2 First-Order Differential Equations

EXERCISES 2.1
Solution Curves Without a Solution

y y
3. 4 6. 4

2 2

0 x 0 x

-2 -2

-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4

y y
9. 4 12. 4

2 2

0 x 0 x

-2 -2

-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4

15. (a) The isoclines have the form y = −x + c, which are straight y
lines with slope −1. 3

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-1

-2

-3

8
 2.1 Solution Curves Without a Solution

(b) The isoclines have the form x2 + y 2 = c, which are circles y

centered at the origin.
2

-2 -1 1 2 x

-1

-2

21. Solving y 2 − 3y = y(y − 3) = 0 we obtain the critical points 0 and 3. From the phase portrait we
see that 0 is asymptotically stable (attractor) and 3 is unstable (repeller).

24. Solving 10 + 3y − y 2 = (5 − y)(2 + y) = 0 we obtain the critical points −2 and 5. From the phase
portrait we see that 5 is asymptotically stable (attractor) and −2 is unstable (repeller).
5

-2

27. Solving y ln(y + 2) = 0 we obtain the critical points −1 and 0. From the phase portrait we see that
−1 is asymptotically stable (attractor) and 0 is unstable (repeller).
0

-1

-2

30. The critical points are approximately at −2, 2, 0.5, and 1.7. Since f (y) > 0 for y < −2.2 and 0.5 < y < 1.7, the
graph of the solution is increasing on (−∞, −2.2) and (0.5, 1.7). Since f (y) < 0 for −2.2 < y < 0.5 and y > 1.7,
the graph is decreasing on (−2.2, 0.5) and (1.7, ∞).

9
2.1 Solution Curves Without a Solution

2
1.7
1
0.5
x
-2 -1 1 2
-1

-2
-2.2

39. (a) Writing the differential equation in the form

dv k
mg 
= −v
dt m k mg








k
we see that a critical point is mg/k.
From the phase portrait we see that mg/k is an asymptotically stable critical
point. Thus, limt→∞ v = mg/k.

(b) Writing the differential equation in the form

   
dv k
mg  k mg mg
= − v2 = −v +v
dt m k m k k

we see that the only physically meaningful critical point is mg/k. mg










 k
From the phase portrait we see that mg/k is an asymptotically stable

critical point. Thus, limt→∞ v = mg/k.

EXERCISES 2.2
Separable Variables

In many of the following problems we will encounter an expression of the form ln |g(y)| = f (x) + c. To solve for g(y)
we exponentiate both sides of the equation. This yields |g(y)| = ef (x)+c = ec ef (x) which implies g(y) = ±ec ef (x) .
Letting c1 = ±ec we obtain g(y) = c1 ef (x) .

3. From dy = −e−3x dx we obtain y = 13 e−3x + c.

1 1 1
6. From dy = −2x dx we obtain − = −x2 + c or y = 2 .
y2 y x + c1
 
1 y2 x3 1
9. From y + 2 + dy = x2 ln x dx we obtain + 2y + ln |y| = ln |x| − x3 + c.
y 2 3 9
sin 3x
12. From 2y dy = − dx or 2y dy = − tan 3x sec2 3x dx we obtain y 2 = − 16 sec2 3x + c.
cos3 3x

10
 2.2 Separable Variables

1
15. From dS = k dr we obtain S = cekr .
S
1  
dN = tet+2 − 1 dt we obtain ln |N | = tet+2 − et+2 − t + c or N = c1 ete −e −t .
t+2 t+2
18. From
N
 2 
1 x
21. From x dx =  dy we obtain 12 x2 = sin−1 y + c or y = sin + c1 .
1 − y2 2
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
24. From 2 dy = 2 dx or − dy = − dx we obtain
y −1 x −1 2 y−1 y+1 2 x−1 x+1
y−1 c(x − 1)
ln |y − 1| − ln |y + 1| = ln |x − 1| − ln |x + 1| + ln c or = . Using y(2) = 2 we find
y+1 x+1
y−1 x−1
c = 1. A solution of the initial-value problem is = or y = x.
y+1 x+1
27. Separating variables and integrating we obtain

dx dy
√ − =0 and sin−1 x − sin−1 y = c.
1−x 2 1 − y2
√
Setting x = 0 and y = 3/2 we obtain c = −π/3. Thus, an implicit solution of the initial-value problem is
sin−1 x − sin−1 y = π/3. Solving for y and using an addition formula from trigonometry, we get

√ √
−1 π π  π x 3 1 − x2
y = sin sin x + = x cos + 1 − x sin = +
2 .
3 3 3 2 2

30. Separating variables, we have

dy dx dy
= or = ln |x| + c.
y2 − y x y(y − 1)

Using partial fractions, we obtain

 
1 1
− dy = ln |x| + c
y−1 y
ln |y − 1| − ln |y| = ln |x| + c
y−1
ln =c
xy
y−1
= ec = c1 .
xy

Solving for y we get y = 1/(1 − c1 x). We note by inspection that y = 0 is a singular solution of the differential
equation.

(a) Setting x = 0 and y = 1 we have 1 = 1/(1 − 0), which is true for all values of c1 . Thus, solutions passing
through (0, 1) are y = 1/(1 − c1 x).

(b) Setting x = 0 and y = 0 in y = 1/(1 − c1 x) we get 0 = 1. Thus, the only solution passing through (0, 0) is
y = 0.

(c) Setting x = 1
2 and y = 1
2 we have 1
2 = 1/(1 − 1
2 c1 ), so c1 = −2 and y = 1/(1 + 2x).

(d) Setting x = 2 and y = 1

4 we have 1
4 = 1/(1 − 2c1 ), so c1 = − 32 and y = 1/(1 + 3
2 x) = 2/(2 + 3x).

