Unit- I

Introduction to Information Retrieval Systems

1.1 Definition of Information Retrieval System
1.2 Objectives of Information Retrieval Systems
1.3 Functional Overview
1.4 Relationship to Database Management Systems
1.5 Digital Libraries and Data Warehouses
1.6 Information Retrieval Systems Capabilities
1.6.1 Querying
1.6.2 Browsing
1.6.3 Miscellaneous capabilities

1.1 Definition of Information Retrieval System:

 IRS stands for Information Retrieval Systems
 An IR System is a system capable of storage, retrieval, and
maintenance of information.
 An IRS System facilitates user in find the information that user need
Types of Searches in IRS:-
 Web Search
 Desktop Search
 Library search
Information: text, image, audio, video, and other multimedia objects Focus on textual
information here. An IR system facilitates a user in find the information the user needs.

• Item(Data):
The smallest complete textual unit processed and manipulated by an IR system
Depend on how a specific source treats information

• Success measure (Objectives of an IR System) :

Minimize the overhead for finding information

 Overhead:
The time a user spends in all of the steps leading to reading an item containing
needed information, excluding the time for actually reading the relevant data
• Query generation
• Search composition
• Search execution
• Scanning results of query to select items to read

 An Information Retrieval System consists of a software program that facilitates a

user in finding the information the user needs.
 The system may use standard computer hardware or specialized hardware to support
the search sub function and to convert non-textual sources to a searchable media
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  (e.g., transcription of audio to text).

Query Generation:
The user entering the keyword like Eg :Sachine Tendulkar, Best Restaurants,……..etc
It will be providing relevant information to the user
Search Composition:
If the given text or query, It will be available or not finding the user required
Information
Search Execution:
Automatically start Execution procedure for relevant Information
Scanning Results of Query for Reading Item:
The user Required Information starts scanning Results of Query, Required Information
Generated Infront of User’s Screen
 An Information Retrieval system consists of a software Program that facilitates a
user in the information the user needs
 The system may use standard computer hardware or specialized hardware to
support the search sub Function to convert Non-Textual sources to searchable
Media

1.2 Objectives of Information Retrieval Systems

The general objective of an IR system is ,

 To minimize the overhead of a user locating needed information

 The Main objective of an Information Retrieval system is to reduce the overhead of a

user locating required Information

 Over head is Expressed as the time a user spends in all of the steps leading to reading an item
containing the needed Information

 The success of an IRS is how well it can Minimize the user

 The overhead for a user to find the needed information

 Overhead from users Perspective is the time required to find the Information

 Thus, search Composition, Search Execution &reading Non-relevant Items are all aspects of IR
Overhead

Relevant Item:

In IRS the term “Relevant” Item is used to Represent an Item containing the needed Information

Ex: JPG, bmp

From a user Perspective “Relevant “&Needed

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 Measures Used:

The two major Measures commonly Associated with Information Systems are

 Precision
 Recall
Precision:
The ability to retrieve Top ranked Documents that are Mostly Relevant

Ex: Key Exactly Matched Ranked Work

Recall:

The ability of the search to find all of the relevant items

Ex: Search computer it will shows as hard Disk , Keyboard, Monitor

Precision: Number-Retrieved-Relevant
Number-Total-Retrieved

Recall: Number-Retrieved-Relevant
Number-Possible-Retrieved

Enter a Documents effect of search on Total Document Space

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  The two major measures commonly associated with information systems are
“precision”and “recall”
 Support of user search generation
 How to present the search results in a format that facilitate the user in determining
relevant items

The two major measures commonly associated with information systems are precision and recall.
When a user decides to issue a search looking for information on a topic, the total database is
logically divided into four segments shown in Figure 1.1. Relevant items are those documents
that contain information that helps the searcher in answering his question. Non-relevant items
are those
items that do not provide any directly useful information. There are two possibility
es with respect to each item: it can be retrieved or not retrieved by the user’s query. Precision
and recall are defined as:
Figure 1.1 Effects of Search on Total Document Space

Figure 1.1 Effects of Search on Total Document Space

Searching an Item:
For a search looking into an a Topic, the total Database is Logically divided 4 Segments
 Where Number_Possible_Relevant are the number of relevant items in the database.
 Number_Total_Retieved is the total number of items retrieved from the query.
 Number_Retrieved_Relevant is the number of items retrieved that are relevant
to the user’s search need.

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 Precision Measures one Aspect of Information retrieved overhead for a user Associated with a
particular Search

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Two More Objectives of IR Systems :

• Support of user search generation How to specify the information a user needs
• Language ambiguities – “field”
• Vocabulary corpus of a user and item authors Must assist users automatically and
through interaction in developing a search specification that represents the need of users
and the writing style of diverse authors
• How to present the search results in a format that facilitate the user in determining
relevant items ,
A) Ranking in order of potential relevance
B) Item clustering and link analysis.

1.3 Functional Overview:

A total Information Storage and Retrieval System is composed of four major functional
processes:

 Item normalization,
 Selective dissemination of information (i.e., “mail”),
 Archival document database search, and
 An index database search along with the
 Automatic file build process that supports index files.

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 Figure 1.4 Total Information Retrieval System

Figure 1.5 The Text Normalization Process

1.3.1 Item Normalization:

• Normalize incoming items to a standard format
Language encoding
Different file formats…
• Logical restructuring – zoning
• Create a searchable data structure (Indexing)
Identification of processing tokens
Characterization of the tokens – single words, or phrase
Stemming of the tokens

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 Standardize Input:

• Standardizing the input takes the different external format of input data and performs the
translation to the formats acceptable to the system.
• Translate foreign language into Unicode Allow a single browser to display the languages
and
potentially a single search system to search them
• Translate multi-media input into a standard format
Video: MPEG-2, MPEG-1, AVI, Real Video…
Audio: WAV, Real Audio
Image: GIF, JPEG, BMP…

Logical Subsetting (Zoning) :

• Parse the item into logical sub-divisions that have meaning to user Title, Author,
Abstract, Main Text, Conclusion, References, Country, Keyword…
• Visible to the user and used to increase the precision of a search and optimize the display
The zoning information is passed to the processing token identification operation to store
the information, allowing searches to be restricted to a specific zone display the minimum
data required from each item to allow determination of the possible relevance of that item
(Display zones such as Title, Abstract…)

Identify Processing Tokens :

• Identify the information that are used in the search process – Processing Tokens (Better
than Words)
• The first step is to determine a word
Dividing input symbols into three classes
• Valid word symbols: alphabetic characters, numbers
• Inter-word symbols: blanks, periods, semicolons (non-searchable)
• Special processing symbols: hyphen (-)
A word is defined as a contiguous set of word symbols bounded by inter-word
symbols.

Stop Algorithm:

• Save system resources by eliminating from the set of searchable processing tokens those
have little value to the search Whose frequency and/or semantic use make them of no use
as searchable token
• Any word found in almost every item
• Any word only found once or twice in the database
Frequency * Rank = Constant
Stop algorithm v.s. Stop list

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 Characterize Tokens :

• Identify any specific word characteristics Word sense disambiguation Part of speech
tagging
Uppercase – proper names, acronyms, and organization Numbers and dates

Stemming Algorithm :

 Normalize the token to a standard semantic representation Computer, Compute,

Computers, Computing
• Comput
 Reduce the number of unique words the system has to contain
ex: “computable”, “computation”, “computability”
• small database saves 32 percent of storages
• larger database : 1.6 MB 20 % 50 MB 13.5%
 Improve the efficiency of the IR System and to improve
recall -> Decline precision

Create Searchable Data Structure:

 Processing tokens -> Stemming Algorithm -> update to the

Searchable data structure
 Internal representation (not visible to user)
Signature file, Inverted list, PAT Tree…
 Contains
Semantic concepts represent the items in database
Limit what a user can find as a result of the search

Functional Overview – Selective Dissemination of Information :

 Provides the capability to dynamically compare newly received items in the

information system against standing statements of interest of users and deliver the
item to those users whose statement of interest matches the contents of the items
 Consist of ,
Search process
User statements of interest (Profile)
User mail file
 A profile contains a typically broad search statement along with a list of user mail
files that will receive the document if the search statement in the profile is satisfied
As each item is received, it is processed against every user’s profile When the
search statement is satisfied, the item is placed in the mail file(s) associated with
the process User search profiles are different than ad hoc queries in that they
contain significant more search terms and cover a wider range of interests .

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 Document Database Search :

 Provides the capability for a query to search against all items received by the
system
Composed of the search process, user entered queries and document database.
 Document database contains all items that have been received, processed and store
by the system. Usually items in the Document DB do not change May be
partitioned by time and allow for archiving by the Time partitions.
 Queries differ from profiles in that they are typically short and focused on a
specific area of interest .

Index Database Search:

 When an item is determined to be of interest, a user may want to save it (file it) for
future reference Accomplished via the index process.
 In the index process, the user can logically store an item in a file along with
additional index terms and descriptive text the user wants to associate with the
item. An index can reference the original item, or contain substantive information
on the original item Similar to card catalog in a library.
 The Index Database Search Process provides the capability to create indexes and
search them
 The user may search the index and retrieve the index and/or the document it
references
 The system also provides the capability to search the index and then search the
items referenced by the index records that satisfied the index portion of the query
Combined file search
 In an ideal system the index record could reference portions of items versus the
total item
 Two classes of index files: public and private index files Every user can have one
or more private index files leading to a very large number of files, and each private
index file references only a small subset of the total number of items in the
Document database Public index files are maintained by professional library
services personnel and typically index every item in the Document database
 The capability to create private and public index files is frequently implemented
via a structured Database Management System (RDBMS)
 To assist the users in generating indexes, the system provides a process called
Automatic File Build (Information Extraction)
Process selected incoming documents and automatically determines
potential indexing for the item
• Authors, date of publication, source, and references
The rules that govern which documents are processed for extraction of index
information and the index term extraction process are stored in Automatic File Build
Profiles. When an item is processed it results in creation of Candidate Index Records ->
for review and edit by a user
Prior to actual update of an index file.

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 1.4 Relationship to Database Management Systems :

There are two major categories of systems available to process items:

Information Retrieval Systems and Data Base Management Systems (DBMS).

1. An Information Retrieval System is software that has the features and functions
required to
manipulate “information” items versus a DBMS that is optimized to handle “structured”
data.

