1.1.

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING ANALYSIS

1.1.1. Objectives
➢ The analyst needs certain requirements while designing and assembling
the parts of the product. Those requirements are mentioned below.
To calculate,
➢ (i) Displacement at certain points;
➢ (ii) Stress distribution;
➢ (iii) Natural frequencies;
➢ (iv) Critical buckling loads;
➢ (v) Vibrations;
➢ (vi) Pressure, velocity and temperature distribution;
➢ (vii) Crack growth, residual strength and fatigue life.
1.1.2. Methods of Engineering Analysis
➢ There are three different approaches to achieve the above-mentioned
objectives. They are:
➢ 1. Experimental methods.
➢ 2. Analytical methods.
➢ 3. Numerical methods or approximate methods.
1. Experimental Methods
➢ In these methods, prototypes can be used. If we want to change the
dimensions of the prototype, we have to disassemble the entire
prototype and reassemble it and then testing should be carried out. It
needs man power and materials. So, it is time consuming and costly
process.
2. Analytical Methods or Theoretical Analysis
➢ In these methods, problems are expressed by mathematical differential
equations. It gives quick and closed form solutions. It is used only for
simple geometries and idealized support and loading conditions.
3. Numerical Methods
➢ Analytical solutions can be obtained only for certain simplified
situations. For problems involving complex material properties and
boundary conditions, the engineer prefers numerical methods that
 gives approximate but acceptable solutions. The following three
methods are coming under numerical solutions.
(i) Functional Approximation. (ii) Finite Difference Method (FDM).

(iii) Finite Element Method (FEM).

(i) Functional Approximation:

➢ The classical methods such as Rayleigh-Ritz methods (variational

approach) and Galerkin methods (weighted residual methods) are based
on functional approximation but vary in their procedure for evaluating
the unknown parameters.
➢ Rayleigh-Ritz method is useful for solving complex structural problems,
encountered in finite element analysis.
➢ Weighted residual method is useful for solving non-structural
problems.

(ii) Finite Differential Method (FDM):

➢ Finite difference method is useful for solving heat transfer fluid

mechanics and structural mechanics problems. It is a general method.
It is applicable to any phenomenon for which differential equation along
with the boundary conditions are available. It works well for two
dimensional regions with boundaries parallel to the coordinate axes.
➢ The starting point in the finite difference method is that the differential
equation must be known before solving. After that, the region is
subdivided into a convenient number of divisions. The differential
equation is applied successively at the various points of the subdivided
region, a set of simultaneous equations are generated which upon
solving lead to approximate solution to the problem. This is the essence
of finite difference method.
➢ This method is difficult to use when regions have curved or irregular
boundaries and it is difficult to write general computer programs.
(iii) Finite Element Method (FEM) or Finite Element Analysis (FEA):

➢ Finite element method is a numerical method for solving problems of

Engineering and Mathematical Physics.
➢ analysis carried out in this method, a body or a structure in which the
analysis to be carried out is subdivided into smaller elements of finite
dimensions called finite elements.
➢ Then the body is considered as an assemblage of these elements
connected at a finite number of joints called 'Nodes' or Nodal points.
The properties of each type of finite element is obtained and assembled
together and solved as whole to get solution.
➢ In other words, in the finite element method, instead of solving the
problem for the entire body in one operation, we formulate the
equations for each finite element and combine them to obtain the
solution of the whole body.
➢ Finite element method is used to solve physical problems involving
complicated geometrics, loading and material properties which cannot
be solved by analytical method. This method is extensively used in the
field of structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, mass
transfer, electric and magnetic fields problems.
➢ Fig.1.1 shows the finite element discretization of spur gear teeth.

➢ Based on application, the finite element problems are classified as

follows: (i) Structural problems.
 ➢ (ii) Non-structural problems.
➢ (i) Structural problems:
➢ In structural problems, displacement at each nodal point is obtained.
By using these displacement solutions, stress and strain in each
element can be calculated.
➢ (ii) Non-structural problems:
➢ In non-structural problems, temperature or fluid pressure at each
nodal point is obtained. By using these values, properties such as heat
flow, fluid flow etc., for each element can be calculated.

