1.

6 Cell Division

TERMINOLOGY

 Use chromatid when describing each of DNA strand on a chromosome in mitosis.

 Cell cycle is a sequence of events

between one cell division and the
next.
Interphase  mitosis  cytokinesis
 Consists of: interphase & cell division.
U1. Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically identical daughter nuclei

State the function of mitosis

 To create two daughter cells with genetically identical nuclei.

List four processes which involve mitosis

 Asexual reproduction.
 Growth of organism, more cell differentiation.
 Embryonic development.
 Tissue repair - replace cells that die naturally.

State the names of the four phases of mitosis.

Draw typical eukaryotic cells as they would appear during the interphase and the four
phases of mitosis.
Interphase Key features Drawing

G1  Nucleus intact.
 Nucleolus visible.
 DNA as chromatin (1 single
strand), unreplicated.
S and G2  DNA replicates in S.
 By G2, DNA is appeared to be
replicated (i.e. chromosome)
Mitosis is divided into 4 phases
Name Key features Drawing
Prophase  Nuclear membrane begins to
break.
 Nucleolus disappears.
 DNA supercoils into replicated
chromosomes.
 Centrosomes move to opposite
pole. Spindle fibre form
between them.
Metaphase  Contraction of microtubule
causes replicated chromosome
to align at the cell equator.
 A protein complex called
kinetochore, located at the
centromere, connected to
microtubules (a type of spindle
fibre).

Anaphase  Identical chromatid – now

called, unreplicated
chromosome pulled toward the
pole of cell by motor proteins
moving along the kinetochore
microtubules (or contraction of
microtubule).
 Non-kinetochore microtubules
elongate the cell.

Telophase  Nuclear membrane reforms.

 Nucleolus present.
 Chromosomes decondense into
chromatin. (no longer visible
under microscope)
 Spindle fibres break apart.
U2. Chromosomes condense by supercoiling during mitosis

Describe the structure of a replicated chromosome, include the centromere and sister
chromatids.

 Replicated chromosome = supercoiled DNA of which identical copies of two sister

chromatids attach to each other by centromere in the centre.

Explain why chromosomes must condense during mitosis.

 Chromosome condense by supercoiling to make DNA packed more tightly together so that it
can easily be moved to the poles of the cell.
U3. Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plant and animal cells

Define cytokinesis.

 The division of cytoplasm of a parent cell into two daughter cells.

State the difference between mitosis and cytokinesis.

Mitosis Cytokinesis
 The division of nucleus  Splitting of cytoplasm.
 Occur after mitosis

Contrast cytokinesis in plant and animal cells.

 Different cytokinesis.
 Plant cells must create a cell wall between the daughter cell cytoplasm.
 Animal cell – no need to form cell wall.

Describe the formation of the cleavage furrow in animal cell cytokinesis.

 A ring of contractile protein (actin & myosin) at the cell equator constrict, pull the cell
membrane inward  creating a cleavage furrow.
 The cleavage furrow continues to pinch inward until two sides of cytoplasm meets to form a
new cell.

Describe the formation of the middle lamella and cell wall in plant cell cytokinesis.

 In telophase, vesicles from Golgi apparatus move to the equator of cell. Fuse to form tubular
structure.
 Tubular structure merge with more vesicles to form two layers of plasma membrane – cell
plate.
 Cell plate continues to develop until it connects with the existing cell’s plasma membrane.
 Vesicle deposit by exocytosis, pectin & other substances in the lumen between the daughter
cells to form the middle lamella. (‘gluing’ cell tg)
 Both daughter cells secrete cellulose to form new adjacent cell walls.
U4. Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with many processes occurring
after mitosis and is different in plant and animal cells

List example metabolic reactions occurring during cell interphase.

 The majority of cell cycle is spent in interphase (G1, S & G2). Consists of parts of cell cycle
that don’t involve cell division.
 G1:
o Increase the volume of cytoplasm//cell growth, nutrients are required.
o Organelles produce & increase. (in animal – mitochondria; in plant – chloroplast).
o Proteins synthesised.
 S: DNA is replicated.
 G2:
o Increase the volume of cytoplasm
o Organelles produce & increase.
o Synthesise proteins needed for mitosis and cytokinesis.

Outline events of G1, S, G2 and G0 phases of interphase.

 G0: cell is neither dividing or preparing to divide.

U5. Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle

Explain the role of cyclin and cyclin-CDK complexes in controlling the cell cycle.

 Cyclins – a family of proteins that control the progression of cells through cell cycle.
 Cells cannot progress to the next stage of cell cycle unless specific cyclin reaches its
threshold concentration.
 Cyclins bind to enzymes called cyclin-dependent kinases, creating cyclin-CDK complexes.
 Kinases then become active and attach phosphate to other proteins in the cell.
 Phosphorylation triggers proteins to become active and carry out tasks.

State the role of cyclins D, B, A and E in the cell cycle.

U6. Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the development of primary
and secondary tumours

Define tumor, benign, malignant, metastasis, cancer, mutagen and carcinogen.

Word Definition
Mutation A change in the base sequence of a certain gene.
Tumor A mass of tissue caused by abnormal growth.
Benign A tumor that is unable to invade other tissues or metastasize.
Malignant A tumor made of cells that can invade other tissues.
Metastasis Cells from a malignant tumor spread from primary site to other parts of
the body (secondary site) via blood or lymph vessel.
Cancer A disease caused by malignant tumor.
Mutagen An agent that causes a genetic mutation. (e.g. UV, viruses, radiation)
Carcinogen A substance capable of causing cancer.

Describe why mutagens are not necessarily carcinogens.

 Mutagen induces mutations in DNA.

 If the mutation causes uncontrolled cell division and cancer, then this mutagen = carcinogen.

Describe how cancer arises, referring to accumulation of mutations over time.

 A cell becomes cancerous only when mutations accumulate in the gene that control cell
cycle.
Explain the relationship between oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes and cancer.

 Oncogenes are normal genes that code for proteins that help the cell move through cell
cycle.
 When oncogenes are mutated, they move the cell through cell cycle even when it shouldn’t
divide.
 Tumor-suppressor genes function to stop a cell from dividing when it shouldn’t.
 Tumor-suppressors can mutate, leading to cell moving through cell cycle when it shouldn’t.
 Cancer develops when proto-oncogenes & tumor-suppressor genes are mutated and cell
divides without control.

Describe the development of secondary tumors

A1. The correlation between smoking and incidence of cancers

S1. Identification of phases of mitosis in cells viewed with a microscope or in a
micrograph

S2. Determination of a mitotic index from a micrograph

State the formula for calculation of a mitotic index.

Calculate the mitotic index of a tissue as seen in a micrograph.

Outline the use of mitotic index calculations in diagnosis and treatment of cancer.

 Diagnosis: higher the M.I relative to a standard M.I., more likely a tissue is cancerous,
 Treatment: cancer treatment work by stopping cell division, so if M.I. decreases, treatment
is working.