2. Structured data is well defined data (facts) typically represented by tables. There is a
semantic description associated with each attribute within a table that well defines that
attribute. For example, there is no confusion between the meaning of “employee name” or
“employee salary” and what values to enter in a specific database record. On the other
hand, if two different people generate an
abstract for the same item, they can be different. One abstract may generally discuss the
most important topic in an item. Another abstract, using a different vocabulary, may
specify the details of many topics. It is this diversity and ambiguity of language.
3. With structured data a user enters a specific request and the results returned provide the
user with the desired information. The results are frequently tabulated and presented in a
report format for ease of use. In contrast, a search of “information” items has a high
probability of not finding all the items a user is looking for. The user has to refine his
search to locate additional items of interest. This process is called “iterative search.

4. From a practical standpoint, the integration of DBMS’s and Information Retrieval

Systems is very important. Commercial database companies have already integrated the
two types of systems. One of the first commercial databases to integrate the two systems
into a single view is the INQUIRE DBMS.

1.5 Digital Libraries and Data Warehouses :

Two other systems frequently described in the context of information retrieval are,

 Digital Libraries and

 Data Warehouses

There is a significant overlap between these two systems and an Information

Storage and
Retrieval System.
All these systems are repositories of information and their primary goal is to
“satisfy user information needs”
Digital Library:
A Digital Library enables users to Interact effectively with Information
distributed across a network
These network Information systems support search &Display of Items from organized
collections

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  As such, libraries have always been concerned with storing and retrieving
information in the media it is created on. 
 As the quantities of information grew exponentially, libraries were forced to
make maximum use of electronic tools to facilitate the storage and retrieval
process. With the worldwide Internet of libraries and information sources (e.g.,
publishers, news agencies,….etc)via Internet, more focus has been on the
concept of an electric library 
List of Softwares For Digital Libraries

 KOHA
 BIBLIOTEQ
 PMP

 Indexing is one of the critical disciplines in library science and significant effort has gone into the
Establishment of Indexing and cataloging Standards
 Migration of many of the library products to a digital format Introduces both opportunities
and challenges the full text of items available for search makes the index process
 Another important library service is a source of search Intermediaries to assist users in finding
Information

Information storage and Retrieval Technology has addressed a small subset of the issue associated with
Digital Libraries the focus has been on the search and retrieval of Textual data with no concern for
establishing standards on the contents of the system.

DATAWAREHOUSES:

A Data warehouse is a type of Data Management System that is designed to enable and support
Business Intelligence Activities, Especially Analytices, Data warehouses are solely Intended to perform
queries and Analysis and often contain Large amounts of Historical Data.
List of Softwares For DATAWAREHOUSES

 Amazon Red shift

 Microsoft Azure
 Google Big query
 Snowflake
 A Data warehouse is Relational Database that is designed for query and analysis rather than
transaction processing It includes historical data derived from transaction data from single &Multiple
sources

 A Data warehouse is a group of Data specific to the entire organization, not only to particular group of
users

 It is not used for daily operations and transaction processing but used for making decisions.

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1.6 Information Retrieval Systems Capabilities :

The capabilities in the information retrieval systems are,

 Querying
 Browsing
 Miscellaneous capabilities

1.6.1 Querying:

Communicate a description of the needed information to the system.

Main paradigms:
 Query term sets
 Query terms connected with Boolean operations
 Weighted terms
 Relaxation or restriction of term matching
 Term expansion
 Natural language

Query Term Sets :

Describe the information needed by specifying a set

of query terms.
 System retrieves all documents that contain at least one
 of the query terms.
 Documents are ranked by the number of terms they
 include :

o Documents containing all query terms appear first

o Documents containing all query terms but one appear second

o Documents containing only one query term appear last

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 Boolean Queries :

Describe the information needed by relating multiple

terms with Boolean operators.
 Operators : AND, OR, NOT (sometimes XOR).
 Corresponding set operations : intersection, union, difference.
Operate on the sets of documents that contain the query terms.
 Precedence : NOT, AND, OR; use parentheses to override; process
left-to- right among operators with same precedence.

Example: This example uses standard operator precedence

(Note: the combination AND NOT is usually abbreviated NOT)

COMPUTER OR SEVER AND NOT MAINFRAME

Select all documents that discuss computers, or documents that discuss servers
that do not discuss mainframes.

OR SERVER) AND NOT MAINFRAME

Select all documents that discuss computers or servers, do not select any
documents that discuss mainframes.

COMPUTER AND NOT (SERVER OR MAINFRAME)

Select all documents that discuss computers, and do not discuss either servers
or mainframes.
Weighting:
A Weight is associated with each term
Weighted Term:
Term weighting is a procedure that takes place during the text indexing
process in order to assess the value of each term to the document, Term
weighting is the assignment of numerical values to terms that represent their
importance in a document in order to improve retrieval effectiveness

Natural Language :

Natural language, understood as a tool that people use to express themselves, has specific properties that
reduce the efficacy of textual information retrieval systems. These properties are linguistic variation and
ambiguity. By linguistic variation we mean the possibility of using different words or expressions to
communicate the same idea. Linguistic ambiguity is when a word or phrase allows for more than one
interpretation.

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 1.6.2 Browsing :

Browsing can be defined as an interactive search activity in which the direction of the search is
determined by the user on the basis of immediate feedback from the system being browsed. Most users of most
information retrieval systems exhibit browsing behavior no matter what the underlying system structure.

Determine the retrieved documents that are of interest

 The query phase ends, and the browse phase begins, with a summary
display of the result. Summary displays use either
• Line item status
• Data visualization
 Powerful browsing capabilities are particularly
important when precision is low.

1.6.3 Miscellaneous Capabilities:

 Vocabulary browse
 Vocabulary browse provides the capability to display in
Alphabetical sorted order words from the document Database
 Logically all unique words (Processing Tokens)in the
Database are kept in sorted order along with the count of the
number of unique items in which the word is found
 It makes the search Procedure Easier
 It corrects entered the word “computen” when they really
Meant”computer”
 Iterative search(query refinement)
 The result of a previous search is subjected to a new query
 Same as repeating the previous query with additional conditions.
 Canned(stored) queries
 Users tend to reuse previous queries
 Allows users to store previously-used queries and incorporate
 Canned queries tend to be large.

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 Information Retrieval Systems
UNIT-2
CATALOGING AND INDEXING
CATALOGING:
It is also a Systematic arrangement of Items in an Alphabetical or other logical order
Including brief Description
 A Catalogue is the record of the collection in the Library
 A library Catalogue is a list of books and other reading material available in a
particular Library
 The card Catalogue has been a familiar sight to Library users for generations
But, it has been effectively replaced by the online public Access catalog
TYPES OF CATALOGUES:
 Author Catalogues
 Title Catalogues
 Author/Title Catalogues
 Subject Catalogues
Author Catalogues:
The Author Catalogues contain entires with Author names as the heading, Authors may be
persons or Corporate bodies and the term Author is normally extended to Included writers,
Illustrators ,performers ,producers, translators, &others with some Intellectual or Artistic
responsibility for a Work
Eg: Vikas publishing pvt ltd, SIA Publications

Title Catalogues:
The Title Catalogue has entries with title as the heading some libraries and Information centers
make title entries for all items being Indexed, but in other situations title entries are made
selectively for only one Material

Author/Title Catalogues:
The Author/Title Catalogues contain both title and author Entries As both titles and Authors
names are in Alphabetical order,It is Easy to file together Authors Names and Titles as headings
Subject Catalogues:
Subject Catalogues have an Indication of the Subject of the Documents being Indexed as their
headings, The Entries are arranged in an appropriate System order
EX:
Car, Lawyers, These entries are arranged Alphabetically according to the subject heading

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 INDEXING:
Indexing is an Important process in Information Retrieval Systems
It forms the core Functionality of the IR Process Since, It is the first step in IR and assists
in efficient Information Retrieval ,Indexing reduces the documents to the Informative
terms contained in them
The transformation from received item to searchable data structure is called indexing.
• Process can be manual or automatic.
• Creating a direct search in document data base or indirect search through indexfiles.
• Concept based representation: instead of transforming the input into a searchable format
some systems transform the input into different representation that is concept based
.Search ? Search and return item as per the incoming items.
History of indexing:
It shows the dependency of information processing capabilities on manual and then
automatic processing systems .
• Indexing originally called cataloging : oldest technique to identity the contents of items to
assist in retrieval.
• One of the technique as similar as cataloging &Indexing ,the technique as both are
Systematic Arrangement of items in an Alphabetical
• Items overlap between full item indexing , public and private indexing of files
Objectives of Indexing :
The public file indexer needs to consider the information needs of all users of library
system . Items overlap between full item indexing , public and private indexing of files
• Users may use public index files as part of search criteria to increase recall.

• They can constrain there search by private index files

• The primary objective of representing the concepts within an item to facilitate users
finding relevant information.
• Users may use public index files as part of search criteria to increase recall.

• They can constrain there search by private index files

• The primary objective of representing the concepts within an item to facilitate users
finding relevant information.

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Fig:
• 1.Decided the scope of indexing and the level of detail to be provided. Based on usage
scenario of users.
• 2. Second decision is to link index terms together in a single index for a particular concept.

Indexing process:
Indexing Process is the collecting, Parsing, &Storing of data to facilitate fast and accurate
Information retrieval Index Design incorporates Interdisciplinary Concepts from Linguistics,
Cognitive Psychology, Mathematics, Informatics &Computer Science

TEXT PROCESSING

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 Text process phases
1. Document Parsing: Documents come in all sorts of languages, character sets, and
formats; often, the same document may contain multiple languages or formats, e.g., a
French email with Portuguese PDF attachments. Document parsing deals with the
recognition and “breaking down” of the document structure into individual components.
In this pre processing phase, unit documents are created; e.g., emails with attachments are
split into one document representing the email and as many documents as there are
attachments.
2. Lexical Analysis: After parsing, lexical analysis tokenizes a document, seen as an
input stream, into words. Issues related to lexical analysis include the correct
identification of accents, abbreviations, dates, and cases. The difficulty of this operation
depends much on the language at hand: for example, the English language has neither
diacritics nor cases, French has diacritics but no cases, German has both diacritics and
cases. The recognition of abbreviations and, in particular, of time expressions would
deserve a separate chapter due to its complexity and the extensive literature in the field
For current approaches
3. Stop-Word Removal: A subsequent step optionally applied to the results of lexical
analysis is stop-word removal, i.e., the removal of high-frequency words. For example,
given the sentence “search engines are the most visible information retrieval applications”
and a classic stop words set such as the one adopted by the Snowball stemmer,1 the effect
of stop-word removal would be: “search engine most visible information retrieval
applications”.
4. Phrase Detection: This step captures text meaning beyond what is possible with pure
bag- of-word approaches, thanks to the identification of noun groups and other phrases.
Phrase detection may be approached in several ways, including rules (e.g., retaining terms
that are not separated by punctuation marks), morphological analysis , syntactic analysis,
and combinations thereof. For example, scanning our example sentence “search engines
are the most visible information retrieval applications” for noun phrases would probably
result in identifying “search engines” and “information retrieval”.
5. Stemming and Lemmatization: Following phrase extraction, stemming and
lemmatization aim at stripping down word suffixes in order to normalize the word.
Stemming as Removing words ending , In particular stemming is a heuristic process that
“chops off” the ends of words in the hope of achieving the goal correctly most of the time;
a classic rule based algorithm for this was devised by Porter ,

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 According to the Porter stemmer, our example sentence “Search engines are the most
visible information retrieval applications” would result in: “Search engine are the most
visible inform retrieval application”.
• Lemmatization is a process that typically uses dictionaries and morphological analysis of
words in order to return the base or dictionary form of a word, thereby collapsing its
inflectional forms (see, e.g., [278]). For example, our sentence would result in “Search
engine are the most visible information retrieval application” when lemmatized according
to a WordNet-based lemmatizer
6. Weighting: The final phase of text pre processing deals with term weighting. As
previously mentioned, words in a text have different descriptive power; hence, index
terms can be weighted differently to account for their significance within a document
and/or a document collection. Such a weighting can be binary, e.g., assigning 0 for term
absence and 1 for presence.