Write Difference between Fem and Classical Methods

Difference between FEM and Classical Methods

Classical Methods Finite Element Method
1 Exact equations are formed and Exact equations are formed but
exact solutions are obtained. approximate solutions are
obtained.
2 Solutions can be obtained for Solutions can be obtained for
limited problems. all types of problems.
3 When material property is not It can handle structures with
isotropic, solutions for the anisotropic properties with
problems become very difficult. ease.
4 If structure consists of more than It can be used without any
one material it is difficult to difficulty.
classical method. use
5 Problems with material and It can handle without any
geometric non- linearities cannot difficulty.
be handled easily.
1.3. GENERAL STEPS OF THE FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

This section presents the general procedure of finite element analysis. For
simplicity's sake, we will consider only the structural problems.
The following two general methods are associated with the finite element
analysis.
They are:
(i) Force method.
(ii) Displacement or stiffness method.
he unknowns of the problem In force method, internal forces are considered
as the unknowns of the displacement or stiffness method, displacements of
the nodes are considered as the unknowns of the problem.
Among these two approaches, displacement method is more desirable
because its formulation is simpler for most structural analysis problems. So,
a vast majority of general-purpose finite element programs have used the
displacement formulation for solving structural problems.

We now present the steps along with explanations used in the finite element
method formulation.
Step 1: Discretization of Structure
The art of subdividing a structure into a convenient number of smaller
elements is known as discretization. Smaller elements are classified as
follows:
(i) One dimensional element.
(ii) Two dimensional elements.
(iii) Three dimensional elements.
(iv) Axisymmetric elements.
(i) One dimensional element: A bar and beam elements are
considered as one-dimensional elements. The simplest line element
also known as linear element has two nodes, one at each end as
shown in Fig.1.2.
 (ii) Two dimensional elements: Triangular and rectangular elements
are considered as two-dimensional elements. These elements are
loaded by forces in their own plane. The simplest two-dimensional
elements have corner nodes as shown in Fig. 1.3.

(iii) Three dimensional

elements: The most common three-dimensional elements are tetrahedral and
hexahedral (Brick) elements. These elements are used for three-dimensional
stress analysis problems. The simplest three-dimensional elements have
corner nodes as shown in Fig.1.4.

(iv) Axisymmetric elements: The axisymmetric element is developed by

rotating a triangle or quadrilateral about a fixed axis located in the
plane of the element through 360°. It is shown in Fig.1.5. When the
geometry and loading of the problems are axisymmetric, these
elements are used.
Step 2: Numbering of Nodes and Elements

The nodes and elements should be numbered after discretization process. The
numbering process is most important since it decide the size of the stiffness
matrix and it leads the reduction of memory requirement. While numbering
the nodes, the following condition should be satisfied.
Maximum node number – minimum node number = Minimum

It is explained in the Fig.1.6(a) and (b).

From equation (1.1) and (1.2), we came to know, shorter side numbering
process is followed in the finite element analysis and it reduces the memory
requirements. Step 3: Selection of a Displacement Function or Interpolation
Function

➢ It involves choosing a displacement function within each element.

Polynomial of linear, quadratic and cubic form are frequently used as
displacement functions because they are simple to work within finite
element formulation.

The polynomial type of interpolation functions are mostly used due to the
following reasons.

1. It is easy to formulate and computerize the finite element equations.

2. It is easy to perform differentiation or integration.

3. The accuracy of the results can be improved by increasing the order of the
polynomial.

Fig. 1.7 shows the polynomial approximation in one dimension. Let us

consider (x) is a field variable.
Step 4: Define the material behaviour by using Strain-Displacement and
Stress-Strain Relationships
➢ Strain-Displacement and Stress-Strain relationships are necessary for
deriving the equations for each finite element.
➢ In case of one-dimensional deformation, the strain-displacement
relationship is given by,

In compact matrix form as,

{Fe} = [ke] {ue}
where, e is a Element, {F} is the vector of element nodal forces, [k] is the
element stiffness matrix and {u} is the element displacement vector.

