SIS-1: The internal structure of Earth

Student: Murat Assel

TASK 2
1. Geology:
- Geology is the scientific study of the Earth's composition, structure, processes, and history. It
encompasses the investigation of rocks, minerals, fossils, landforms, and the interactions between
the Earth's various components. Geologists analyze the Earth's physical and chemical properties to
understand its past, present, and future evolution. The scope of geology includes the study of
tectonic plates, earthquakes, volcanoes, sedimentation, erosion, and the formation of natural
resources such as minerals, fossil fuels, and groundwater. Geology plays a crucial role in various
fields, including natural resource exploration and management, environmental protection, hazard
assessment, and understanding the Earth's history and evolution.
2. Atmosphere:
- The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds the Earth and is held in place by gravity. It
consists primarily of nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about 21%), with trace amounts of other
gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, and argon. The atmosphere plays a vital role in supporting
life on Earth in several ways:
- Protection from Solar Radiation: The atmosphere absorbs and scatters harmful solar radiation,
including ultraviolet (UV) radiation, preventing it from reaching the Earth's surface in excessive
amounts. This shielding helps to protect living organisms from DNA damage and reduces the risk of
skin cancer and other health problems.
- Temperature Regulation: The atmosphere helps regulate the Earth's temperature by trapping
heat from the Sun (the greenhouse effect) and redistributing it across the planet. This moderates
temperature extremes between day and night and between different regions, creating suitable
conditions for life to thrive.
- Supply of Oxygen: The presence of oxygen in the atmosphere is essential for the respiration of
many organisms, including humans and other animals. Oxygen is used in cellular respiration to
generate energy, allowing organisms to carry out essential metabolic processes.
- Carbon Dioxide Exchange: The atmosphere serves as a reservoir for carbon dioxide (CO2), a
crucial component of the carbon cycle. Plants absorb CO2 during photosynthesis, converting it into
oxygen and organic compounds, which are then consumed by animals. This exchange of gases
supports the growth of plants and the production of food.
- Weather Systems: The atmosphere drives weather patterns and atmospheric circulation,
including the formation of clouds, precipitation, and winds. These processes distribute heat and
moisture across the planet, creating diverse habitats and ecosystems that support a wide range of
life forms.
3. Geosphere:
- The geosphere refers to the solid parts of the Earth, including the rocks, minerals, landforms, and

processes that shape the planet's surface and interior. It is one of the four major components of the
Earth system, along with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The geosphere encompasses
a wide range of geological features and processes, including:
- Continents and Oceans
- Plate Tectonics
- Volcanism
- Earthquakes
- Mountain Building
 The geosphere is involved in dynamic processes such as erosion, sedimentation, and the
formation of natural resources. It plays a crucial role in shaping the Earth's landscape, providing
habitats for living organisms, and influencing Earth's climate and environment.

4. Hydrosphere:
- The hydrosphere refers to all the water found on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. It
includes oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, glaciers, groundwater, and atmospheric water vapor. The
hydrosphere plays a crucial role in supporting life on Earth and influencing the planet's climate and
weather patterns. Various water bodies within the hydrosphere, such as oceans, rivers, and lakes,
provide habitats for a wide range of plant and animal species. Additionally, the hydrosphere is
essential for regulating the Earth's temperature, distributing heat and moisture, and shaping the
Earth's landscape through erosion and sedimentation processes.

5. Biosphere:
- The biosphere refers to the zone of the Earth where life exists, extending from the deepest ocean
trenches to the highest mountaintops and including the surface of the land and the atmosphere. It
encompasses all living organisms and their interactions with each other and with their physical
environment. The biosphere is characterized by its remarkable diversity of species and ecosystems,
which form an interconnected web of life on Earth. Ecosystems range from terrestrial habitats such
as forests, grasslands, and deserts to aquatic environments such as oceans, rivers, and wetlands.
Each ecosystem is characterized by its unique combination of species, climate, soil, and geology,
which determine the types of organisms that can inhabit it and the ecological processes that occur
within it. Biodiversity, or biological diversity, refers to the variety of life forms found within the
biosphere, including the diversity of species, genes, and ecosystems. The biosphere is sustained by
complex networks of relationships between organisms, including predation, competition, symbiosis,
and nutrient cycling. Protecting and preserving the biosphere and its biodiversity is crucial for
ensuring the health and well-being of present and future generations and for maintaining the
stability of the Earth's life-support systems.