11
2.2 Separable Variables

33. The singular solution y = 1 satisfies the initial-value problem. y

1.01

x
-0.004-0.002 0.002 0.004

0.98

0.97

dy
36. Separating variables we obtain = dx. Then, from (11) in y
(y − 1)2 − 0.01
this section of the manual with u = y − 1 and a = 10
1
, we get 1.0004

10y − 11
5 ln = x + c. 1.0002
10y − 9
Setting x = 0 and y = 1 we obtain c = 5 ln 1 = 0. The solution is x
-0.004-0.002 0.002 0.004
10y − 11
5 ln = x.
10y − 9 0.9998

Solving for y we obtain

0.9996

11 + 9ex/5
y= .
10 + 10ex/5
Alternatively, we can use the fact that
dy 1 y−1
=− tanh−1 = −10 tanh−1 10(y − 1).
(y − 1) − 0.01
2 0.1 0.1
(We use the inverse hyperbolic tangent because |y − 1| < 0.1 or 0.9 < y < 1.1. This follows from the initial
condition y(0) = 1.) Solving the above equation for y we get y = 1 + 0.1 tanh(x/10).

39. (a) Separating variables we have 2y dy = (2x + 1)dx. Integrating gives y 2 = x2 + x + c. When y(−2) = −1 we
√
find c = −1, so y 2 = x2 + x − 1 and y = − x2 + x − 1 . The negative square root is chosen because of the
initial condition.
y
(b) From the figure, the largest interval of definition appears to be 2
approximately (−∞, −1.65). 1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

√ √
(c) Solving x2 + x − 1 = 0 we get x = − 12 ± 12 5 , so the largest interval of definition is (−∞, − 12 − 12 5 ).
√
The right-hand endpoint of the interval is excluded because y = − x2 + x − 1 is not differentiable at this
point.

12
 2.3 Linear Equations

EXERCISES 2.3
Linear Equations

d x
3. For y  +y = e3x an integrating factor is e dx
= ex so that [e y] = e4x and y = 14 e3x +ce−x for −∞ < x < ∞.
dx
The transient term is ce−x .

d 2 2
6. For y  + 2xy = x3 an integrating factor is e + ce−x
2x dx 2 2
= ex so that ex y = x3 ex and y = 12 x2 − 1
2
dx
for −∞ < x < ∞. The transient term is ce−x .
2

 
1 1 d 1
9. For y  − y = x sin x an integrating factor is e− (1/x)dx
= so that y = sin x and y = cx − x cos x for
x x dx x
0 < x < ∞.

x d  
12. For y  − y = x an integrating factor is e− [x/(1+x)]dx = (x+1)e−x so that (x + 1)e−x y = x(x+1)e−x
(1 + x) dx
2x + 3 cex
and y = −x − + for −1 < x < ∞.
x+1 x+1

dx 4 d  −4 
− x = 4y 5 an integrating factor is e−
−4
15. For (4/y)dy
= eln y = y −4 so that y x = 4y and x = 2y 6 +cy 4
dy y dy
for 0 < y < ∞.

d
18. For y  +(cot x)y = sec2 x csc x an integrating factor is e cot x dx
= eln | sin x| = sin x so that [(sin x) y] = sec2 x
dx
and y = sec x + c csc x for 0 < x < π/2.

dr
21. For + r sec θ = cos θ an integrating factor is e sec θ dθ
= eln | sec x+tan x| = sec θ + tan θ so that
dθ
d
[(sec θ + tan θ)r] = 1 + sin θ and (sec θ + tan θ)r = θ − cos θ + c for −π/2 < θ < π/2 .
dθ
 
 2 x+1 [2/(x2 −1)]dx x−1 d x−1
24. For y + 2 y = an integrating factor is e = so that y = 1 and
x −1 x−1 x+1 dx x + 1
(x − 1)y = x(x + 1) + c(x + 1) for −1 < x < 1.

di R E (R/L) dt d Rt/L E
27. For + i= an integrating factor is e e i = eRt/L and
= eRt/L so that
dt L L dt L
 
E E E
i= + ce−Rt/L for −∞ < t < ∞. If i(0) = i0 then c = i0 − E/R and i = + i0 − e−Rt/L .
R R R

d
30. For y  + (tan x)y = cos2 x an integrating factor is e tan x dx
= eln | sec x| = sec x so that
[(sec x) y] = cos x
dx
and y = sin x cos x + c cos x for −π/2 < x < π/2. If y(0) = −1 then c = −1 and y = sin x cos x − cos x.

13
2.3 Linear Equations

33. For y  + 2xy = f (x) an integrating factor is ex so that

2
y
 2
1 x2
x2 e + c1 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
ye = 2
c2 , x > 1.
If y(0) = 2 then c1 = 3/2 and for continuity we must have c2 = 12 e + 3
2
so that
1 3 x
3 −x2
2 + 2e , 0≤x≤1
y= 1 3
 −x2

2e + 2 e , x > 1.

36. For y  + ex y = 1 an integrating factor is ee . Thus

x

d  ex  x x
x
t
e y = ee and ee y = ee dt + c.
dx 0
−ex x et 1−ex
From y(0) = 1 we get c = e, so y = e 0
e dt +e .

When y  + ex y = 0 we can separate variables and integrate:

dy
= −ex dx and ln |y| = −ex + c.
y
Thus y = c1 e−e . From y(0) = 1 we get c1 = e, so y = e1−e .
x x

When y  + ex y = ex we can see by inspection that y = 1 is a solution.