This equation can be derived by any one of the following methods.

(i) Direct Equilibrium Method: This method is much easier to apply for line
or one-dimensional elements.
(ii) Variational Method: This method is most easily adaptable to the
determination of element equations for complicated elements (ie., element
having large number of degrees of freedom) like axisymmetric stress element,
plate bending element and two- or three-dimensional solid stress element.
(iii) Weighted Residual Method: This method is (Galerkin's method) useful
for developing the element equations in thermal analysis problems. They are
especially useful when a functional such as potential energy is not readily
available.
Step 6: Assemble the element equations to obtain the global or total
equations:
The individual element equations obtained in step 5 are added together by
using a method of superposition i.e., direction stiffness method. The final
assembled or global equation which is in the form of
{F} [K] {u} ... (1.5)
where, {F} → Global force vector..
[K] → Global stiffness matrix.
{u}→ Global displacement vector.
Step 7: Applying boundary conditions:
From equation (1.5), we know that, global stiffness matrix [K] is a singular
matrix because its determinant is equal to zero. In order to remove this
singularity problem, certain boundary conditions are applied so that the
structure remains in place instead of moving as a rigid body. The global
equation (1.5) to be modified to account for the boundary conditions of the
problem.
Step 8: Solution for the unknown displacements:
A set of simultaneous algebraic equations formed in step 6 can be written in
expanded matrix form as follows:
1.4. DISCRETIZATION
The process of discretization of a structure in finite element method (FEM)
can be divided into several steps, which are as follows:
Model Creation: The first step is to create a model of the structure that is to
be analysed. This can be done using a computer-aided design (CAD) software.
The CAD software allows the user to create a 3D model of the structure that
is to be analysed. The model should include all the geometrical features and
material properties of the structure.
Mesh Generation: Once the model has been created, the next step is to
generate a mesh. Mesh generation involves dividing the model into a finite
number of smaller subdomains or elements. The mesh should be fine enough
to capture all the details of the structure, but not so fine that it becomes
computationally expensive. The size and shape of the elements can vary
depending on the complexity of the structure and the level of accuracy
required.
Element Type Selection: The type of element to be used for each subdomain
or element needs to be selected. Common element types used in FEM include
triangular, quadrilateral, tetrahedral, and hexahedral elements. The element
type chosen depends on the geometry and complexity of the structure.
Boundary Conditions: The next step is to define the boundary conditions.
Boundary conditions specify the loads and constraints that are applied to the
structure. The loads can be forces, pressures, or accelerations, while the
constraints can be fixed or prescribed displacements.
Material Properties: The material properties of the structure need to be
defined. These include the elastic modulus, Poisson's ratio, and density of the
material.
Element Equations: The element equations are derived by approximating the
solution within each element using the shape functions. The shape functions
are mathematical functions that represent the variation of the solution within
each element. The element equations are usually derived by using the
principle of minimum potential energy.
System Equations: The system equations are obtained by assembling the
element equations into a global system of equations. The system equations
relate the nodal displacements to the applied loads and boundary conditions.

Solution: Once the system equations have been obtained, they can be solved
using numerical methods to obtain the nodal displacements. The solution can
then be post-processed to obtain other quantities of interest, such as stresses
and strains.

Example for Discretization:

The art of subdividing a structure into a convenient number of smaller

components is known as Discretization. These smaller components are then
put together. The process of uniting the various elements together is called
Assemblage. The assemblage of such elements is called Assembly then
represents the original body.
Discretization can be classified as follows:
(i) Natural.
(ii) Artificial (continuum).

In structural analysis, a truss is considered as a natural system. The various

members of the truss constitute the elements. These elements are connected
at various joints known as nodes.

Fig. 1.10. Natural discretization of truss

Nodal Points: Each kind of finite element has a specific structural shape and
is interconnected with the adjacent elements by nodal points or nodes.