6. Lithosphere:
- The lithosphere is the rigid outer layer of the Earth, consisting of the crust and the uppermost part
of the mantle. It is divided into tectonic plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere below. The
lithosphere is involved in tectonic processes such as plate movement, earthquakes, and mountain
building.

7. Asthenosphere:
- The asthenosphere is a semi-fluid layer of the Earth's upper mantle beneath the lithosphere. It is
composed of partially molten rock that flows slowly over long periods of time. The asthenosphere
plays a crucial role in tectonic plate movements by allowing the overlying lithospheric plates to move
horizontally and interact with each other.
8. Crust:
- The crust is the outermost solid layer of the Earth, comprising the continental crust and the
oceanic crust. The continental crust is thicker (averaging about 35 km) and less dense than the
oceanic crust (averaging about 7 km). The crust is composed primarily of silicate rocks such as granite
(continental crust) and basalt (oceanic crust).
9. Mantle:
- The mantle is the layer of the Earth located between the crust and the core. It constitutes the
largest portion of the Earth's volume and is composed mainly of silicate minerals rich in iron and
magnesium. The mantle is divided into the upper mantle and the lower mantle, with the upper
mantle being more rigid and the lower mantle exhibiting increased pressure and temperature.
10. Core:
- The core is the innermost layer of the Earth, consisting primarily of iron and nickel. It is divided
into the outer core and the inner core. The core is responsible for generating the Earth's magnetic
field through the movement of molten iron in the outer core.
11. Outer Core:
- The outer core is a layer of molten iron and nickel that surrounds the solid inner core. It is
responsible for generating the Earth's magnetic field through the movement of convecting molten
metal. The outer core is believed to be in a liquid state due to the high temperatures and pressures
present at this depth within the Earth.
12. Inner Core:
- The inner core is the solid, innermost layer of the Earth's core, composed primarily of iron and
nickel. Despite the extreme temperatures and pressures, the inner core remains solid due to the
intense pressure exerted by the overlying layers. It is approximately 1,200 km in radius and plays a
significant role in the Earth's internal heat distribution and magnetic field generation.

Task 3:
1. Nile River:
- The Nile River is the longest river in the world, flowing northward through northeastern
Africa. It is approximately 6,650 kilometers (4,130 miles) long and is fed by two main
tributaries, the Blue Nile and the White Nile. The Nile has played a significant role in the
history and development of ancient civilizations, including the ancient Egyptians, who relied
on its annual floods for agriculture and transportation. Today, the Nile remains a vital water
source for millions of people living in Egypt, Sudan, and other countries along its course.
Latitude: 29.533438
Longitude: 31.270695
Altitude: 6000 meters above the sea level

2. Mount Everest:
- Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world, located in the Himalayas on the border
between Nepal and China (Tibet). It stands at an elevation of 8,848.86 meters (29,031.7 feet)
above sea level. Mount Everest is a popular destination for mountaineers and adventurers,
attracting thousands of climbers from around the world each year. Scaling Everest is
considered one of the ultimate challenges in mountaineering, requiring technical skill,
physical endurance, and careful planning due to the extreme altitude and harsh weather
conditions.
Latitude: 27.986065
Longitude: 86.922623
Altitude: 8849 metres

3. Mount Makalu:
- Mount Makalu is the fifth highest mountain in the world, situated in the Mahalangur
Himalayas of Nepal and China. It stands at an elevation of 8,485 meters (27,838 feet) above
sea level. Mount Makalu is known for its challenging climbing routes and remote location,
making it less frequently climbed compared to nearby peaks like Mount Everest. Despite its
lower profile, Makalu offers breathtaking views and presents a formidable challenge to
climbers seeking to conquer its summit.
Latitude: 27.8868
Longitude: 87.0865
Altitude: 8485 metres