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SCOPE OF INDEXING
• When perform the indexing manually, problems arise from two sources the author and the
indexer the author and the indexer.
• Vocabulary domain may be different the author and the indexer.
• This results in different quality levels of indexing.
• The indexer must determine when to stop the indexing process.
• Two factors to decide on level to index the concept in a item.
• The exhaustively and how specific indexing is desired.
• Exhaustively of index is the extent to which the different concepts in the item are indexed.
• For example, if two sentences of a 10-page item on microprocessors discusses on-board
caches, should this concept be indexed
• Specific relates to preciseness of index terms used in indexing.
• For example, whether the term “processor” or the term “microcomputer” or the term
“Pentium” should be used in the index of an item is based upon the specificity decision.
• Indexing an item only on the most important concept in it and using general index terms
yields low exhaustively and specificity.
• Another decision on indexing is what portion of an item to be indexed Simplest case is to
limit the indexing to title and abstract(conceptual ) zone .
• General indexing leads to loss of precision and recall. PREORDINATION AND
LINKAGES
• Another decision on linkages process whether linkages are available between index terms
for an item.
• Used to correlate attributes associated with concepts discussed in an item. this process is
called preordination.
• When index terms are not coordinated at index time the coordination occurs at search
time. This is called post co-ordination , implementing by “AND” ing index terms.
• Factors that must be determined in linkage process are the number of terms that can be
related.
• Ex., an item discusses ‘the drilling of oil wells in Mexico by CITGO and the introduction
of oil refineries in Peru by the U.S.’

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 AUTOMATIC INDEXING
Automatic Indexing is the computerized process of Scanning Large volumes of Documents
against a controlled Vocabulary,Taxonomy or Ontology and using those controlled terms to
quickly and effectively Index large Electronic Document depositories
• Case Total document indexing.
• Automatic Indexing requires few seconds based on the processor and complexity of
algorithms to generate indexes.’

• Index resulting form automated indexing fall into two classes , weighted and un weighted.
• Weighted indexing system: a attempt is made to place a value on the index term
associated with concept in the document. Based on the frequency of occurrence of the
term in the item.

• Un weighted indexing system : the existence of an index term in a document and some
times its word location are kept as part of searchable data structure.
• Values are normalized between 0 and1.
• The results are presented to the user in order of rank value from highest number to lowest
number.
Indexing By term
• Terms (vocabulary) of the original item are used as basis of index process.
• There are two major techniques for creation of index statistical and natural language.
• Statistical can be based upon vector models and probabilistic models with a special case
being Bayesian model(accounting for uncertainty inherent in the model selection process).
• Called statistical because their calculation of weights use information such as frequency of
occurrence of words.
• Natural language also use some statistical information, but perform more complex
parsing to define the final set of index concept.
• Other weighted systems discussed as vectorised Information system.
• The system emphasizes weights as a foundation for information detection and stores these
weights in a vector form.
• Each vector represents a document. And each position in a vector represent a unique
word(processing token) in a database..
• The value assigned to each position is the weight of that term in the document.
• 0 indicates that the word was not in the document.
• Search is accomplished by calculating the distance between the query vector and

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 document vector.
• Bayesian approach: based on evidence reasoning( drawing conclusion from evidence)
• Could be applied as part of index term weighing. But usually applied as part of retrieval
process by calculating the relationship between an item and specific query.
• Graphic representation each node represents a random variable arch between the nodes
represent a probabilistic dependencies between the node and its parents.
• Two level Bayesian network
• “ c”“ represents concept in a query
• “f” representing concepts in an item

• Another approach is natural language processing.

• DR-LINK( document retrieval through linguistics knowledge)
• Indexing by concept
• Concept indexing determines a canonical set of concept based upon a test set of terms and
uses them as base for indexing all items. Called latent semantics indexing.

• Uses neural NW strength of the system word relationship (synonyms) and uses the
information in generating context vectors.
• Two neural networks are used one to generated stem context vectors and another one to
perform query.
• Interpretation is same as the weights.
• Multimedia indexing:
• Indexing video or images can be accomplished at raw data level.

8
 INFORMATION EXTRACTION
There are two processes associated with information extraction:
• 1.determination of facts to go into structured fields in a database and
• 2. Extraction of text that can be used to summarize an item.
• The process of extracting facts to go into indexes is called Automatic File Build.
• In establishing metrics to compare information extraction, precision and recall are applied
with slight modifications.

• Recall refers to how much information was extracted from an item versus how much
should have been extracted from theitem.
• It shows the amount of correct and relevant data extracted versus the correct and relevant
data in the item.
• Precision refers to how much information was extracted accurately versus the total
information extracted.
• Additional metrics used are over generation and fallout.
• Over generation measures the amount of irrelevant information that is extracted.
• This could be caused by templates filled on topics that are not intended to be extracted or
slots that get filled with non-relevant data.
• Fallout measures how much a system assigns incorrect slot fillers as the number of
• These measures are applicable to both human and automated extraction processes.
• Another related information technology is document summarization.
• Rather than trying to determine specific facts, the goal of document summarization is to
extract a summary of an item maintaining the most important ideas while significantly
reducing the size.
• Examples of summaries that are often part of any item are titles, table of contents, and
abstracts with the abstract being the closest.
• The abstract can be used to represent the item for search purposes or as a way for a user to
determine the utility of an item without having to read the complete item.

9
 DATA STRUCTURES
• Introduction to DataStructures
• StemmingAlgorithms
• Inverted FileStructure
• N-Gram DataStructure
• PAT DataStructure
• Signature FileStructure
• Hypertext and XML DataStructures

Introduction to Data Structures:

A Data structure is a specialized format for organizing processing, retrieving& storing data

• The knowledge of data structure gives an insight into the capabilities available to the
system.
• Each data structure has a set of associated capabilities.
1. Ability to represent the concepts
2. Supports location of those concepts Introduction

• Two major data structures in anyIRS:

1. One structure stores and manages received items in their normalized form is called
document manger
2. The other data structure contains processing tokens and associated data to
support search.

10
Item Normalization:
The Item normalization is the Incoming items to a standard format whatever user is searching a
Item ,It is not exactly user keyword converts into system understandable format

Document File Creation:

A Document file format is a text or binary file format for storing documents on a storage media
especially for use by computers

Document Manager:
A Document Manager is a system used to receive, track manage and store Documents and reduce
paper, Most of capable of keeping a record of the various versions created and modified by
different users , In the case of management of Digital documents such systems are based on
computer programs.

Document Search Manager:

The searching for Information in a document searching for documents themselves and also
searching for the meta data that describes data &for databases of text images or sounds.

Processing Tokens:

Identify the information that are used in the search process-processing tokens

Divide Input symbols into three classes

Valid word symbols : Alphabets, Numbers &special characters

Inter word Symbols: Blanks,Semi-colons(Non-searchable)

Special Processingsymbols:-Hyphen(-)

11
 Item
normalization

Document
File creation

Document
Document
manager
Search manager

Original Major data Processing

document file
structure token

Result of a search are references to the items that satisfy the search statement which are
passed to the document manager for retrieval.
Focus : on data structure that support search function
STEMMING ALGORITHMS:
Stemming is nothing but cutting &trimming
The concept of stemming is introduced in the 1960’s
The main goal of stemming was to Improve performance and require less system
resources by reducing the number of unique words that a system has to contain
The stemming algorithms are used to improve the efficiency of the information system
&to Improve recall
 Reduce precision
 Increase Recall
 Reduce diversity
 Increase search efficiency
 Conflation

12
 Stemming variations:
 Table lookup stemming
 Poster stemming
 Dictionary stemming(K-Stemming)
 Successor stemming
Table lookup stemming:
Uses Large Data structures
Ex: Retrieval ware
 K-Stemming Example INQUERY
 Combine rules+ dictionary words
 Iterative Nature
 Removes large prefixes&suffixes
Poster stemming Algorithm:
The poster stemming Algorithm is based up on a set of conditions of the stem, suffix
&prefix and associated actions given the condition
Conditions are
The measure M of stem is a function of sequences of Vowels(A,E,I,O,U,Y)followed by a
consonant
 If V is a sequence of vowels and C is a sequence of consonants, then M is: the
number
 Where the initial C and final V are optional and M is the Number
C(VC)M V
 *<X>stem ends with a letter
 *V* stem contains Vowel
 *d stem ends with double consonant
 Uses wild chord characters
Dictionary Stemming:
 Also called K-Stemming
 Dictionary based
 Used in Inquery called In query K-Stems
 Avoid collapsing word with different meanings

13
 Uses NLP Dictionaries
 Example British->Britan
 Extract meaning of words only it finds
Uses 6 major Data files
1. Dictionary of words
2. Supplement of words
3. Exceptions list of those words that should retain an “e” at the
end(Eg:”Suites”to”suite”but “suited” to “suit”)
 Direct-conflation-allows definition of direct conflation via word pairs that
override the stemming algorithm
 Country-Nationality-conflationsbetween Nationalities &countries(“British”
maps to “Britian”)
 Proper nouns-list of proper nouns that should not be stemmed
Successor Stemming:
 It contains symbol tree for words
 Constructs symbol tree based on words
 Represents both prefix &suffix
 It Implements 3 methods
 Cut off
 Peak& plateau
 Complete word

14
Symbol tree for terms bag, barn, bring, box, bottle

Conclusion Stemming:
 Good efficient
 Depends on nature of vocabulary
 Stemming is as effective as Manual conflation
 Stemming can affect retrieval(recall)and where effects were Identified
 They were positive
 It has a potential to increase recall. STEMMING ALGORITHMS

 Stemming algorithm is used to improve the efficiency of IRS and improve

recall.

Inverted File Structure

The most common Data structure used in both Database Management and
information Retrieval Systems is the Inverted File Structure
 Inverted File Structures are composed of three basic files
 Document file
 Dictionary
 Inversion Lists

15
Features of Inverted File:
 Increases Precision
 Zoning used
 Ranking also used
 Used to store concepts &relationships
 NLP Used(Natural Language Processing)

Increases Precision:
The ability to retrieve Top ranked Documents that are Mostly relevant ,the scope has
been increasing for Priority
Zoning used:
It is logical sub setting Information has to store specific zone
Ranking also used:
The public will be giving ranking based on particular file, Document, PDF,
WORD…..etc
Store concepts &relationships:
It is maintaining as relationships between Database management system and Information
retrieval systems
Natural Language Processing:
Natural Language processing as based on public emotions &views like Happy, sad.

16
17
 Inversion lists structures are used because they provide optimum performance in
searching large Databases
 Inversion list file structures as well suited to store concepts &their relationships

18
 N-Gram Data Structures

N-Gram Data Structures:

 N-gram is a one of the Data structure

 N-grams can be viewed as a special Technique for conflation (stemming) and as a Unique
 It has been logical mapping for searching of searchable Items
 N-grams are fixed length consecutive series of “n” characters
Specializations:
 Special Data structure
 Ignore words(Ignore words &sentences)
 Input as continuous Data
 Logical Linkages
 N-gram=N-Length
 Trigram=3 Letters

Special Data structure:

It is one of the Data structure

Ignore words:
It is ignores a words &sentences Repeating a words once or twice

Input as continuous Data:

The data has to flow sequence manner &systematic order

N-gram:
It is Indicating as N-gram is equal to N-Length of characters

Trigram:
It is Indicating as trigram is equal to 3 letters of characters

It was Implemented a formula

MAX Segn =(λ)n

19
 Inversion Lists Document vectors are used
 Here Maximum number of n-grams used of Unique
 Retail trigrams are Ret, eta, tai etc
 Disadvantages is Longer N-grams results poor result
 N-gram characters strength is vey poor
Example:
 Se ea Col ol lo on ny
 Sea col olo lon ony
 #sea # #colo colon olony long#
 Inter words means symbols like non searchable
 Bigrams =2(no Inter word symbols)
 Trigrams=3(it will acceptable as Inter word symbols &No Inter word symbols)
Advantages:
 The first use of N-Grams dates to world war-II, when it was used by
Cryptographers
 Another Major use of N-Grams in particular trigrams is in spelling error
Detection &corrections
 Frequency of occurrence of N gram pattern also can be used for
Identifying the language of an Item
 Because of the processing token bounds of N-gram data structures,
optimized performance techniques can be applied in mapping items to an
N-gram searchable structure & in query processing
 There is no semantic meaning in a particular n-gram since It is a fragment
of processing token and may not represent a concept
 Thus n-grams are a poor representation of concepts &their relationships

20
 PAT data structure:
PAT is one of the Data structure, Practical algorithm to retrieve Information coded in
alpha numeric, PAT tree is a data structure that allows very efficient searching with
processing
 PAT structure or PAT tree or PAT array : continuous text input data structures(string like
N- Gram datastructure).
 The input stream is transformed into a searchable data structure consisting of substrings,
all substrings are unique.
 Each position in a input string is a anchor point for a substring.
 Using n-grams with inter word symbols included between valid processing tokens
equates to continous text Input Data structure that is being Indexed in contiguous
“n”characters Tokens
 Different view of Addressing a continous Text
 Input data structure comes from PAT Trees &PAT Arrays
 The Input stream is transformed into a searchable Data structure consisting of substrings
 In creation of PAT Trees each position in the Input string is the anchor point for a sub-
string that starts at that point and Include all new text up to the end of the Input
 All substrings are unique
 This view of text lends itself to many different search processing structures
 Substring can start at any point in the text and can be uniquely by its starting location
&length
 A PAT Tree is unbalanced, binary digital tree defined by the Sistrings
 The individual bits of the Sistring decide the branching patterns with zero branching left
and one branching right
 PAT Trees also allow each node in the tree to specify which bit is used to determine the
branching via bit position
 We have to eliminate Sistring a text wherever we want position of Text
 Text
 Economics for Warsaw is Complex
 Sistring=1
 Conomics for Warsaw is Complex
 Sistring =2

21
 Onomics for Warsaw is Complex
 Sistring=4
 Omics for Warsaw is Complex
 :
 :
 :
 :
 Sistring=9
 For Warsaw is Complex
 :
 :
 :
 :
 :
 :
 Sistring=25
 Ex

 In creation of PAT trees each position in the input string is the anchor point for a sub-
string that starts at that point and includes all new text up to the end of the input.
 Binary tree, most common class for prefix search, But Pat trees are sorted logically which
facilitate range search, and more accurate then inversion file.
 PAT trees provide alternate structure if supporting strings search.

 The key values are stored at the leaf nodes (bottom nodes) in the PATTree.
 For a text input of size “n” there are “n” leaf nodes and “n-1” at most higher
level nodes.
It is possible to place additional constraints on sistrings for the leafnodes

22
The full PAT binary tree is

23
 Signature file structure:
 the goal of a signature file structure is to provide a fast test to eliminate the
majority of items that are not related to a query
 because file structure is highly compresses and unordered, It requires
significantly less space than an Inverted file structure
 New items can be concatenated to the end of the structure
 When items are deleted from Information Databases, It leaves deleted Items in
place and mark them as deleted
 Signature file structure is a linear scan of the Compressed of Items producing
a response time linear with respect to a file size
Application(s)/Advantage(s)
 Signature files provide a practical solution for storing and locating information in a
number of different situations.
 Signature files have been applied as medium size databases, databases with low
frequency of terms, WORM devices, parallel processing machines, and distributed
environments

HYPERTEXT AND XML DATA STRUCTURES:

 The Hypertext Data structure is used Extensively in the Internet environment and
requires an electronic media storage for the item
 Hypertext allows one item to reference another Item via an Embedded pointer
Each separate Item is called a node and the reference pointer is called a link
 Each node is displayed by a viewer that is defined for the file Type associated with
the node
 For Example(Html) defines the Internal Structure for Information Exchange across
the world wide web on the Internet
 A Document is Composed of the text of the Item a long with Html Tags that
describes how to display The Document
 Tags are formatting or structural keywords contained between less than greater
than symbols (Eg:-<title>,<strong>meaning display prominently)
 The advent of the Internet and its exponential growth and wide acceptance as a new
global information network has introduced new mechanisms for representing
information.
 This structure is called hypertext and differs from traditional information storage data
structures in format and use.
 The hypertext is Hypertext is stored in HTML format and XML.

24
 Bot of these languages provide detailed descriptions for subsets of text similar to the
zoning.
 Hypertext allows one item to reference another item via a embedded pointer.
 HTML defines internal structure for information exchange over WWW on theinternet.
 XML: defined by DTD, DOM, XSL,etc.

25
HIDDEN MARKOV MODELS:

The Hidden Markov Models is used for searching as Textual Queries has Introduced a
new Paradigm for search, the output of one term of query = = Input of another query
Q1 Q2 Qn
222
2
 The Hidden Markov models one Input is generated again it produce as
output & that output has creating as one Input ,it is come across as chain
process
 The statistical process that can generate output that is equivalent to the set of
queries that would consider the document relevant
 The general definition that a HMM(Hidden Markov Models)is a defined by
the output that is produced by passing some unknown key via state
transitions through a noisy channel output is the query and the unknown
keys are the relevant Documents
 Channel is the mismatch between the author’s way of expressing idea’s and
the Users ability to specify his query
 The development for HMM(Hidden Markov Models) approach begins with
applying Bayes Rule to the conditional Probability

P(A/B) = P(B/A) P(A)

P(B)
 The users ideas are Transformed channel is the Transmission of messages
Transmission of the queries users idea’s are Transformed and act as Input
as Another Queries

Disadvantages of HMM:
The biggest problem in using this approach is to estimate the transition
probability Matrix and the output for every Document
If there was a large training Database of queries and the relevant
documents then the problem could be solved using Estimation-
Maximization Algorithms

26
 III UNIT
AUTOMATIC INDEXING:
Automatic Indexing is the computerized process of Scanning Large volumes of Documents
against a controlled Vocabulary, Taxonomy or Ontology and using those controlled terms to
quickly and effectively Index large Electronic Document depositories
• Case Total document indexing.
• Automatic Indexing requires few seconds based on the processor and complexity of
algorithms to generate indexes.’

• Index resulting form automated indexing fall into two classes , weighted and un weighted.
• Weighted indexing system: a attempt is made to place a value on the index term
associated with concept in the document. Based on the frequency of occurrence of the
term in the item.

• Un weighted indexing system : the existence of an index term in a document and some
times its word location are kept as part of searchable data structure.
• Values are normalized between 0 and1.
• The results are presented to the user in order of rank value from highest number to lowest
number.
Indexing By term

• Terms (vocabulary) of the original item are used as basis of index process.
• There are two major techniques for creation of index statistical and natural language.
• Statistical can be based upon vector models and probabilistic models with a special case
being Bayesian model(accounting for uncertainty inherent in the model selection process).
• Called statistical because their calculation of weights use information such as frequency of
occurrence of words.
• Natural language also use some statistical information, but perform more complex parsing
to define the final set of index concept.
Types of Classes in Automatic Indexing:

 Automatic Indexing is the process of Analyzing an Item to extract the

information to be permanently kept in an Index
 This process is associated with the generation of the searchable Data
structure Associated with an Item
 The indexing process is shown in the following fig
 The left side of the figure Including Identify Processing Tokens, Apply
stop lists, Characterize Tokens, Apply stemming and create searchable
Data structure is all part of the Indexing Process
Data flow in Information Processing System

Standardize Input

Logical Subsetting(Zoning)

Identify Processing Tokens

Update Document File

Apply StopLists

(Stop Algorithm)

(stop Algorithm)

Characterize Tokens

Apply Stemming

Create Searchable Data Create Hit

Structure List
 User Command

 All Systems go through an Initial stage of Zoning and Identifying the

processing tokens used to create the Index
 Filters, such as Stop lists and stemming Algorithms are frequently
applied to reduce the number of Tokens to be processed
 The Next step depends up on the search strategy of a particular system
 The search strategies can be classified as statistical natural Language
&Concept
 An Index is the Data structure created to support the search strategy
Standardize Input:
 Standardizing the input takes the different external format of input
data and performs the translation to the formats acceptable to the
system.
 That particular formats System should be Acceptable
Logical Sub-setting (Zoning) :
 Parse the item into logical sub-divisions that have meaning to
user Title, Author, Abstract, Main Text, Conclusion,
References, Country, Keyword
 Visible to the user and used to increase the precision of a search and
optimize the display The zoning information is passed to the processing
token identification operation to store the information, allowing searches to
be restricted to a specific zone
Identify Processing Tokens :
 Identify the information that are used in the search process –
Processing Tokens (Better than Words)
 The first step is to determine a word
 Dividing input symbols into three classes
 Valid word symbols: alphabetic Characters, Numbers
 Inter-word symbols: blanks, periods, semicolons (non-searchable)
 Special processing symbols: hyphen (-)
Stop Algorithm:
 Save system resources by eliminating from the set of searchable
processing tokens those have little value to the search Whose
frequency and/or semantic use make them of no use as searchable
token
 Characterize Tokens :
 Identify any specific word characteristics Word sense
disambiguation Part of speech tagging
 Uppercase – proper names, acronyms, and organization Numbers
and dates
Stemming Algorithm :
Stemming is cutting &Trimming of words

 It has maintaining as systematic arrangement of words

 It is monitoring as phrases, grammatically errors …etc
Create Searchable Data Structure:
 It has in-Built of files
 It has searchable of Data structure
 It is internal representation of user(not visible to user)
 It has contains Semantic concepts represent the
items in database Limit what a user can find as
a result of the search
List of the classes of Automatic Indexing:
 Statistical Indexing
 Natural Language Processing
 Concept Indexing
 Hypertext Indexing
 An index is the data structure created to support the search strategy
 The statistical strategies cover the broadest range of Indexing
Techniques & most prevalent in commercial systems
Statistical Indexing:
The Statistical Indexing uses frequency of occurrence of events to calculate a
number to Indicates relevance of an Item

 This is to assist in calculating a relevance value of each item for ranking

 The Documents are found by a normal Boolean search and the Statistical
Calculations are performed on the Hit File ranking the output (eg:-Term
frequency Algorithms)
There are two types of frequencies
 Document Frequency
 Term frequency

Document Frequency:

it is identifies as particular documents items is existing or not

Term Frequency:

It is identifies number of times of lines or words ,it is calculating as terms

These calculations are performed by Hit file Document frequency &term

frequency producing based on the Ranking Output

 Statistical strategies cover the broadest range of Indexing techniques and the
most prevalent in commercial systems
 The basis for a statistical approach is use of frequency of occurrence of
events
 the events usually are related to occurrences f processing tokens
(words/Phrases)within the documents and within the database
 The words/phrases are the Domain of searchable values
 The static approach stores a single statistic, such a how often each words
occurs in an item that is used in generating relevance scores after standard
Boolean Search
 Statistical Indexing

Bayesian Model Vector Weighting Neural Network

Probabilistic
Model
Weighting

Probabilistic Weighing:

The Probabilistic approach is based up on direct Application of the theory&

Probability to Information Retrieval Systems

 This has the advantage of being able to use the developed formal theory of
probability to direct the algorithmic development
 This is summarized by the probability Ranking Principle(PRP)
 It stores the information that are used in calculating a probability that a
particular Item satisfies in relevant to a particular Query
 We are going to apply two types of techniques
 HYPOTHESIS
 PLAUSIBLE COROLLARY
HYPOTHESIS:
It contains the collection of list of words with rankings based on occurrences
PLAUSIBLE COROLLARY:
The most promising source of techniques for estimating the probabilities of
 usefulness for output ranking in IR Standard Probability Theory & Statistics

 It also leads to an in variant result that facilitates Integration of results

from different Databases
 It can be represented as the following equation
Log(O(R| Qi,Dj,t k))=C0+C1 V1 +………..+CnVn
 The Log O is the logarithm of the odds(log odds) of relevance for term
which is present in Document &Query
 The Logarithm that the query is relevant to the Document is the sum of the
log odds for all terms
Bayesian model:

For Overcoming the restrictions in a vector model is to use Bayesian Approach to

Maintaining Information on processing Tokens

 The Bayesian model provides a conceptually simple yet complete model for
Information Systems
 The Bayesian approach is based up on Conditional Probabilities
 Bayesian approach stress Information used in generating a relative
Confidence level of an Items relevance to a query
 It produces a good relative relevance value than producing and absolute
probability

Vector Weighting:

One of the earliest using Statistical approaches in Information retrieval was the
smart system at Cornell University

 It is implemented this vector weighting

 The system is based upon a vector Model
 The semantics of every item are represented as a vector
 A Vector is a One-dimensional set of values where the Order/Position of
each value in the set is fixed and represents a particular Domain
 In Information retrieval each position in the vector typically represents a
Processing token
 There are two approaches to the Domain of value in the Vector
1. Binary
2. Weighted
 In the Binary Approach, the domain contains the value of one or zero
with one representing the existence of the processing token in the Item
 In the weighted approach, the Domain is typically the set of all Real
positive Numbers
Neural Network Model:
 The Neural Networks are dynamic learning structures under
concept Indexing where they are used to determine concept
classes
 Improve Recall
 Concepts classes hierarchies and domain specific systems are
best Examples
Natural Language:
The natural Language is nothing but User has giving emotions as well as user
Expressing his views

Eg: “Happy or sad Good or Bad”

 The goal of Natural Language processing is to use the semantic

Information(semantic information means semantic Analaysis of Natural
Language captures the meaning of the given text while taking into account
context Logical Structuring of sentences &grammar roles) in addition to the
statistical Information to enhance the indexing of the Item
 This Improves the Precision of searches, reducing the number of False hits a
user reviews
 The semantic Information is extracted as a result of processing the language
rather than treating each word as an Independent Entity
 The simplest output of this process results in generation of Phrases that
becomes Indexes to an Item
 Statistical approaches use Proximity as the Basis behind determining
strength of word relationships in generating phrases
 Natural Language processing can also combine the concepts into higher
level concepts sometimes referred to as thematic representations
 The goal of Indexing is to represent the semantic concepts of an Item in the
Information system to support finding relevant Information
 Term Phrases allow additional specification and focusing of the concept to
provide better Precision &reduce the user overhead of retrieving non-
relevant Items
 One of the earliest Statistical Approaches to determing term phases was use
of cohesion factor between terms
Cohesion=Size-factor*(PAIR-FREQkh/TOTFk*TOTFh)
 Size factor is a normalization factor based up on the size of the
vocabulary
  PAIR-FREQ k, h is the total frequency of Co-Occurrence of the pair
Term k, Term h in the Items Collection
 Natural Language processing can reduce errors in determining Inter-
Item dependencies and using that Information to create the term
phrases used in the Indexing Process
Concept Indexing:
 concept Indexing uses the words within an Item to correlate to concepts
discussed in the Item

 this is a generalization of the specific words to values used to Index the

Item

 when generating the concepts classes Automatically, There may not be a

name Applicable to the concept but just a statistical Significance

 Recall is Improved
 It can be used with concept classes using neural networks
 An Example of applying a concept approach is the convection system
 The convection system uses neural network algorithm(A neural network is
a method in Artificial Intelligence that teaches computers to process data
in a way that is inspired by the human brain )

 The convection system uses neural network algorithms and terms in a

similar context of other terms

 The process of mapping from a specific term to a concept that the term
represents is complex because a term may represent Multiple different
concepts to different degrees

 The basis behind the generation of the concept approach is a neural

network model

 The convections system uses neural network Algorithm &terms

Hypertext Linkage Indexing:
The Hypertext is a Data structures are generated Manually
 Hypertext is using in Information Retrieval systems purpose, it is also
comes under storing & Retrieving of a Data
 If user is using a page it will be navigate to another page
 Hypertext Linkages are creating an additional Information Retrieval
Dimension
 Traditional Items can be viewed as two Dimensional Constructs
 The text of the items is one dimension representing the items
 The internet at the current Time there are three classes of mechanisms
to help find the Information
 Manually generated Indexes
 Automatically generated Indexes and web crawlers(A web crawler
called a Spider-bot is an Internet-bot that systematically browses the
worldwide web and that is typically operated by search engines for the
purpose of web Indexing (Intelligent agents)
 It is a special class of indexing can be defined by creation of hypertext
Linkages
 These linkages provide virtual threads of concepts between Items
versus directly defining the concept within an Item.
Introduction of Clustering:
Clustering is used in information Retrieval systems to enhance the efficiency and
effectiveness of the retrieval process, Clustering is achieved by partitioning the
Documents in a collection into classes such that Documents that are Associated
with each other are assigned to the same cluster

 Clusters it is provide a grouping of similar objects into a class under a more

general title
 Clustering also allows linkage between clusters to be specified
 An Information Database can be viewed as being composed of a number of
Independent Items Indexed by a series of Index terms
 Adding some grouping of objects
 Clustering in IRS is of two Types
 Term clustering
 Document Clustering
Term Clustering:
A Term may be word or group of words or a single paragraph it will be called as
term

 It is used to create a statistical Thesaurus(Thesaurus coming from the Latin

word meaning “treasure” is similar to a dictionary in that it store words)
 Increase recall by expanding searches with related terms(Query Expansion)

Documents Clustering:
 The Document clustering is nothing but we are going to clusters the
Documents what are he terms is there on what are the terms Existing in
number of Documents
 Used to create documents clusters
  The search can retrieve items similar to an Item of Interest, even if the query
would not have retrieved the item (Resultant set Expansion)
 Result-set clustering
Define the Domain for Clustering

Thesaurus: The Domain may be medical or education

It should be relevance of similar of terms Documents set of Items to be clustered

Identify those objects to be used in the clustering process and reduce the
potential data that could Induce errors in the clustering Process

Determine the attributes of the objects to be clustered

Thesaurus: To determine the specific words in the objects to be used

Documents: May focus on specific zone within the items that are used to
determine similarity

Reduce Errors Association

Determine the Relationships between the attributes whose co-occurrence is

objects suggest those objects should be in the same class

Thesaurus: Determine which words are synonyms and the strength of their
relationships