Nodal forces: The forces that act at each nodal point are called nodal forces.

Degrees of freedom: When the force or reaction act at nodal point, node is
subjected to deformation. This deformation includes displacements,
rotations, and/or strains. These are collectively known as degrees of freedom
or simply we can say nodal displacement is called degrees of freedom.

In Fig.1.10, the truss consists of 9 elements and 6 nodes. There are four freely
moving and two extreme constrained nodes. The truss is a natural system as
there is no possibility either to increase or decrease the number of elements
and the nodes.

Artificial Discretization (Continuum)

Continuum is generally considered to be a single mass of material as found

in a forging, concrete dam, deep beam, plate and so on. Unlike the truss
element which is physically present in the truss, in a continuum, the

following three elements exist only in our imagination.

1. Triangular element.

2. Rectangular element.

3. Quadrilateral element.
 ➢ The choice of the element to be used for discretization depends upon
the following factors.
(i) Number of degrees of freedom needed.
(ii) Expected accuracy.
(iii) Necessary equations required.
➢ However, in certain problems, the given structure cannot be discretized
by using only one type of elements. In such cases, we can use two or
more types of elements for discretization.
Example: Air craft wing.
(ii) Size of elements:
➢ The size of elements influences the convergence of the solution of the
problem directly. So, it should be chosen with more care.
➢ If the size of the element is small, the final solution is more accurate.
But the computational time for the smaller size element is more when
compared to larger size element.
➢ Another characteristic related to the size of elements that affects the
finite element problem solution is the "Aspect ratio" of the elements. ✓
Aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of the largest dimension of the
element to the smallest dimension. The conclusion of many researchers
is that the aspect ratio should be close to unity as possible. For a two-
dimensional rectangular element, the aspect ratio is conveniently
defined as length to breadth ratio. Aspect ratio closer to unity yields
better results.
(iii) Location of nodes:
➢ If the structure has no abrupt changes in geometric, load, boundary
conditions and material properties, the structure can be divided into
equal subdivisions. So, the spacing of the nodes are uniform.
➢ If there are any discontinuities in geometric, load, boundary conditions
and material properties of the structure, nodes should be introduced at
these discontinuities as shown in the following figures.
(iv) Number of elements:

The number of elements to be selected for discretization depends upon the

following factors:

1. Accuracy desired.

2. Size of the elements.

3. Number of degrees of freedom involved.

➢ If the number of elements in the structure is increased, the final

solution of the problem is expected to be more accurate. But the use of
large number of elements involves a large number of degrees of freedom,
it leads the storage problem in the available computer memory.
What is meant by finite element methods and write down their
applications.

The finite element method (FEM) is a numerical technique for solving

problems which are described by partial differential equations or can be
formulated as functional minimization. A domain of interest is represented as
an assembly of finite elements. Approximating functions in finite elements are
determined in terms of nodal values of a physical field which is sought. A
continuous physical problem is transformed into a discretized finite element
problem with unknown nodal values. For a linear problem a system of linear
algebraic equations should be solved. Values inside finite elements can be
recovered using nodal values.

Two features of the FEM are worth to be mentioned:

1) Piece-wise approximation of physical fields on finite elements provides good

precision even with simple approximating functions (increasing the number
of elements we can achieve any precision).

2) Locality of approximation leads to sparse equation systems for a discretized

problem. This helps to solve problems with very large number of nodal
unknowns.

ADVANTAGES OF Finite Element Method

1. One of the major advantages of FEM over other approximate methods is

the fact that FEM can handle irregular geometry in a convenient manner.

2. It handles general load conditions without difficulty.

3. non-homogeneous materials can be handled easily.

4. All the various types of boundary conditions are handled.

5. Dynamic effects are included.

6. Vary the size of the elements to make it possible for using small elements
where necessary.

7. Higher order elements may be implemented.

8. Altering the element model with different loads, boundary conditions and
other changes in the model can be done easily and cheaply.

Disadvantages of Fem

➢ It requires a digital computer and fairly extensive software.