EXERCISES 2.4
Exact Equations

3. Let M = 5x + 4y and N = 4x − 8y 3 so that My = 4 = Nx . From fx = 5x + 4y we obtain f = 52 x2 + 4xy + h(y),

h (y) = −8y 3 , and h(y) = −2y 4 . A solution is 52 x2 + 4xy − 2y 4 = c.
6. Let M = 4x3 −3y sin 3x−y/x2 and N = 2y−1/x+cos 3x so that My = −3 sin 3x−1/x2 and Nx = 1/x2 −3 sin 3x.
The equation is not exact.
9. Let M = y 3 − y 2 sin x − x and N = 3xy 2 + 2y cos x so that My = 3y 2 − 2y sin x = Nx . From fx = y 3 − y 2 sin x − x
we obtain f = xy 3 + y 2 cos x − 12 x2 + h(y), h (y) = 0, and h(y) = 0. A solution is xy 3 + y 2 cos x − 12 x2 = c.
12. Let M = 3x2 y + ey and N = x3 + xey − 2y so that My = 3x2 + ey = Nx . From fx = 3x2 y + ey we obtain
f = x3 y + xey + h(y), h (y) = −2y, and h(y) = −y 2 . A solution is x3 y + xey − y 2 = c.
   
15. Let M = x2 y 3 − 1/ 1 + 9x2 and N = x3 y 2 so that My = 3x2 y 2 = Nx . From fx = x2 y 3 − 1/ 1 + 9x2 we
obtain f = 13 x3 y 3 − 13 arctan(3x) + h(y), h (y) = 0, and h(y) = 0. A solution is x3 y 3 − arctan(3x) = c.
2 2
18. Let M = 2y sin x cos x − y + 2y 2 exy and N = −x + sin2 x + 4xyexy so that
2 2
My = 2 sin x cos x − 1 + 4xy 3 exy + 4yexy = Nx .

From fx = 2y sin x cos x − y + 2y 2 exy we obtain f = y sin2 x − xy + 2exy + h(y), h (y) = 0, and h(y) = 0. A
2 2

2
solution is y sin2 x − xy + 2exy = c.

14
 2.4 Exact Equations

21. Let M = x2 + 2xy + y 2 and N = 2xy + x2 − 1 so that My = 2(x + y) = Nx . From fx = x2 + 2xy + y 2 we obtain
f = 13 x3 + x2 y + xy 2 + h(y), h (y) = −1, and h(y) = −y. The solution is 13 x3 + x2 y + xy 2 − y = c. If y(1) = 1
then c = 4/3 and a solution of the initial-value problem is 13 x3 + x2 y + xy 2 − y = 43 .
  t2
24. Let M = t/2y 4 and N = 3y 2 − t2 /y 5 so that My = −2t/y 5 = Nt . From ft = t/2y 4 we obtain f = 4 + h(y),
4y
2
3 3 t 3
h (y) = 3 , and h(y) = − 2 . The solution is 4 − 2 = c. If y(1) = 1 then c = −5/4 and a solution of the
y 2y 4y 2y
t2 3 5
initial-value problem is − 2 =− .
4y 4 2y 4
27. Equating My = 3y 2 + 4kxy 3 and Nx = 3y 2 + 40xy 3 we obtain k = 10.
30. Let M = (x2 +2xy−y 2 )/(x2 +2xy+y 2 ) and N = (y 2 +2xy−x2 /(y 2 +2xy+x2 ) so that My = −4xy/(x+y)3 = Nx .
  2y 2
From fx = x2 + 2xy + y 2 − 2y 2 /(x + y)2 we obtain f = x + + h(y), h (y) = −1, and h(y) = −y. A
x+y
solution of the differential equation is x2 + y 2 = c(x + y).
2dy/y
33. We note that (Nx −My )/M = 2/y, so an integrating factor is e = y 2 . Let M = 6xy 3 and N = 4y 3 +9x2 y 2
so that My = 18xy 2 = Nx . From fx = 6xy 3 we obtain f = 3x2 y 3 + h(y), h (y) = 4y 3 , and h(y) = y 4 . A solution
of the differential equation is 3x2 y 3 + y 4 = c.

36. We note that (Nx − My )/M = −3/y, so an integrating factor is e−3 dy/y = 1/y 3 . Let M = (y 2 + xy 3 )/y 3 =
1/y + x and N = (5y 2 − xy + y 3 sin y)/y 3 = 5/y − x/y 2 + sin y, so that My = −1/y 2 = Nx . From fx = 1/y + x
we obtain f = x/y + 12 x2 + h(y), h (y) = 5/y + sin y, and h(y) = 5 ln |y| − cos y. A solution of the differential
equation is x/y + 12 x2 + 5 ln |y| − cos y = c.
39. (a) Implicitly differentiating x3 + 2x2 y + y 2 = c and solving for dy/dx we obtain

dy dy dy 3x2 + 4xy
3x2 + 2x2 + 4xy + 2y =0 and =− 2 .
dx dx dx 2x + 2y

By writing the last equation in differential form we get (4xy + 3x2 )dx + (2y + 2x2 )dy = 0.
(b) Setting x = 0 and y = −2 in x3 + 2x2 y + y 2 = c we find c = 4, and setting x = y = 1 we also find c = 4.
Thus, both initial conditions determine the same implicit solution.
y
(c) Solving x3 + 2x2 y + y 2 = 4 for y we get 4

y1 (x) = −x2 − 4 − x3 + x4 2 y2
and
 x
y2 (x) = −x2 + 4 − x3 + x4 . -4 -2 2 4

-2
Observe in the figure that y1 (0) = −2 and y2 (1) = 1. y1
-4

-6

45. (a) In differential form we have (v 2 − 32x)dx + xv dv = 0. This is not an exact form, but µ(x) = x is an
integrating factor. Multiplying by x we get (xv 2 − 32x2 )dx + x2 v dv = 0. This form is the total differential
of u = 12 x2 v 2 − 32
3 x , so an implicit solution is 2 x v − 3 x = c. Letting x = 3 and v = 0 we find c = −288.
3 1 2 2 32 3

Solving for v we get


x 9
v=8 − .
3 x2

15
2.4 Exact Equations

(b) The chain leaves the platform when x = 8, so the velocity at this time is

8 9
v(8) = 8 − ≈ 12.7 ft/s.
3 64

EXERCISES 2.5
Solutions by Substitutions

3. Letting x = vy we have
vy(v dy + y dv) + (y − 2vy) dy = 0
 
vy 2 dv + y v 2 − 2v + 1 dy = 0
v dv dy
+ =0
(v − 1)2 y
1
ln |v − 1| − + ln |y| = c
v−1
x 1
ln −1 − + ln y = c
y x/y − 1
(x − y) ln |x − y| − y = c(x − y).

6. Letting y = ux and using partial fractions, we have

 2 2 
u x + ux2 dx + x2 (u dx + x du) = 0
 
x2 u2 + 2u dx + x3 du = 0
dx du
+ =0
x u(u + 2)
1 1
ln |x| + ln |u| − ln |u + 2| = c
2 2
x2 u
= c1
u+2
y
y 
x2 = c1 +2
x x
x2 y = c1 (y + 2x).

9. Letting y = ux we have
√
−ux dx + (x + u x)(u dx + x du) = 0
√
(x + x u ) du + xu3/2 dx = 0
2 2
 
−3/2 1 dx
u + du + =0
u x
−2u−1/2 + ln |u| + ln |x| = c

ln |y/x| + ln |x| = 2 x/y + c
y(ln |y| − c)2 = 4x.

16
 2.5 Solutions by Substitutions

12. Letting y = ux we have

(x2 + 2u2 x2 )dx − ux2 (u dx + x du) = 0
x2 (1 + u2 )dx − ux3 du = 0
dx u du
− =0
x 1 + u2
1
ln |x| − ln(1 + u2 ) = c
2
x2
= c1
1 + u2
x4 = c1 (x2 + y 2 ).
Using y(−1) = 1 we find c1 = 1/2. The solution of the initial-value problem is 2x4 = y 2 + x2 .
1 1 dw 3 3
15. From y  + y = y −2 and w = y 3 we obtain + w = . An integrating factor is x3 so that x3 w = x3 + c
x x dx x x
or y 3 = 1 + cx−3 .
   
 1 −1 dw 1
18. From y − 1 + 2
y = y and w = y we obtain + 1+ w = −1. An integrating factor is xex so that
x dx x
1 c
xex w = −xex + ex + c or y −1 = −1 + + e−x .
x x
2 3 dw 6 9
21. From y  − y = 2 y 4 and w = y −3 we obtain + w = − 2 . An integrating factor is x6 so that
x x dx x x
x6 w = − 95 x5 + c or y −3 = − 95 x−1 + cx−6 . If y(1) = 12 then c = 49
5 and y −3 = − 95 x−1 + 49
5 x
−6
.
du 1−u
24. Let u = x + y so that du/dx = 1 + dy/dx. Then −1 = or u du = dx. Thus 12 u2 = x + c or u2 = 2x + c1 ,
dx u
and (x + y)2 = 2x + c1 .
du √ 1 √
27. Let u = y − 2x + 3 so that du/dx = dy/dx − 2. Then + 2 = 2 + u or √ du = dx. Thus 2 u = x + c and
dx u
√
2 y − 2x + 3 = x + c.
du 2u 5u + 6 u+2
30. Let u = 3x + 2y so that du/dx = 3 + 2 dy/dx. Then =3+ = and du = dx. Now by
dx u+2 u+2 5u + 6
long division
u+2 1 4
= +
5u + 6 5 25u + 30
so we have  
1 4
+ du = dx
5 25u + 30
and 1
5u + 4
25 ln |25u + 30| = x + c. Thus
1 4
(3x + 2y) + ln |75x + 50y + 30| = x + c.
5 25
Setting x = −1 and y = −1 we obtain c = 4
25 ln 95. The solution is
1 4 4
(3x + 2y) + ln |75x + 50y + 30| = x + ln 95
5 25 25
or
5y − 5x + 2 ln |75x + 50y + 30| = 2 ln 95.

17
2.5 A
2.6 Solutions by Substitutions
Numerical Method

EXERCISES 2.6
A Numerical Method

3. Separating variables and integrating, we have

dy
= dx and ln |y| = x + c.
y

Thus y = c1 ex and, using y(0) = 1, we find c = 1, so y = ex is the solution of the initial-value problem.

h=0.1 h=0.05

xn yn Actual Abs . % Rel . xn yn Actual Abs . % Rel .

Value Error Error Value Error Error
0.00 1.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.00 0.00 1.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.00
0.10 1.1000 1.1052 0.0052 0.47 0.05 1.0500 1.0513 0.0013 0.12
0.20 1.2100 1.2214 0.0114 0.93 0.10 1.1025 1.1052 0.0027 0.24
0.30 1.3310 1.3499 0.0189 1.40 0.15 1.1576 1.1618 0.0042 0.36
0.40 1.4641 1.4918 0.0277 1.86 0.20 1.2155 1.2214 0.0059 0.48
0.50 1.6105 1.6487 0.0382 2.32 0.25 1.2763 1.2840 0.0077 0.60
0.60 1.7716 1.8221 0.0506 2.77 0.30 1.3401 1.3499 0.0098 0.72
0.70 1.9487 2.0138 0.0650 3.23 0.35 1.4071 1.4191 0.0120 0.84
0.80 2.1436 2.2255 0.0820 3.68 0.40 1.4775 1.4918 0.0144 0.96
0.90 2.3579 2.4596 0.1017 4.13 0.45 1.5513 1.5683 0.0170 1.08
1.00 2.5937 2.7183 0.1245 4.58 0.50 1.6289 1.6487 0.0198 1.20
0.55 1.7103 1.7333 0.0229 1.32
0.60 1.7959 1.8221 0.0263 1.44
0.65 1.8856 1.9155 0.0299 1.56
0.70 1.9799 2.0138 0.0338 1.68
0.75 2.0789 2.1170 0.0381 1.80
0.80 2.1829 2.2255 0.0427 1.92
0.85 2.2920 2.3396 0.0476 2.04
0.90 2.4066 2.4596 0.0530 2.15
0.95 2.5270 2.5857 0.0588 2.27
1.00 2.6533 2.7183 0.0650 2.39

6. h=0.1 h=0.05

xn yn xn yn
0.00 1.0000 0.00 1.0000
0.10 1.1000 0.05 1.0500
0.20 1.2220 0.10 1.1053
0.30 1.3753 0.15 1.1668
0.40 1.5735 0.20 1.2360
0.50 1.8371 0.25 1.3144
0.30 1.4039
0.35 1.5070
0.40 1.6267
0.45 1.7670
0.50 1.9332

18
 2.7 Linear Models

9. h=0.1 h=0.05
xn yn xn yn
1.00 1.0000 1.00 1.0000
1.10 1.0000 1.05 1.0000
1.20 1.0191 1.10 1.0049
1.30 1.0588 1.15 1.0147
1.40 1.1231 1.20 1.0298
1.50 1.2194 1.25 1.0506
1.30 1.0775
1.35 1.1115
1.40 1.1538
1.45 1.2057
1.50 1.2696

12. Tables of values were computed using the Euler and RK4 methods. The resulting points were plotted and joined
using ListPlot in Mathematica.
h=0.25 h=0.1 h=0.05
y y y
6 6 6
RK4 RK4 RK4
5 5 Euler 5 Euler
4 4 4
Euler
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
x x x
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

EXERCISES 2.7
Linear Models

3. Let P = P (t) be the population at time t. Then dP/dt = kP and P = cekt . From P (0) = c = 500
we see that P = 500ekt . Since 15% of 500 is 75, we have P (10) = 500e10k = 575. Solving for k, we get
1
k = 10 ln 575 1
500 = 10 ln 1.15. When t = 30,

P (30) = 500e(1/10)(ln 1.15)30 = 500e3 ln 1.15 = 760 years

and
1
P  (30) = kP (30) = (ln 1.15)760 = 10.62 persons/year.
10

6. Let A = A(t) be the amount present at time t. From dA/dt = kA and A(0) = 100 we obtain A = 100ekt . Using
A(6) = 97 we find k = 16 ln 0.97. Then A(24) = 100e(1/6)(ln 0.97)24 = 100(0.97)4 ≈ 88.5 mg.
9. Let I = I(t) be the intensity, t the thickness, and I(0) = I0 . If dI/dt = kI and I(3) = 0.25I0 , then I = I0 ekt ,
1
k= 3 ln 0.25, and I(15) = 0.00098I0 .
12. From Example 3 in the text, the amount of carbon present at time t is A(t) = A0 e−0.00012378t . Letting t = 660
and solving for A0 we have A(660) = A0 e−0.0001237(660) = 0.921553A0 . Thus, approximately 92% of the original
amount of C-14 remained in the cloth as of 1988.

19
2.7 Linear Models

15. Assume that dT /dt = k(T − 100) so that T = 100 + cekt . If T (0) = 20◦ and T (1) = 22◦ , then c = −80 and
k = ln(39/40) so that T (t) = 90◦ , which implies t = 82.1 seconds. If T (t) = 98◦ then t = 145.7 seconds.
18. (a) The initial temperature of the bath is Tm (0) = 60◦ , so in the short term the temperature of the chemical,
which starts at 80◦ , should decrease or cool. Over time, the temperature of the bath will increase toward
100◦ since e−0.1t decreases from 1 toward 0 as t increases from 0. Thus, in the long term, the temperature
of the chemical should increase or warm toward 100◦ .
(b) Adapting the model for Newton’s law of cooling, we have T
100
dT
= −0.1(T − 100 + 40e−0.1t ), T (0) = 80.
dt 90

Writing the differential equation in the form 80

dT
+ 0.1T = 10 − 4e−0.1t 70
dt
0.1 dt t
we see that it is linear with integrating factor e = e0.1t . 10 20 30 40 50

Thus
d 0.1t
[e T ] = 10e0.1t − 4
dt
e0.1t T = 100e0.1t − 4t + c
and
T (t) = 100 − 4te−0.1t + ce−0.1t .
Now T (0) = 80 so 100 + c = 80, c = −20 and

T (t) = 100 − 4te−0.1t − 20e−0.1t = 100 − (4t + 20)e−0.1t .

The thinner curve verifies the prediction of cooling followed by warming toward 100◦ . The wider curve
shows the temperature Tm of the liquid bath.
21. From dA/dt = 10 − A/100 we obtain A = 1000 + ce−t/100 . If A(0) = 0 then c = −1000 and A(t) =
1000 − 1000e−t/100 .
24. With cin (t) = 2 + sin(t/4) lb/gal, the initial-value problem is
dA 1 t
+ A = 6 + 3 sin , A(0) = 50.
dt 100 4

The differential equation is linear with integrating factor e dt/100 = et/100 , so

 
d t/100 t
[e A(t)] = 6 + 3 sin et/100
dt 4
150 t/100 t 3750 t/100 t
et/100 A(t) = 600et/100 + e sin − e cos + c,
313 4 313 4
and
150 t 3750 t
A(t) = 600 + sin − cos + ce−t/100 .
313 4 313 4
Letting t = 0 and A = 50 we have 600 − 3750/313 + c = 50 and c = −168400/313. Then
150 t 3750 t 168400 −t/100
A(t) = 600 + sin − cos − e .
313 4 313 4 313
The graphs on [0, 300] and [0, 600] below show the effect of the sine function in the input when compared with
the graph in Figure 2.38(a) in the text.

20
 2.7 Linear Models

A
t A
t
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
t t
50 100 150 200 250 300 100 200 300 400 500 600

27. Assume L di/dt + Ri = E(t), L = 0.1, R = 50, and E(t) = 50 so that i = 3

5 + ce−500t . If i(0) = 0 then c = −3/5
and limt→∞ i(t) = 3/5.
30. Assume R dq/dt + (1/C)q = E(t), R = 1000, C = 5 × 10−6 , and E(t) = 200. Then q = 1000 1
+ ce−200t and
−200t
i = −200ce . If i(0) = 0.4 then c = − 500 , q(0.005) = 0.003 coulombs, and i(0.005) = 0.1472 amps. We have
1

q → 1000 as t → ∞.
1

33. (a) From m dv/dt = mg − kv we obtain v = mg/k + ce−kt/m . If v(0) = v0 then c = v0 − mg/k and the solution
of the initial-value problem is
mg
mg  −kt/m
v(t) = + v0 − e .
k k
(b) As t → ∞ the limiting velocity is mg/k.
(c) From ds/dt = v and s(0) = 0 we obtain
mg m
mg  −kt/m m
mg 
s(t) = t− v0 − e + v0 − .
k k k k k
36. Assuming that the air resistance is proportional to velocity and the positive direction is downward with s(0) = 0,
the model for the velocity is m dv/dt = mg − kv. Using separation of variables to solve this differential
equation, we obtain v(t) = mg/k + ce−kt/m . Then, using v(0) = 0, we get v(t) = (mg/k)(1 − e−kt/m ).
Letting k = 0.5, m = (125 + 35)/32 = 5, and g = 32, we have v(t) = 320(1 − e−0.1t ). Integrating,
we find s(t) = 320t + 3200e−0.1t + c1 . Solving s(0) = 0 for c1 we find c1 = −3200, therefore s(t) =
320t + 3200e−0.1t − 3200. At t = 15, when the parachute opens, v(15) = 248.598 and s(15) = 2314.02.
At this time the value of k changes to k = 10 and the new initial velocity is v0 = 248.598. With the parachute
open, the skydiver’s velocity is vp (t) = mg/k + c2 e−kt/m , where t is reset to 0 when the parachute opens.
Letting m = 5, g = 32, and k = 10, this gives vp (t) = 16 + c2 e−2t . From v(0) = 248.598 we find c2 = 232.598,
so vp (t) = 16 + 232.598e−2t . Integrating, we get sp (t) = 16t − 116.299e−2t + c3 . Solving sp (0) = 0 for c3 ,
we find c3 = 116.299, so sp (t) = 16t − 116.299e−2t + 116.299. Twenty seconds after leaving the plane is five
seconds after the parachute opens. The skydiver’s velocity at this time is vp (5) = 16.0106 ft/s and she has
fallen a total of s(15) + sp (5) = 2314.02 + 196.294 = 2510.31 ft. Her terminal velocity is limt→∞ vp (t) = 16, so
she has very nearly reached her terminal velocity five seconds after the parachute opens. When the parachute
opens, the distance to the ground is 15,000 − s(15) = 15,000 − 2,314 = 12,686 ft. Solving sp (t) = 12,686 we
get t = 785.6 s = 13.1 min. Thus, it will take her approximately 13.1 minutes to reach the ground after her
parachute has opened and a total of (785.6 + 15)/60 = 13.34 minutes after she exits the plane.

39. (a) From dP/dt = (k1 − k2 )P we obtain P = P0 e(k1 −k2 )t where P0 = P (0).
(b) If k1 > k2 then P → ∞ as t → ∞. If k1 = k2 then P = P0 for every t. If k1 < k2 then P → 0 as t → ∞.

21
2.7 Nonlinear
2.8 Linear Models
Models

EXERCISES 2.8
Nonlinear Models

 
3. From dP/dt = P 10−1 − 10−7 P and P (0) = 5000 we obtain P = 500/(0.0005 + 0.0995e−0.1t ) so that
P → 1,000,000 as t → ∞. If P (t) = 500,000 then t = 52.9 months.

6. Solving P (5 − P ) − 25
4 = 0 for P we obtain the equilibrium solution P = 5
2 . For P = 5
2 , dP/dt < 0. Thus,
5
if P0 < , the population becomes extinct (otherwise there would be another equilibrium solution.) Using
2
separation of variables to solve the initial-value problem, we get

P (t) = [4P0 + (10P0 − 25)t]/[4 + (4P0 − 10)t].

5
To find when the population becomes extinct for P0 < 2 we solve P (t) = 0 for t. We see that the time of
extinction is t = 4P0 /5(5 − 2P0 ).

9. Let X = X(t) be the amount of C at time t and dX/dt = k(120 − 2X)(150 − X). If X(0) = 0 and X(5) = 10,
then
150 − 150e180kt
X(t) = ,
1 − 2.5e180kt

where k = .0001259 and X(20) = 29.3 grams. Now by L’Hôpital’s rule, X → 60 as t → ∞, so that the amount
of A → 0 and the amount of B → 30 as t → ∞.

12. To obtain the solution of this differential equation we use h(t) from Problem 13 in Exercises 1.3. Then
√
h(t) = (Aw H − 4cAh t)2 /A2w . Solving h(t) = 0 with c = 0.6 and the values from Problem 11 we see that
the tank empties in 3035.79 seconds or 50.6 minutes.

15. (a) After separating variables we obtain

m dv
= dt
mg − kv 2
1 dv
√
g 1 − ( k v/√mg )2
= dt
√ 
mg k/mg dv
√ √ √ = dt
k g 1 − ( k v/ mg )2
 √
m −1 kv
tanh √ =t+c
kg mg
√ 
−1 kv kg
tanh √ = t + c1 .
mg m

Thus the velocity at time t is

22
 2.8 Nonlinear Models

  
mg kg
v(t) = tanh t + c1 .
k m
√ √
Setting t = 0 and v = v0 we find c1 = tanh−1 ( k v0 / mg ).

(b) Since tanh t → 1 as t → ∞, we have v → mg/k as t → ∞.
(c) Integrating the expression for v(t) in part (a) we obtain an integral of the form du/u:
     
mg kg m kg
s(t) = tanh t + c1 dt = ln cosh t + c1 + c2 .
k m k m

Setting t = 0 and s = 0 we find c2 = −(m/k) ln(cosh c1 ), where c1 is given in part (a).

 
18. (a) Writing the equation in the form (x − x2 + y 2 )dx + y dy = 0 we identify M = x − x2 + y 2 and N = y.
Since M and N are both homogeneous functions of degree 1 we use the substitution y = ux. It follows that

 
x − x2 + u2 x2 dx + ux(u dx + x du) = 0

x 1 − 1 + u2 + u2 dx + x2 u du = 0
u du dx
− √ =
1+ − 1+u u2
2 x
u du dx
√ √ = .
1 + u2 (1 − 1 + u2 ) x
√ √
Letting w = 1 − 1 + u2 we have dw = −u du/ 1 + u2 so that

− ln 1 − 1 + u2 = ln |x| + c
1
√ = c1 x
1− 1 + u2
 c2
1 − 1 + u2 = − (−c2 = 1/c1 )
x

c2 y2
1+ = 1+ 2
x x
2c2 c2 y2
1+ + 22 = 1 + 2 .
x x x
Solving for y 2 we have
c 

2 c2 
y 2 = 2c2 x + c22 = 4 x+
2 2
which is a family of parabolas symmetric with respect to the x-axis with vertex at (−c2 /2, 0) and focus at
the origin.
(b) Let u = x2 + y 2 so that
du dy
= 2x + 2y .
dx dx
Then
dy 1 du
y = −x
dx 2 dx
and the differential equation can be written in the form
1 du √ 1 du √
− x = −x + u or = u.
2 dx 2 dx

23
2.8 Nonlinear Models

Separating variables and integrating gives

du
√ = dx
2 u
√
u=x+c
u = x2 + 2cx + c2
x2 + y 2 = x2 + 2cx + c2
y 2 = 2cx + c2 .

EXERCISES 2.9
Modeling with Systems of First-Order DEs

3. The amounts x and y are the same at about t = 5 days. The amounts x and z are the same at about t = 20
days. The amounts y and z are the same at about t = 147 days. The time when y and z are the same makes
sense because most of A and half of B are gone, so half of C should have been formed.
6. Let x1 , x2 , and x3 be the amounts of salt in tanks A, B, and C, respectively, so that
1 1 1 3
x1 = x2 · 2 − x1 · 6 = x2 − x1
100 100 50 50
1 1 1 1 3 7 1
x2 = x1 · 6 + x3 − x2 · 2 − x2 · 5 = x1 − x2 + x3
100 100 100 100 50 100 100
1 1 1 1 1
x3 = x2 · 5 − x3 − x3 · 4 = x2 − x3 .
100 100 100 20 20

9. Zooming in on the graph it can be seen that the populations are x,y
first equal at about t = 5.6. The approximate periods of x and y 10 x

are both 45. y

5

t
50 100

12. By Kirchhoff’s first law we have i1 = i2 + i3 . By Kirchhoff’s second law, on each loop we have E(t) = Li1 + R1 i2
and E(t) = Li1 + R2 i3 + q/C so that q = CR1 i2 − CR2 i3 . Then i3 = q  = CR1 i2 − CR2 i3 so that the system is

Li2 + Li3 + R1 i2 = E(t)

1
−R1 i2 + R2 i3 + i3 = 0.
C

15. We first note that s(t) + i(t) + r(t) = n. Now the rate of change of the number of susceptible persons, s(t),
is proportional to the number of contacts between the number of people infected and the number who are
susceptible; that is, ds/dt = −k1 si. We use −k1 < 0 because s(t) is decreasing. Next, the rate of change of

24
 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW EXERCISES

the number of persons who have recovered is proportional to the number infected; that is, dr/dt = k2 i where
k2 > 0 since r is increasing. Finally, to obtain di/dt we use
d d
(s + i + r) = n = 0.
dt dt
This gives
di dr ds
=− − = −k2 i + k1 si.
dt dt dt
The system of differential equations is then
ds
= −k1 si
dt
di
= −k2 i + k1 si
dt
dr
= k2 i.
dt
A reasonable set of initial conditions is i(0) = i0 , the number of infected people at time 0, s(0) = n − i0 , and
r(0) = 0.

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW EXERCISES

dy
3. = (y − 1)2 (y − 3)2
dx
6. Using a CAS we find that the zero of f occurs at approximately P = 1.3214. From the graph we observe that
dP/dt > 0 for P < 1.3214 and dP/dt < 0 for P > 1.3214, so P = 1.3214 is an asymptotically stable critical
point. Thus, limt→∞ P (t) = 1.3214.
9. Separating variables and using the identity cos2 x = 12 (1 + cos 2x), we have
y
cos2 x dx = dy,
y2 + 1
1 1 1  
x + sin 2x = ln y 2 + 1 + c,
2 4 2
and
 
2x + sin 2x = 2 ln y 2 + 1 + c.

12. Write the differential equation in the form (3y 2 + 2x)dx + (4y 2 + 6xy)dy = 0. Letting M = 3y 2 + 2x and
N = 4y 2 + 6xy we see that My = 6y = Nx , so the differential equation is exact. From fx = 3y 2 + 2x we obtain
f = 3xy 2 + x2 + h(y). Then fy = 6xy + h (y) = 4y 2 + 6xy and h (y) = 4y 2 so h(y) = 43 y 3 . A one-parameter
family of solutions is
4
3xy 2 + x2 + y 3 = c.
3
15. Write the equation in the form
dy 8x 2x
+ y= 2 .
dx x2 + 4 x +4

25
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW EXERCISES

 4
An integrating factor is x2 + 4 , so
d  2 4  3
x + 4 y = 2x x2 + 4
dx
 2 4 1 2 4
x +4 y = x +4 +c
4
and
1  −4
y= + c x2 + 4 .
4
18. Separating variables and integrating we have
dy
= −2(t + 1) dt
y2
1
− = −(t + 1)2 + c
y
1
y= , where −c = c1 .
(t + 1)2 + c1
The initial condition y(0) = − 18 implies c1 = −9, so a solution of the initial-value problem is
1 1
y= or y= ,
(t + 1)2 − 9 t2 + 2t − 8
where −4 < t < 2.
21. The graph of y1 (x) is the portion of the closed black curve lying in the fourth quadrant. Its interval of definition
is approximately (0.7, 4.3). The graph of y2 (x) is the portion of the left-hand black curve lying in the third
quadrant. Its interval of definition is (−∞, 0).
24. Let A = A(t) be the volume of CO2 at time t. From dA/dt = 1.2 − A/4 and A(0) = 16 ft3 we obtain
A = 4.8 + 11.2e−t/4 . Since A(10) = 5.7 ft3 , the concentration is 0.017%. As t → ∞ we have A → 4.8 ft3 or
0.06%.
27. (a) The differential equation
dT
= k(T − Tm ) = k[T − T2 − B(T1 − T )]
dt
 
BT1 + T2
= k[(1 + B)T − (BT1 + T2 )] = k(1 + B) T −
1+B
is autonomous and has the single critical point (BT1 + T2 )/(1 + B). Since k < 0 and B > 0, by phase-line
analysis it is found that the critical point is an attractor and
BT1 + T2
lim T (t) = .
t→∞ 1+B
Moreover,
 
BT1 + T2 BT1 + T2
lim Tm (t) = lim [T2 + B(T1 − T )] = T2 + B T1 − = .
t→∞ t→∞ 1+B 1+B

(b) The differential equation is

dT
= k(T − Tm ) = k(T − T2 − BT1 + BT )
dt
or
dT
− k(1 + B)T = −k(BT1 + T2 ).
dt

26
 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW EXERCISES

This is linear and has integrating factor e− k(1+B)dt

= e−k(1+B)t . Thus,
d −k(1+B)t
[e T ] = −k(BT1 + T2 )e−k(1+B)t
dt
BT1 + T2 −k(1+B)t
e−k(1+B)t T = e +c
1+B
BT1 + T2
T (t) = + cek(1+B)t .
1+B
Since k is negative, limt→∞ T (t) = (BT1 + T2 )/(1 + B).
(c) The temperature T (t) decreases to (BT1 + T2 )/(1 + B), whereas Tm (t) increases to (BT1 + T2 )/(1 + B) as
t → ∞. Thus, the temperature (BT1 + T2 )/(1 + B), (which is a weighted average,
B 1
T1 + T2 ,
1+B 1+B
of the two initial temperatures), can be interpreted as an equilibrium temperature. The body cannot get
cooler than this value whereas the medium cannot get hotter than this value.
  √ √
30. From y 1 + (y  )2 = k we obtain dx = ( y/ k − y )dy. If y = k sin2 θ then
 
1 1 k
dy = 2k sin θ cos θ dθ, dx = 2k − cos 2θ dθ, and x = kθ − sin 2θ + c.
2 2 2
If x = 0 when θ = 0 then c = 0.
33. In this case Aw = πh2 /4 and the differential equation is
dh 1
=− h−3/2 .
dt 7680
Separating variables and integrating, we have
1
h3/2 dh = − dt
7680
2 5/2 1
h =− t + c1 .
5 7680
√
Setting h(0) = 2 we find c1 = 8 2/5, so that
√
2 5/2 1 8 2
h =− t+ ,
5 7680 5
√ 1
h5/2 = 4 2 − t,
3072
and
 2/5
√ 1
h= 4 2− t .
3072
In this case h(4 hr) = h(14,400 s) = 11.8515 inches and h(5 hr) = h(18,000 s) is not a real number. Using a
CAS to solve h(t) = 0, we see that the tank runs dry at t ≈ 17,378 s ≈ 4.83 hr. Thus, this particular conical
water clock can only measure time intervals of less than 4.83 hours.
36. In tank A the salt input is
       
gal lb gal x2 lb 1 lb
7 2 + 1 = 14 + x2 .
min gal min 100 gal 100 min
The salt output is      
gal x1 lb gal x1 lb 2 lb
3 + 5 = x1 .
min 100 gal min 100 gal 25 min

27
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW EXERCISES

In tank B the salt input is   

gal x1 lb 1 lb
5 = x1 .
min 100 gal 20 min
The salt output is      
gal x2 lb gal x2 lb 1 lb
1 + 4 = x2 .
min 100 gal min 100 gal 20 min

The system of differential equations is then

dx1 1 2
= 14 + x2 − x1
dt 100 25
dx2 1 1
= x1 − x2 .
dt 20 20

28