Documents:-Define a similarity function based on word Co-occurrences that

determine the similarity between two times

Apply some algorithm to determine the classes to which each object will be
assigned
Guide lines on the characteristics of the Classes in Clustering

A well-defined semantic definition should exit for each class

There is a risk that the name assigned to the semantic definition of the class could
also be misleading

 The size of the classes should be within the same order of Magnitude
Within a class, one object should not dominate the class

 Whether an object can be assigned to multiple classes or just one must be

decided at creation name
Additional Decisions for Theasurus
Word coordination approach:-specify If Phrases as well as Individual Terms are t
be clustered

Word Relationships:-

Equivalence, Hierarchical, Non-Hierarchical

Parts-Wholes:-Aggregation and composition

Collocation:- Statistical Measures that relates words that co-occur in the

Same(Sentence, Phrase, Paragraph)

Paradigmatic T:-Paradigmatic relates words with the same semantic base such as
”Formula” & “equation , Axonomy &Synonym

Thesaurus Generation:
The Collection of terms can be generated or Cluster it can done Manually or
Automatical
 Automatically generated Thesauri contain classes that reflect the use of
words
 The classes do not naturally have a name, but are just a groups of
Statistically Similar Term Clustering
  The more Frequently two terms Co-occur in the Same Items, the more
Likely they are about the same concept
 Each and every items it has to identified number of repeat times as well as
possible location of Documents

Thesaurus Generation(Manual Clustering):

 A keyword out of context(KWOC)is used to represent frequency of Items in

Respective Documents
 Keyword in Context(KWIC)displays a possible term in its Phrase Context
 It is Structured to Identify easily the Location of the term under
consideration in the Sentence
 Keyword and Context(KWAC)displays the keywords followed by their
context
 One sentence it will be four number of words
EX:
KWOC
Term Ids Documents
1 Chips, Computer,
Memory
2 Memory, Design
3 Computer, Chips, Design
4 Memory, Chips,
Computer

TERM FREQUENCY ITEM IDS

Chips 3 DOC1,DOC3, DOC4
Computer 3 DOC1,DOC3, DOC4
Design 2 DOC2,DOC3
Memory 3 DOC1,DOC2, DOC3
In the Figure 6.1 the character “/” is used in KWIC to indicate the end of the
phrase. The KWIC and KWAC are useful in determining the meaning of
homographs.

Once the terms are selected they are clustered based upon the word relationship
guidelines and the interpretation of the strength of the relationship. This is also
part of the art of manual creation of the thesaurus, using the judgment of the
human analyst

Automatic Term Clustering:

There are many techniques for the automatic generation of term clusters to create
statistical thesauri. When the number of clusters created is very large
 The basis for automatic generation of a Thesaurus is set of Items that
represents the Vocabulary to be Included in the Thesaurus
 The processing tokens(words)in the set of Items are the attributes to be used
to create the clusters
 The Automated Method of clustering Documents is based up on the
Clustering, where each cluster is defined by set of words &Phrases
 They all use as their basis of the concept that more Frequently two terms co-
occur in the same Items, the more likely they are about the same concept
 They differ by the completeness with which terms are correlated

Item Clustering:

The Clustering of various kinds of items in Multiple number of Documents,

Item it may be Phrase, word, collection of words Sentence, Diagram or a
Picture
 Item Clustering can be done two ways
 Manual term clustering as well Automatic Term clustering
 In Manual term Clustering Requires large space time&
Computational Overhead
 In Automatic term clustering –one Primary Category &Several
Secondary Categories
 It is very Efficient
 It is same as term clustering
 It is also same as Term Complete relation Method here we Implement
Item Complex Relation Method
 Similarity between Documents is based on two Items that have terms
in common
 The similarity Function is performed between rows of the Item
Matrix
 Based on the threshold value binary Item Matrix is Calculated
 Default Threshold Value is 10
SIM (Item i, Item j)=€(term i, k)(term j, k)
Ex: 10 is greater than are equal
Item &Item relationship Matrix
Item Id’s Item1 Item2 Item3 Item4 Item5
1 11 3 6 22
2 11 12 10 36
3 3 12 6 9
4 6 10 6 11
5 22 36 9 11
The based on numbers 10 is greater than are equal to zero it is going
converting as one’s &zero’s greater than are equal to 10 it should be as
indicates ‘1’, less than 10 it should be Indicates as ‘0’
Item id’s Item1 Item2 Item3 Item4 Item5
1 1 0 0 1
2 1 1 1 1
3 0 1 0 0
4 0 1 0 1
5 1 1 0
HIERARCHY OF CLUSTERS

Hierarchy Clustering:

The Hierarchy is defined as set of clustering items that clustered arranged in

hierarchy manner that means Tree Manner root will be there second level of
the elements it will be arranged in Hierarchal manner later remaining
Elements are arranged in Hierarchal manner
Hierarchical clustering can be divided into two types
1. Hierarchical Agglomerative Clustering(HAC)
2. Hierarchical divisive clustering

Hierarchical Agglomerative clustering(HAC):-

The start with un-clustered items and perform pair-wise similarity measures
to determine the clusters Hierarchical or(it is often treated as making
Clusters which are Un clusters they can be clusters based on similarity,
They can be arranged Tree manner &hierarchal Structure)

Hierarchical divisive clustering:-

We start with Large cluster and we breaking it down into smaller cluster

Objectives of creating a Hierarchy of Clusters:-

 It Reduce the overhead of search
 It perform top-down searches of the centroid of the clusters in the
hierarchy & trim those branches that are not relevant
 It is provide for visual representation of Information space
 Visual cues on the size of clusters and strengths of the linkage
between clusters
 Expand the retrieval of relevant Items
 User once having Identified an item of Interest can request to see
other items in the cluster
 The user can Increase the specificity of Items by going to children
clusters or by Increasing the generality of Items being reviewed by
going to parent clusters

Dendogram for Visualizing Hierarchical Clusters

This figure about of Structure of Hierarchy clustering

 UNIT-IV

Search Statements&Binding:

The Search statements are the statements of an Information and generated by users
to specify the concepts, they are trying to locate in items

 It uses traditional Boolean logic &or Natural Language

 While generating the search statement, the user have the ability to weight or
assign an Important to different concepts in the statements
 At this point the binding is to the vocabulary& past experiences of the user
 The search statement is the users attempt to specify the conditions needed to
subset logically the total Item Space to that cluster of Items that contains the
information needed by the user
 The next level of binding comes when the search statements is parsed for use
by a specific search system
 The search System translates the query to its own Meta Language
 This process is similar to the Indexing of Item processes
Ex:-
Statistical systems determine the processing tokens of Interest and the
weights assigned to each processing token based up on the frequency of
occurrence from the Search Statement
 Natural Language Systems determine the Syntactical and Discourse
Semantics using Algorithms Similar to those used in Indexing
 Concept Systems map the search statements to the set of concepts
used to Index Items
 Some of the Statistics used in weighing are based upon the current
contents of the Database
 Some examples are Documents frequency &Total Frequency for a
Specific term
 Parenthesis are used in the second binding step to Indicate Expansion
by a Thesaurus
The length of search Statements directly affect the ability of Information Retrieval
Systems to find relevant Items

The longer the search query, the easier it is for the system to find items

Similarity Measures and Ranking

The Searching is concerned with calculating the Similarity between a users Search
Statement and the items in the Database

 Restricting the similarity Measure to Passages gains Significant Precision

with Impact on recall
 Once Items are Identified as possibly relevant to the users query, It is best to
present the most likely relevant items first Ranking is a Scalar number that
represents how similar an Item is to the Query
 Searching is Concerned with calculating the Similarity between a users
search statement and the items in the Database
 Variety of different similarity measures can be used to calculate the
similarity the item and the search Statement
  A Characteristic of a similarity formula is that the results of the Formula
Increase
Increases as the Items become More Similar
 The value is Zero if the Items are totally Dissimilar
 SIM(Item i, Itemj)=z(Termix)(Termja)
 This formula uses the summation of the product of the various terms
of two Items when treating the Index as a vector
 The problem with the simple Measures in the normalization needed to
account for variances in the length of Items
Similarity Formula by Salton in SMART System

To determine the weight an Item has with respect to the Search Statement, The
Cosine Formula is used to calculate the distance between the vector for the Item
and the vector for the Query

The DICE Formula

The Measure Simplifies the denominator from the Jaccard Formula and Introduces
a factor of 2 in the Numerator

 The Normalization in the Dice Formula is also Invariant to the number of

terms in common
 The use of a similarity Algorithm returns the complete Database as Search
Results
Many of items have Similarity Close or equal to zero
 The Threshold defines the Items in the resultant Hit File from the Query

Query Threshold Process:

Vector:- American, geography, Lakes, Mexico, Painter, oil, Reserve,
Subject

DOC1:- geography of Mexico suggests oil reserves are available

Vector(0,1,0,2,0,3,1,0)
DOC2:- American Geography has takes available everywhere
vector(1,3,0,0,0,0,0,0)
DOC3:-Painters Suggest Mexico Lakes as Subjects Vector(0,0,1,3,3,0,0,2)
Based on Existing of Occurrence &Based frequency Occurrence numberical
values
Relevance Feedback:
The Thesaurus and Semantic networks provide Utility in generally
Expanding a users search statement to Include Potential related Search terms
 But this still does not Correlate to the vocabulary used by the authors that
contributes to a particular Database
 There is also a significant risk that the Thesaurus does not Include the latest
words being used
 In an Interactive System, users can Manually Modify an Inefficient Query as
well as the system Automatically Expand the Query Via Thesaurus
 The Relevant Items are used to reweight the Existing Query terms and
possible Expand the users Search Statement with terms
 The relevance feedback concept was that new Query Should be based on the
old Query Modified to Increase the weight of terms in relevant Items and
decrease the weight of terms that are in non-relevant Items
The formula used for Relevance Feedback

Impact of Relevance Feedback

 Selective Dissemination of Information Search:

The Selective Dissemination of Information, frequently Called

dissemination Systems are becoming more prevalent with the growth of
Internet
 A Dissemination system is sometimes called as Push Pull system
 Push is nothing but whenever you search statement ,Pull is nothing but
Extract on Information based on Statement(or)back to the Information
 In a dissemination system, the user defines a profile and as new Information
is added to the system, it is Automatically compared to the user’s Profile
 If it is considered a Match, it is asynchronously sent to the user mail file
 The difference between the two functions lie in the Dynamic nature of the
profiling process, The size and diversity of the search statements and the
number of Simultaneous searches per Item
 In the Search System an Existing Database Exists
 These can be used for weighting factors in the Indexing process and the
similarity Comparison
 Profiles are relatively static search statements that cover a diversity of topics
 One of the first commercial search Techniques for dissemination was the
logic on Message Dissemination System(LMDS)
 The system originated from a system created by chase, Rosen and
Wallace(CRW)
 It was designed for speed to support the search of Thousands of profiles with
the items arriving every 20 seconds
 Another approach to dissemination uses a Statistical Classification
Technique and Explicit Error Minimization to determine the decision criteria
for selecting items for a particular profile
Weighted Searches of Boolean Systems:
The two major approaches to generating Queries are Boolean and Natural
Language Queries are easily represented within statistical Models and are
usable by the Similarity Measures Discussed
 The Issues arise when Boolean Queries are Associated with weighted
Index Systems
 Some of the Issues are Associated with how the logic (AND,OR,
NOT) Operators Function with Weighted values and How weights are
Associated with the Query terms
 If the operators are Interpreted in their normal Interpretation, they act
too restrictive or too general AND and OR Operators Respectively
 Closely related to the strict definition problem is the lack of ranking
that is missing from a pure Boolean Process
 Some of the early work addressing this problem recognized the
Fuzziness associated with mixing Boolean and weighted
systems(Brookstein-78,Brookstein-80)
 To Integrate the Boolean and weighted systems Model
(Fuzzy set=Fuzzy sets are sets whose Elements have degrees of
membership
 Fuzzy sets were Introduced “Zadeh” Fuzzylogic was Introduced with
1965 Mathematician
 The degree of Membership for AND and OR operations are defined

Considering all item weighs versus the Maximum/Minimum approach

the Similarity Measure is Calculated as
Searching the Internet & Hypertext

The Internet has multiple different mechanisms that are the basis for searching of
items. The primary techniques are associated with servers on the Internet that
create indexes of items on the Internet and allow search of them. Some of the most
commonly used nodes are YAHOO, AltaVista and Lycos. In all of these systems
there are active processes that visit a large number of Internet sites and retrieve
textual data which they index.

The primary design decisions are on the level to which they retrieve data and
their general philosophy on user access. LYCOS (http://www.lycos.com) and
AltaVista automatically go out to other Internet sites and return the text at the
sites for automatic indexing (http://www.altavista.digital.com). Lycos returns
home pages from each site for automatic indexing while Altavista indexes all of
the text at a site.

 The retrieved text is then used to create an index to the source items storing
the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) to provide to the user to retrieve an
item. All of the systems use some form of ranking algorithm to assist in
display of the retrieved items. The algorithm is kept relatively simple using
statistical information on the occurrence of words within the retrieved text
 Closely associated with the creation of the indexes is the technique for
accessing nodes on the Internet to locate text to be indexed. This search
process is also directly available to users via Intelligent Agents. Intelligent
Agents provide the capability for a user to specify an information, need
which will be used by the Intelligent Agent as it independently moves
between Internet sites locating information of interest.

There are six key characteristics of intelligent agents

 Autonomy:
The search agent must be able to operate without interaction with a human
agent. It must have control over its own internal states and make
independent decisions. This implies a search capability to traverse
information sites based upon pre-established criteria collecting potentially
relevant information.
Communications Ability:
The agent must be able to communicate with the information sites as it
traverses them. This implies a universally accepted language defining the
external interfaces
Capacity for Cooperation:
This concept suggests that intelligent agents need to cooperate to perform
mutually beneficial tasks.
Capacity for Reasoning:
There are three types of reasoning scenarios
Rule-based - where user has defined a set of conditions and actions to be
taken
Knowledge-based - where the intelligent agents have stored previous
conditions and actions taken which are used to deduce future actions
Artificial evolution based - where intelligent agents spawn new agents with
higher logic capability to perform its objectives.
Adaptive Behavior - closely tied to 1 and 4 , adaptive behavior permits the
intelligent agent to assess its current state and make decisions on the actions
it should take
Trustworthiness- The user must trust that the intelligent agent will act on
the user’s behalf to locate information that the user has access to and is
relevant to the user.

Introduction of Information Visualization:

The Visualization is the transformation of Information into a visual form which

enables the user to observe and Understand the Information

 The functions that are available with Electronic display and Visualization of
Data
  Modify representations of Data and Information or Display
Conditions(Changing colors scales)
 Use the same representation while showing changes in data
 Animate the display to show changes in space &Time
 Create Hyperlinks under user control to establish relationships between data
 The Information visualization addresses how the results of search may be
optimally display to the users to facilitate their understanding of what the
search has provided and their selection of most likely Items of Interest to
read Cognitive(The action or process of acquiring Knowledge and
understanding through Experience &The Sense)
 The Engineering derives design principles for Visualization techniques
 It is Attention memory and information processing of the human visual
system

There are many areas that information visualization and presentation can help the
user:

A. The reduce the amount of time to understand the results of a search and
likely clusters of relevant information

B. yield information that comes from the relationships between items versus
treating each item as independent
C. perform simple actions that produce sophisticated information search
functions
 Visualization can be divided into two broad classes
 Link Visualization
 Attribute visualization

Link Visualization:

It displays relationships among items

Attribute Visualization:

It reveals Content relationships across Large Numbers of Items

Cognition &Preception
Cognition:- cognition means to Store the Information( The action or process of
acquiring knowledge and understanding through Thought, Experience& the
Senses)

Preception:- Preception means Receiving Information(the ability to see, hear, or

become aware of something through the senses)

 The user Machine Interface has primarily focused on a paradigm of a

typewriter
 As computers display became Man-Machine Interfaces focused on treating
the display as an Extension of paper with the focus on consistency of
operations
 The Advent of WLMP(Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointers)Interfaces and
the Evolution of the user what is talking place in the computer Environment
 Extending the HCL(Human Computer Interface) to Improve the Information
Flow. Thus reducing wasted user overhead in Locating needed Information
 Although the Major focus is on enhanced visualization of Information,other
Senses are along being looked at for Future Interfaces
 The Audio Sense has been always been part of Simple Alerts in Computers
 The sounds are now being replaced by Speech in both Input& output
Interfaces
 The Touch Senses is being addressed in the Experiments using Virtual
Realty
 A Significant portion of the brain is devoted to vision and supports the
Maximum Information transfer Function from the environment to a
humanbeing
Other Measures:
 Proximity-Near by figures are grouped together
 Similarity- Similar figures are grouped together
 Continunity-figures are Interpreted as Smooth Continuous patterns
rather than discontinuous Concatenations of Shapes
(Eg:-Circle with its Diameter drawn is perceived as two continuous
shapes, a circle& a Line, Versus two half Circles Concatenated
together
 Closure-gaps within a figure are filled into create a Whole(Eg:-using
Dashed lines to represent a Square does not prevent understanding it a
square)
Connectedness:- Uniform and Linked Spots,Lines or Areas are
perceived as a Single Unit
 Shifting the Information Processing Load from Slower
Cognitive processes to faster perceptual Systems Significantly
Improves the Information carrying Interfaces between Humans
&computers

Information Visualization Technologies

The main focus on Information Retrieval Systems are as follows

 The Investigating how to display the results of Searches Effectively, the

structured Data from DBMS
 The Results of link analysis Correlating Data
 The goals of display the result in search is divided into 2 Major Classes
 Document Clustering
 Search Statement Analysis

 Visualization tools helps to display the Clusters in their Size &Topic

to provide users to Navigate to items of Interest
 The Displaying the total set of terms
 Including additional terms from relevance feedback thesaurus
Expansion Along with Documents retrieved and Indicate the
Importance of the terms to the retrieval and Ranking process various
information Visualization Technologies are as follows
 Tree Structure
 Cone-Tree
 Perspective Wall
 Tree Maps
 Envision System
 Document content Analysis &Retrieval System(DCARS)
 City Space
Tree Structure:

A Tree Structure is useful in representing Information that ranges overtime

 The Constituents of a larger Unit(ex:- Organization Structures, Mechanical

device Definitions
 The Aggregates from the higher to lower level(Eg: Hierarchical clustering of
Documents)

CONE-TREE:

The Cone-Tree is a 3-Dimensional Representation of Data

Where one node of the tree is represented at the Apex

And all Information Subordinate to it is arranged in a Circular Structure at its base

Any Child node may also be the Parent of another Cone

Selecting a particular node, rotates it to the front of the display

Perspective Wall:-

The perspective wall divides the Information into three Visual Areas
This allows the user to keep all of the Information in Perspective while Focusing
on Particular Area

Tree Maps:-

This Technique Makes Maximum use of the display Screen Space by using
Rectangular boxes that are Recursively subdivided and based on Parent-Child
relationships between the Data

 The CPU
 OS
 Memory and
 The Network Management articles are all related to a general category of
computer operating Systems
 The Computer Applications which are shown in the rest of the Figure
Envision System:-

The Envision System not only displays the relevance rank and estimated relevance
of each Item found by a query, but also Simultaneously Presents other query
Information

The design is Intentionally graphical and simple using two Dimensional

Visualization
Document content Analysis &Retrieval System (DCARS):-

 The Document Content Analysis and Retrieval System DCARS being

developed by Calspan Advanced Technology Center
 Their System is designed to Augment the Retrieval ware Search Product
 They display the query results as a histogram with the items as rows and
each terms Contribution to the Selection Indicated by the Width of a Title
bar on the row
 DCARS Provides a friendly user Interface that Indicates why a particular
Item was Found but it is much harder to use the Information in determining
how to modify Search Statements to Improve them

CITY SCAPE:

 This Representation is widely used for both hierarchical and Network

related Information is the Cityscape which uses the Metaphor of
Movement within a city
 In lieu of using hills as in the terrain approach Sky Scrapers Represent
the theme Areas
 UNIT-V

Introduction to Text Search Techniques:

The Basic Concept of a Text Scanning System is the ability for one or more users to enter
Queries with the text of the Items to be Searched Sequentially and Compared to the Query
Terms

When all of the text has been accessed the query is complete

One Advantage of this type Architecture is that as Soon as Item is Identified as satisfying a
query the results can be presented to the user for retrieval

Text Streaming Search System Architecture

 The database contains the full text of the Items

 The Term Detector is the Special Hardware/Software that contains all of the
search terms and in Some Systems the logic between the terms
 The outputs to the query resolver the detected terms
 The query Resolver performs two major functions accepting Search Statements
from the users and Extracting the logic and search terms to pass to the detector
 It also accepts results from the detector and determines which queries are
satisfied by the Item and possible the relevance weight Associated with Hit
 The query Resolver passes Information to the User Interface, allowing it to
Continually update the search Status &on Request Retrieve any items that satisfy
the user search statement
 The text streaming process is focused on finding at least one or all occurrences of
a pattern of text in a Text Stream
 It is assumed that the same Alphabet is used in both Search terms and text being
Streamed
 Software Text Search Algorithms:
In Software Streaming Techniques, the items to be Searched is read into memory
and then the algorithm is applied
There are three Major Algorithms Associated with Software Text Search
 Brute Force Approach
 Boyer-Moore
 Knuth-Morris-Pratt

Brute Force Approach:

This approach is the Simplest String Matching Algorithm

 The idea is to try and match the search String against the Input text
 If as soon as a Mis-Match is detected in the Comparison process, shift the Input text one
position &Start the comparison process over
 The Expected number of comparisons when Searching an Input text string of N
Characters for a pattern of M Character is

Where is the expected number of Comparisons and C is the Size of the Alphabet for the text.T

The brute-force Pattern Matching Algorithm Compares

The pattern P with the text T for each possible shift of Relative to T until either

Brute-Force pattern Matching runs in time O(nm)

O=Order

Order of n*m

-T= aaa…….ah

-P=aaah

It is an algorithm is for Brute force Approach

Boyer Moore Algorithm:

 It is a String Algorithm
 It is Significantly Enhanced as the Comparison process Started at the end of the search
pattern processing right to Left versus the start of the search pattern
 The advantage is that large Jumps are Mis-Matched Character in the Input Stream the
search Pattern which occurs frequently(one position to another position)
 The original Boyer-Moore Algorithm is developed for additional text search Techniques
 It was originally designed to support scanning for a single Search String
 It was Expanded to handle Multiple Search Strings on a Single Pass
 It enhanced and simplified versions of the Boyer-Moore Algorithm have been developed
by May Researchers (Mollier-Nielson-84, Iyengar-80)
 The Boyer-Moore’s Pattern Matching Algorithm is based on two Heuristics
 Looking-glass heuristic: Compare P with a Sub-Sequence of T Moving backwards
 Character-Jump Heuristic: when a Mis-Match occur at T[i]=C
 If P Contains C, Shift P to Align the last occurrence of C in P with T[i] Else Shift P to align
P[O] with T[i+1]
 It is an Boyer-Moore Algorithm
Knuth-Morris Pratt Algorithm:
The Knuth Morris Pratt Algorithm made a major Improvement in Previous Algorithms
 It is an text search Algorithm
 Even in the worst Case it works well
 Unlike the previous Algorithms it does not Depend on the length of Input String
 It can also work as long Strings
 The basic Concept Behind the algorithm is that whenever a Mis Match is
detected, the previous Matched Characters define the Number of Characters
that can be Skipped in the Input Stream Prior to Process Again
 Starting The Comparison
 Position: 12345678
 Input Stream a b d a d e f g
 It is going to Identified as Position
When the Mis-Match Occurs in Position 4 with a “F” in the pattern and a “b” in
the Input Stream this Algorithm allows the Comparison to Jump at least the
three Positions associated with recognized “abd”
 Since the Mis Match on the position could be the beginning of the search
strings four Positions can not be Skipped
  To Know the Number of Positions to Jump based up on Mis Match in the
Search Pattern the Search Pattern is Pre-Processed to define a number of
characters to be Jumped for Each Position
P=Position
S=Search Position
I=Input Stream

Hardware Text Search Systems:

The Software text Search is applicable for many Situations but faced Some Restrictions to
handle Many Search Terms Simultaneously against the same text and Limits due to I/O Speeds

 One approach is to have specialized hardware Machine to perform the searches &Pass
the results to the Main Computer which supported the user Interface &Retrieval of Hits
 Since the searcher is hardware based Scalability is achieved by Increasing the number of
hardware Search devices
 The only Limit on speed is the time it takes to flow the text off of Secondary
Storage(Disk drives) to the Searchers
 By having one search Machine Per Disk, the maximum time it takes to search a Database
of any size will be the time to search one disk
 In some systems, The Disks were formatted to optimize the data flow off the drives
 Another Major Advantage of Using a hardware Text Search unit is in the Elimination of
the Index that represents the Document Database
 Typically the Indexes are 70% the size of the Actual Items
  Other Advantages are that new items can be Searched as soon as received by the
System rather than waiting for the Index to be Created and the search Speed is
Deterministic
 Even through it may be slower than using an Index the predictability of how long it will
take to stream the data provides the user with an Extract Search Time
 As hits as Discovered they can Immediately be made Available to the user versus waiting
for the total search to complete as in Index Searches
 One of the earliest hardware text string Search units was the Rapid Search Machine
developed by General Electric
 A More Sophisticated Search units was developed by operating Systems INC Called the
Associative File Processor(AFP)
 It is Capable of Searching Against Multiple Queries at the Same Time
 In this regard we are going to discuss two types of Hardware Text Search Systems

 GESCAN TEXT ARRAY PROCESSOR

 FAST DATA FINDER

GESCAN TEXT ARRAY PROCESSOR:

In Some of the Systems, the Boolean Logic between terms is resolved in the term Detector
Hardware

Eg:- GESCAN MACHINE

 The GESCAN System uses a Text Array Processor that Simultaneously Matches Many
terms &Conditions against a given Text Stream

FAST DATA FINDER(FDF):-

The Fast Data Finder(FDP) is the most recent Specialized hardware text search unit Still in Use in
Many Organizations

 It was Developed to search Text and has been used to Search English &Foreign
Languages
 The early Fast Data Finders Considered of an Array of Programmable Text Processing
cells Connected in Series a Pipline Hardware Search Processor
 MULTIMEDIA INFORMATION RETRIEVAL

Spoken Language Audio Retrieval:

The Speech Retrieval refers to the task of retrieving the specific pieces of Spoken Audio
Data from Large Collection that pertain to a Query requested by a user Before discussing
Methods for Speech retrieval it is Important to define the different types of speech
retrieval tasks and the methods in which potential solutions to these tasks will be
evaluated
 The speech Information Retrieval Applications the basic Scenario assumes that a
user will provide a query and the system will return a list of rank ordered
Documents
 It will be treat as voice of query
 It will be assigning as Ranking based Algorithm, How many no of Users given
particular Query through voice or Text, no of Users are demanding particular
Query , visited as site of Query related Information
 The query is generally assumed to be in the form of a string of Text-based words
 When the task requires the retrieval of Utterance Retrieval
 In this case, The purpose of SUR(Spoken Utterance Retrieval)utterance related to
the query even when Multiple Utterances related to the Query Exist within a
single longer Document Applications include browsing broadcast
news,Voicemail,Teleconferences&Lectures

Non-Speech Audio Retrieval:

Non-Speech Audio one of the Categories of Audio Interface, can be described as

Audio Cues that accompany Specific Events

 Audio Cues means performing of object action hearing as Audio

 These cues for centuries have given human feedback on Important Information
 With the best examples like Fire Alarm is modern day, aircraft Audio cues have given
Significant Amounts of Information regarding the Action of objects
 In addition to Audio cues, Music like Instrumental audio or Music is considered Non-
speech audio
 In this research Music is mentioned with regard to Industry standards &Developments,
Therefore this project will be directed specifically towards Audio cues
 The Non-Speech Audio Input is the use of Non-Speech sounds Such as humming or
hissing for Entering Data or Controlling the User Interface
 It will be needs for user interface ,user must be alert and Attention of the sounds like
Notification, Receiving Mail ,system Updates
  He had to know indications based on performing as actions
 He had to know those system Instructions based on Sounds

Graph Retrieval:

The Graph based Information Retrieval System whose query can be Expressed as a graph of
Topics/subtopics, Documents are ranked with respect to a query up on relationships among
Documents, relationships among Topics/Sub topics& Relationship between query terms
&Documents

 The relationship between one object to another object by using as Bar chart, Pie-chart
like Pictorial Representation
 User should understandable very easy way
 The system is evaluated and compared with two Information retrieval Systems on two
standard text collections
 It is also Ranking based Algorithm
 Example like No of products sales, No of products refunded, Students No of pass
percentage of students &No of Fail Percentage of Students it will be done as Result
Analysis
 The results show that the proposed approach outperforms the other systems
 The goal of Information retrieval is to effectively retrieve Documents relevant to users
queries
 The graph based approach to information retrieval, its computation is fast &Scalable
and its Structure is flexible to Incorporate
 Many Performance Enhancement Techniques
 It most useful for Result Analysis, user will understandable very easily
Imagery Retrieval:

The Image Retrieval System is used for retrieving Images related to the user request
from the Database
In the Presented Image Retrieval System
 An Image Retrieval System is a computer System used for browsing, Searching
&Retrieving Images from a large Database of Digital Images
 The most Traditional and common methods of Image retrieval Utilize Some
method of Adding Meta Data, Such Captioning, Keywords, Title or descriptions to
the Images So, that retrieval can be Performed over the Annotation Words
 The Manual Image Annotation is time-Consuming Laborious and Expensive to
address this, There has been a large Amount of research done on Automatic
Image Annotation
 Additionally, the Increase in social web applications and the Semantic Web have
Inspired , The development of several web-based Image Annotation Tools
 The need to retrieve a desired Image from a collection and to efficiently access
the Information is Shared by Many groups Including Journalists, Engineers.
Designers, Artists, Advertising Agencies
 Image needs and uses across users in these groups vary considerably users many
require Access to Image based on Primitive Features Such as Color, Texture or
Shape or users may Require access to Images based on Abstract Concepts and
Symbolic Imagery
 Content Based Image Retrieval(CBIR)Technology is now beginning to Move out
of the Laboratory into the marketplace
 The technology still lacks Maturity and is not yet being used in a Significant Scale
Video Retrieval:

The video is an Electronic medium for the recording Copying, Playback, Broadcasting and
Display of Moving Visual Media

 Video was first developed for Mechanical Television Systems, which were Quickly
replaced by CRT(Cathod-Ray-Tube)Systems which in turn were replaced by Flat Panel
display
 It is Interactive web based Application which takes Video Frame from users and retrieve
the information from the Database
 The Database consists of various Video data like still Video Frames, Audio &Video
 During Recent years, Methods have been developed for retrieval of videos based on
their Visual features Color, Texture, Shape, Motion &Spatial-Temporal Composition are
the most Common Visual Features used in Similarity Match
 Additionally ,the increase in Social Media web applications and the Semantic web
 The videos is shared by many groups designers, as well as Social Media Platforms like
Youtube,…etc