➢ It requires longer execution time compared with finite difference
method.
➢ Output result will vary considerably, when the body is modeled with
fine mesh when compared to body modeled with course mesh.
➢ Infinite difference method, the governing differential equation of the
phenomenon must be known whereas finite element method does not
require to express fully.

Applications Of Finite Element Analysis

The finite element can be used to analyse both structural and non-structural
problems.
➢ In structural problems, displacement at each nodal point is obtained.
By using these displacement solutions, stress and strain in each
element can be calculated.
Typical structural problems include:
1. Stress analysis including truss and frame analysis.
2. Stress concentration problems typically associated with holes, fillets or
other changes in geometry in a body.
3. Buckling analysis: Example: Connecting rod subjected to axial
compression.
4. Vibration analysis: Example: A beam subjected to different types of
loading.
In non-structural problems, temperature or fluid pressure at each nodal point
is obtained. By using these values, properties such as heat flow, fluid flow,
etc., for each element can be calculated.
Non-structural problems include:
➢ 1. Heat transfer analysis.
➢ Example: Steady state thermal analysis on composite cylinder.
➢ 2. Fluid flow analysis.
➢ Example: Fluid flow through pipes.
➢ 3. Distribution of electric or magnetic potential.
➢ Example: Modelling of electromagnetic field of motor.
Recently finite element analysis is used in some biomechanical engineering
problems (which may include stress analysis) typically include analysis of
human spine, skull, hip joints, heart, eye, etc.

With neat sketches, explain “element shapes” used in FEM

There are different types of finite elements. These are mainly classified based
on geometrical dimensions (1D, 2D & 3D), you can further add types based
on element order, other or miscellaneous types. Refer Figure 1 for types of
elements:
1D Element:

In case of 1D elements one of the dimensions is very large compare to other

two dimensions. For example pipe, rod, bar, beams, axisymmetric shell etc.
In all this examples the length of the element is quite larger compare to width,
height, or diameter. Refer Figure 2, 1st image shows 1D rectangular beam, in
which length is very larger compare to height and width.

Modelling: The shape of 1D element is line which is created by joining two

nodes. So the length is defined by modeling line while other dimension are
defined by assigning respective cross sections to the line. Likewise 1D element
is modeled in FEA. FEA software codes includes many standard cross sections
such as C Channel, I beam, rectangular, square, circular & hollow section
and even user defined section too.

• Practical Examples: Long shafts, pin joints, connection elements, etc.

• Advantages:
• Solution computing is faster: Only one element across cross
section compare to 2D and 3D elements, results significant
reduction in mesh count & solution time.
• Less efforts for modeling and meshing
• Design changes are easier: Just need to change the cross
section of the (beam elements)
• Fruitful for automation and design codes: There are lot of
codes and design guidelines guides on beam design

2D Element:

In case of 2D, two dimensions are very large comparison with third one. For
Examples, plane stress, plane strain, axisymmetric solid, thin shell, plate,
membrane, etc. Refer Figure 2, 2nd sketch shows 2D plate in which width &
length are very large compare to thickness.

• Modelling: 2D shapes are plate structure for which midsurface is

extracted and thickness is assigned on both the side of the surface (half
 thickness on either sides). Moreover, sometimes top and bottom surface
are extracted and respective thickness is assigned (For top surface
bottom side while for bottom surface top side thickness is assigned so
that exact geometry shape is represented). Quad, Tria, Rtria are the
primarily element shapes used to define the 2D elements.
• Practical Example: Thin vessels, sheet metal parts, plastic
components like instrumental panels, etc. Generally, 2D meshing is
used when width to thickness ratio is greater than 20.
• The Pitfalls:
• Advantages like 1D elements in terms of less modelling efforts
and faster simulation compare to 3D Elements.
• Have limitation when irregular surface with different features
on two sides.
• Difficulties to see stresses across thickness like in case of
stress linearization approach for pressure vessels.

3D Element:

In case of 3D, all dimensions are comparable for example solids. Refer Figure
2, 3rd sketch shows the cube in which all the dimensions like length, width &
height are comparable with each other. .

• Modelling: Tetra, Penta, Hex, Pyramid are the primarily element

shape used to define the 3D elements. If geometry is sweep able or
mappable (for example shell in case of vessel) then Hex mesh is
preferred or else tetra mesh is used. For all irregular shapes tetra
mesh is used. If the structure is having sweep able as well as irregular
shapes in such scenario the combination of hex, tetra and pyramid or
penta in between is used.
• Practical Examples: Industrial valves, Casing, engine block,
connecting rods, etc (most of real life objects are solids).
 Figure 2: 1D, 2D, 3D Elements

Element Types Based on Element Names:

There are various FEA software’s available in the market and for each element
type you will find different element name and algorithms. Table 1 shows the
linear and quadratic elements types for beam, shell and solid element from
ANSYS software. Likewise, if you are using other software like Abaqus, Radios,
Nastran, etc, you will find different names for the respective elements.

Element Name & Types ANSYS

Distinguish between FEM and FDM

Finite Difference Methods Finite Element Methods

1 It makes point wise approximation It makes piecewise approximation to the

the to the governing equations. governing equations.
2 It does not give the values at any It gives the values at any point.
point except at node points.
3 It does not give any approximating It gives a interpolating function to
function to evaluate the basic values obtain values at points other than
using the node values. nodes.
4 It makes stair type approximation to It considers the sloping boundaries
sloping and curved boundaries. exactly and curved boundaries too.
5 It needs larger number of nodes. It needs fewer nodes.
6 Fairly handles complicated problems. Can handle all complicated
problems.

RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD (VARIATIONAL APPROACH)

1. Rayleigh-Ritz method is a integral approach method which is useful for
solving complex structural problems, encountered in finite element
analysis. This method is possible only if a suitable functional is
available, otherwise Galerkin's method of weighted residual is used. By
using this method stiffness matrices and consistent load vector can be
assembled easily. This method is mostly used for solving solid
mechanics problems.
2. The phrase "Variational methods" refers to methods that make use of
variational principles, such as the principles of virtual work and the
principle of minimum potential energy in solid and structural
mechanics, to determine the approximate solutions of the problems.
3. In Rayleigh-Ritz method for continuous system we deal with the
following functional.
 4. In our terminology, a functional is an integral expression that implicitly
contains the governing differential equations for a particular problem.
5. Total potential energy of the structure is given by,

6. In this method, the approximating functions must satisfy the boundary

conditions and should be easy to use. Polynomials are generally used
and sometimes sine and cosine terms are also used as approximating
function.
7. In general, any exact function can be represented as a polynomial or
trigonometric series with undetermined constants as shown below.

8. The constants a0, a1, a2 are unknowns known as Ritz parameters of the
curve. When the Parameters are infinite, the particular polynomial
tends to match the exact value. So, the accuracy depends upon the
number of parameters chosen.
9. The following two conditions must be fulfilled by the approximating
function.
1. It should satisfy the geometric boundary conditions.
2. The function must have at least one Ritz parameter.
10. In general, a Rayleigh-Ritz solution is rarely exact except in some
special simple cases, but it becomes more accurate with the use of more
parameters.
11. This method can be understood clearly by solving the following
examples.
With a suitable example, Explain the Rayleigh-Ritz method
Explain the following terms

a. Variational Approach
b. Weigh residual method

a. Variational Approach:
The variational approach is a mathematical method used to find the
approximate solutions to problems in which the exact solutions are difficult
or impossible to obtain. It involves formulating the problem as an optimization
problem, where the objective is to find the function that minimizes a certain
functional (i.e., a function of a function). The functional is typically
constructed in such a way that the minimization problem captures the
essential properties of the problem, such as the governing equations,
boundary conditions, and constraints. The solution to the optimization
problem provides an approximation to the exact solution of the original
problem.

The variational approach is widely used in physics, engineering, and

mathematics to solve problems in mechanics, electromagnetism, quantum
mechanics, fluid mechanics, and many other fields.

b. