery systems has been shown to achieve an attractive return on investment (ROI)
[10].
The study has also shown that the use of variable-speed drives (VSD’s) for air
recirculation, make-up, and exhaust fan motors can result in up to 15-30% energy saving
over constant-speed drives. Other energy related considerations when planning for air
delivery such as use of ducts or plenums, duct sizing and shape, and materials of
construction all have large impact on efficiency.
2.5 Preliminary budgeting

Establishing a preliminary budget is often part of the programming process. To achieve
an energy efficient design, the programming team must establish a life cycle cost (or
return on investment) evaluation process.
• Life cycle savings: Federal life cycle cost guidance, also see
http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp/aboutfemp/pdfs/lifecycleguidance.pdf
• Simple payback
• Return on investment (ROI)
24
3 Electrical
3.1 Electrical Programming Goals
The primary goal addressed in this guide for electrical is to plan for an efficient and
reliable electrical power supply and distribution system, and to provide efficient lighting
throughout the facility. Other electrical system design considerations such as emergency
lighting, etc. are not addressed since they are either mandated or have very little impact
on energy use.
Lighting for non-cleanroom spaces should follow accepted efficiency practices. For
further lighting information, see LBNL Laboratory Design Guide.
3.2 Electrical Facts

The design of the electrical distribution system has direct impact on first costs as well as
operation and maintenance costs. Process load diversification and guidance on design
conservatism are important for the correct sizing of electrical systems. Design concepts
for energy efficient electrical systems
• Arrangement and sizing of electrical distribution systems
The arrangement of the distribution system includes defining the system voltage levels
and then addressing the physical arrangement of feeders. Planning at the program level
should define that electrical loads be accommodated at the highest practical voltage
(typically 480 volts for motor loads, 277 volts for lighting) to minimize losses in the
transformers and feeders. Space planning for an efficient physical arrangement is also
important to minimize both first and operating costs. The goal should be to keep feeders
as short as possible and transformers as close to loads as possible.
Distribution system sizing should take into account the initial and projected loads (see
following section) and should be able to accommodate both partial loads and full loads in
an efficient manner. Feeder sizes should be selected to minimize total life cycle costs,
keeping in mind that the National Electrical Code (also see
http://www.nfpa.org/Home/index.asp) sizing requirements are for fire protection and
motor starting and are usually smaller than optimal for life cycle cost minimization.
When planning for future loads, provide switchgear and breakers to allow new
transformers and equipment to be added without requiring shutdowns. Consider multiple
transformers with inter-tie switching rather than one necessarily oversized transformer for
a particular load; this arrangement can maximize both transformer part-load efficiency
and system reliability.
Load monitoring capability of distribution equipment should be employed to help
establish baseline and trend information.
• Process Load Diversification and Design Conservatism
When determining electrical loads, while the equipment nameplate ratings must be
accommodated, an important consideration is that most equipment operates well below
25
maximum rating most of the time. In addition, some equipment cycles on and off, and
other equipment is used only occasionally for special functions. This part-load operation
results in a load diversity that must be considered in system sizing. This is especially
important for transformers, where over sizing is inefficient. The team needs to be aware
of design conservatism in manufacturer ratings and the distribution system. As with the
mechanical loads, it is important that all safety factors be explicitly stated and understood
by all concerned parties. The programming team should set the overall level of
conservatisms.
• Efficient transformers;
Transformer loading and design are important for efficient transformer operation. Since
transformer losses vary with the load, it is important to know the rated no-load and full-
load losses from which operating efficiency can be easily determined for range of loads
expected. This efficiency can then be used to minimize life-cycle cost.
The EPA Energy Star website provides information on highly efficient transformers.
(also see
http://yosemite1.epa.gov/estar/consumers.nsf/content/transformers_gateway_page.htm
• Efficient motors;
Once the process and mechanical loads have been accurately estimated (see Mechanical)
further savings can be achieved by the specification of efficient motors. A good start is
to specify premium efficiency motors. To optimize the selection, the highest efficiency
motor for the design load should be specified. In addition, motor speed for constant-
speed applications needs to be considered. Since part-load curves and slip speeds vary
between manufacturers, it pays to carefully consider planned operation. For selecting
new motors, the MotorMaster database (also see http://mm3.energy.wsu.edu/mmplus/) is
helpful, since it allows easy comparisons between motors. Another area of savings for
motors that operate at constant speed is to use motor starters with electronic overloads
rather than thermal overloads. Such starters provide better overload and phase loss
protection while also using less energy in the starter itself. For general information on
improving efficiency in motor systems, see the DOE’s website, also see
http://www.eren.doe.gov/EE/industry_motors.html.
• Efficient lighting
• Make use of conventional lighting controls
• Specify addressable lighting controls
• Investigate use of new technology such as light pipes
(http://www.3m.com/market/construction/html/products/product194_p.html#Dra
wings)
• Investigate task lighting where appropriate
• Use of daylighting (perimeter and offices)
• Use of efficient lighting fixtures.
While lighting is typically a relatively small part of the total electricity use of a
cleanroom facility, there are still significant energy efficiency opportunities in this area.
Targets for lighting W/square foot and kWh/yr should be established to guide the design.
26
Occupancy and daylighting controls, remote fixtures with light pipes, and efficient
general lighting in combination with task lighting should all be considered.
Automatic (motion sensor or timed) controls can greatly decrease energy used during
unoccupied times. Safety concerns from false “offs” can be addressed through the use of
manually switched task lighting and uncontrolled emergency fixtures. Especially in
perimeter support and office areas, where windows can be provided to allow access to
natural light, the use of daylighting in combination with automatic dimming controls
should be considered.
Lighting systems for the cleanroom area can be distributed (fixtures in the room) or
centralized, using a highly efficient source and a light-pipe distribution system. The
centralized systems are a maintenance advantage since they get the lamps and ballasts out
of the clean room; in EMF-sensitive areas, they greatly reduce the lighting contribution to
EMF.
4 Control
4.1 Control Systems Programming Goals
The goal of an efficient and reliable control system is to maximize the overall efficiency
of cleanroom operation and production, while maintaining or improving production,
quality, reliability, safety, and cost effectiveness. Specific goals may include:
• Open protocol systems
• Ability to tune system response to load
• Adequate monitoring capability
• Ability to adjust cleanroom airflow
• Optimize heating, cooling, and humidification
• Optimize central plant systems operation
4.2 Control Facts
Whether or not the mechanical systems, process and electrical systems can effectively
achieve high energy-efficiency in cleanrooms largely depends on the design of control
systems. It is essential to design and implement efficient, robust and reliable control
systems in cleanroom design. To achieve the programming goals, control engineers not
only need to work closely with mechanical engineers, but also need to have early
involvement with the project team.
4.3 Design Concepts for Energy Efficiency - Control Systems

The following concepts can be applied to support the control system design for energy
efficiency.
• Early involvement
Typical construction projects involve the control designer relatively late in the design
process and the commissioning agent even later. However, it is important for the
involvement of both of these critical parties to start as early as possible in the design of
the mechanical and electrical systems so that coordination is facilitated. This
coordination pays dividends in getting a system operating correctly with a minimum of
delays.
27
• Open protocols
Consideration should be given to specifying open protocols, such as BACnet [12] (also
see http://www.bacnet.org/), and LonWorks (also see http://www.lonworks.com/). Open
protocols are useful in that they allow equipment from multiple control vendors to be
used in a single system, either at the time of initial construction or over time. If controls
are to be sole-sourced at the facility (or all facilities of the owner, depending on how
control monitoring is done), open protocols are less useful.
• Local vs. central Control
The degree of control centralization should be decided during project programming. The
trend is toward ever-more decentralized control, with each piece of controlled equipment
getting a dedicated controller, in turn monitored and supervised by a central system.
Such systems give maximum reliability and flexibility, since the local control can
continue to function if there are failures elsewhere in the system, and the central monitor
can detect and alarm failures in the local units.
• Minimize simultaneous heating and cooling (dehumidification/humidification)
A key goal in programming the control system is to minimize the use of energy to fight
another use of energy. The most common examples are cooling and subsequent
reheating; dehumidification and humidification. The details of mechanical system
configurations will determine how best to meet this goal, but in general resetting
temperatures in upstream air and water systems to just meet the needs of the downstream
systems is a good place to start.
• Use of parallel equipment
Cleanroom facilities typically have many pieces of parallel equipment, and the overall
efficiency of the plant depends on the operating strategy. Part-load efficiencies should be
studied to determine how many units should be operated at any given load. For example,
typically extra cooling tower cells with variable-speed fans can be used to improve
efficiency, even at relatively light loads, whereas extra chillers operating at light load
tend to decrease efficiency.
• Monitoring capability
In order to manage the performance and efficiency of the facility, it is necessary to
provide information to the operator. A key design concept should include a requirement
for direct monitoring capability of all key performance metrics (kW/ton for the chiller
plant, W/ft2 for lighting, etc.). The controls should be capable of real-time data display,
data export, data trending and archiving.
• Optimal control strategies
Consider using optimal control strategies to control multi-variable systems such as chiller
plants. Such strategies can greatly reduce energy use by optimizing the combination of
such variables as tower water temperatures and flow, versus chiller compressor power,
under varying process and ambient load conditions. See LBNL Laboratory Design
Guide.
• Airflow reduction when unoccupied
Consider reducing cleanroom airflow when the room is unoccupied.
28
References
[1] P. William, et al. 1987. Problem Seeking: An Architectural Programming
Primer 3rd edition (October 1987), American Institute of Architects; ISBN:
0913962872.
[2] Applications Team. 2001. High-tech Buildings – Market Transformation
Projects. Final Report to CIEE and PG&E. LBNL-49112.
[3] ASHRAE. 1999. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1999, “Ventilation for
acceptable indoor air quality and addendum,” American Society of Heating,
Ventilating, and Air-conditioning Engineers, Inc. Atlanta, GA.
[4] ASHRAE. 1992. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-1992, “Thermal
environmental conditions for human occupancy and addendum,” American
Society of Heating, Ventilating, and Air-conditioning Engineers, Inc. Atlanta,
GA.
[5] ASHRAE Standard 68-1997 (AMCA Standard 330-97), “Laboratory methods
of testing to determine the sound power in a duct,” American Society of
Heating, Ventilating, and Air-conditioning Engineers, Inc. Atlanta, GA.
[6] ACGIH. 2001. Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice,
24th Edition. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
1330 Kemper Meadow Drive, Cincinnati, Ohio 45240.
[7] ACGIH. 2001. Threshold limit values and biological exposure indices.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 1330 Kemper
Meadow Drive, Cincinnati, Ohio 45240, 513-742-2020.
[8] Robertson, C. 2000. Opportunities for energy efficiency in clean rooms:
strategic drivers and responses. Cleanrooms West 2000 Conference
Proceedings: 347-353, Penn Well Corporation, Oregon Convention Center,
October 2-4. www.cleanrooms.com
[9] Tschudi, W. 2000. Energy benchmarking in cleanroom facilities. Cleanrooms
West 2000 Conference Proceedings: 387-399, Penn Well Corporation, Oregon
Convention Center, October 2-4. www.cleanrooms.com
[10] Owen, G. 2000. Low face velocity: an energy conservation option for make-
up air units. Cleanrooms West 2000 Conference Proceedings: 355-363, Penn
Well Corporation, Oregon Convention Center, October 2-4.
www.cleanrooms.com
[11] Matsuki M., and N. Tanaka. 1998. Energy Saving System for Air
Conditioning of Clean Room for Semiconductor Factory (Estimation of FMU
System), Special Issue on Global Environment, Number 160 Volume 63
January, Oki Electric Industry Co., Ltd.
[12] ASHRAE. 1995. ASHRAE Standard 135-1995 A Data Communication
Protocol for Building Automation and Control Networks. 1995.
29
Useful Links and Related Publications
Weather Data Sources
• National climatic data center;

• ASHRAE weather data in CD ROM;
• The Regional Climate Centers;
• Gas Technology Institute.
Links to other documents
• Benchmarking of energy use in cleanrooms (also see

http://ateam.lbl.gov/hightech/Cleanroom/Benchmarking/)
• LBNL Laboratory Design Guide, also see http://eande.lbl.gov/R-
LabDG/HELP3.HTM)
• Whole Building Design Guide, see http://www.wbdg.org
• Building Envelope Techniques, such as Roof coatings (also see
http://eetd.lbl.gov/CoolRoofs/)
• ISO 14644-1 Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments--Part 1: addresses
Classification of air cleanliness (also see http://www.iest.org/publctns/isopubs.htm).
• Guidelines for chilled water systems and components:
• http://www.hvacexchange.com/cooltools/guides_frm.htm
• http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp/procurement/begin.html
• http://www.energydesignresources.com/publications/design_briefs/index.html
• Building life cycle cost analysis tool:
• http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp/techassist/softwaretools/softwaretools.html - blcc.
• Economic analysis on pumping cost through optimum piping sizing:
• http://www.pumps.org/acb/showdetl.cfm?&DID=9&ObjectGroup_ID=247&Prod
uct_ID=373&CatID=35
• Life cycle savings: Federal life cycle cost guidance, also see
http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp/aboutfemp/pdfs/lifecycleguidance.pdf
• Energy-efficient air systems (also see http://eande.lbl.gov/R-LabDG/HELP3219.htm
• Air management
• http://cr.pennnet.com/Articles/Article_Display.cfm?Section=Archives&Subsectio
n=Display&ARTICLE_ID=95027&KEYWORD=recirculation%20systems&x=y
• Chiller efficiency (also see http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp/procurement)
• Air-Conditioning & Refrigeration Institute (ARI) – also see http://207.140.180.11/ari-
prog/direct.nsf
• National Electrical Code (also see http://www.nfpa.org/Home/index.asp) sizing
requirements are for fire protection and motor starting
• The EPA Energy Star website on highly efficient transformers.
• http://yosemite1.epa.gov/estar/consumers.nsf/content/transformers_gateway_page
.htm
• MotorMaster database (also see http://mm3.energy.wsu.edu/mmplus/)
• Improving efficiency in motor systems, see
http://www.eren.doe.gov/EE/industry_motors.html.
30
• New technology such as light pipes, see

(http://www.3m.com/market/construction/html/products/product194_p.html#Drawing
s
• Open control protocols, such as BACnet (also see http://www.bacnet.org/), and
LonWorks (also see http://www.lonworks.com/).
31
Cleanroom Metrics
Description Units
Recirculation Air Handler Unit (RAH)
cfm/kW
Efficiency
Make-up Air Handler (MUA)
cfm/kW
Efficiency
Annual Energy Cost per
$/ft2
Cleanroom Square Foot
Annual Fuel Usage MBtu/ ft2/yr
Annual Electricity Usage kWh/ ft2/yr
Annual Energy Usage MBtu/ ft2/yr
Make-Up Air cfm/ft2
Recirculation Air cfm/ ft2
Recirculation Air Change rate ACH/hr
Ventilation Air Change rate ACH/hr
Cooling Load Density ft2/ton
Process equipment Power Density W/ ft2
Lighting Power Density W/ ft2
Exhaust System Efficiency cfm/kW
Cleanroom Energy Usage Breakdown
Parameter Units
Total Recirculation Fan Power kW
Total Make-Up Air Handler Power kW
Total Process Power kW
Chilled Water Plant kW
Other Power Usage kW
Cleanroom cleanliness class rating per ISO 14644-1
Cleanroom Recirculation Flow cfm
Cleanroom Temperature and

Deg F +/- %
tolerance
Humidity Conditions and tolerance Relative Humidity +/- %
32
Annual Electricity Use kWh/yr
Annual Fuel Use Therm/yr
Peak Power kW
Average Power Factor %
Facility Area ft2
Cleanroom Area ft2
Make-Up Air
Parameter Units
Make-up Air Flow cfm
MUA Fan Power kW
System Pressure Drop Inches of static
Coil Face Velocity fpm
Recirculation Air Handlers
Parameter Units
Recirculation Air Flow cfm
Recirculation Fan Power kW
System Pressure Drop Inches of static
Air Velocity across filters and coil in
fpm
air handler
Pressurization Inches of static
Cooling Load Tons
Exhaust
Parameter Units
Total Air Flow cfm
Fan Power kW
Fan Pressure Rise Inches of static
33
Central Plant - Chilled Water Plant Metrics
Description Units
Chiller Efficiency kW/ton
Tower Efficiency kW/ton
Condenser Water Pumps Efficiency kW/ton
Chilled Water Pumps Efficiency kW/ton
Total Chilled Water Plant Efficiency kW/ton
Plant Efficiency While Free Cooling kW/ton
Chilled Water Plant
Parameter Units
Chiller Power kW
Primary Chilled Water Pump Power kW
Secondary Chilled Water Pump Power kW
Chilled Water Supply Temperature Deg F
Chilled Water Return Temperature Deg F
Chilled Water Head (∆P) Feet of head
Chilled Water Flow gpm
Cooling Tower Power kW
Condenser Water Head Feet of head
Condenser Water Pump Power kW
Condenser Water Supply Temperature Deg F
Process Cooling Pressure Drop across

Feet of head
Pumps (∆P)
Process Cooling Water Pumps Power kW
Process Cooling Flow gpm
Process Cooling Supply Temperature Deg F
34
Process Cooling Return Temperature Deg F
Chiller Cooling Load Tons
Boiler Plant Metrics
Description Units
Hot Water Pumping Efficiency kW/MBtu
Boiler Plant
Parameter Units
Hot Water Supply Temperature Deg F
Hot Water Return Temperature Deg F
Hot Water Pumping Power kW
Hot Water Flow gpm
Boiler Gas Input ft3H
Boiler Efficiency %
Total Gas Use Therms
Other Metrics
Description Units
DI Plant Efficiency kW/gpm
Nitrogen Plant Efficiency cfm/kW
House Vacuum Efficiency cfm/kW
Hot Water Pumping Efficiency kW/MBtu
Compressed Air BHP/100acfm
Lighting W/ ft2
35
Process Utilities
Parameter Units
Compressed Air Input kW
Compressor Air Discharge Pressure acfm
Nitrogen Plant Input kW

Nitrogen Plant Output cfm
DI Water Plant Power kW
DI Water Output usage gpm
DI Water Recirculation Rate gpm

Vacuum Input kW
Vacuum Output cfm

Vacuum Output Pressure psi
36
Cleanroom Program Checklist for Energy Efficiency

Considerations
The following checklist, although not all-inclusive, can be used to focus the programming
team discussions to many of the areas having a large impact on energy use in cleanrooms.
Topic Consideration
Process Heat Load
Use of name plate data
Load diversification
Process to develop load and conservatism
Provision for efficient part load operation and expansion
Contamination Control
Cleanliness classification
Recirculation air change/velocity targets
Filter coverage
Filter efficiency
Make-up/exhaust requirements
Recirculation air
Systems
Efficiency target
Air management scheme
Air change/velocity targets
Controls for flow reduction
Filter media
Low pressure drop air handlers/system
Humidification control
Make-up and
Exhaust Systems
Meet code requirements
Right-size exhaust – process diversification
Use of heat exhaust
Efficiency target
Low pressure drop air handler/system
Adjacency of fans to cleanroom
37
Chilled Water
Chilled water temperature
Use of “Free cooling”
Adjacency of major equipment
Low pressure drop system
Efficiency target – chiller/system
Controls for part load operation
Electrical
Highest practical voltage
Monitoring capability
Process load coordination with Mechanical
Efficient Transformers/Motors
Efficient lighting/ lighting controls
Controls
Use of open protocols
VSD controls
Adequate monitoring capability
Internet capability
Humidity control
Other Additional considerations by the project team and owner
38

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LBNL-49223

AN ENERGY EFFICIENCY GUIDE

NORTHWEST ENERGY EFFICIENCY ALLIANCE

Authors: Bill Tschudi, PE, Principal Investigator

California Energy Commission

Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Facility Planning & Resources, Inc.

Rumsey Engineers (formerly Supersymmetry)

Jacobs Engineering Group

Air Com pressors

Figure 1. Representative Cleanroom Energy End Use

Goals Facts Design Concepts

Mechanical • Achieve high energy- • Process • Lowest energy use per

Table 2 illustrates a common framework utilized in programming cleanroom projects.

Life Cycle • Meet Project Budget Limits useful work

1.1 Architectural Programming Goals

1.2 Architectural Facts

• Codes and standards – Agree on targets to exceed minimum energy code

1.3.1 Integrate site planning, spatial allocations, and system layout

1.3.2 Optimize clean space

• Define contamination control problem and select cleanliness class(es) to mitigate

• Minimize clean space

• Locate major equipment close to end use

2.2 Mechanical Facts

2.2.1 Process generated HVAC loads

2.2.2 Contamination control

Figure 2 A hierarchy approach of information gathering for cleanroom programming

2.2.3 HVAC Systems

functions. Recommended air recirculation to achieve various cleanliness classes is

2.2.4 Chilled water system

2.2.5 Climatic and geographic factors

humidity control. Microclimate analysis can be conducted when needed in combination

2.2.6 Availability and price of energy – Life-cycle-cost analysis

An analysis of reliability and available energy options should be performed to determine

2.3 Design Concepts for Energy Efficiency - Mechanical Systems

2.3.1 Efficient central plant

2.3.1.1 Concepts for design of an efficient central plant

• Pipe sizing and layout to minimize resistance. Larger piping and

2.3.2 Efficient mechanical layout

2.3.2.1 Mechanical layout design concepts

2.3.3 Efficient air systems

Maintaining cleanroom cleanliness conditions requires a tremendous amount of air

2.3.3.1 Air Systems Design Concepts

2.3.3.1.1 Efficient make-up air systems

2.3.3.1.2 Efficient air recirculation systems

Figure 3 Recirculation System Efficiency

2.3.3.1.3 Efficient exhaust systems

2.3.3.1.4 Special equipment

• Evaluate the need for burn-boxes or other exhaust options.

2.4 Functional requirements for mechanical systems

2.4.1 Functional requirements to achieve an efficient central plant

Figure 4 Chilled Water System Energy Efficiency

2.4.2 Functional requirements for efficient mechanical layout

2.4.3 Functional requirements for efficient air systems

To achieve energy-efficient air systems (also see http://eande.lbl.gov/R-

2.5 Preliminary budgeting

3.2 Electrical Facts

• Arrangement and sizing of electrical distribution systems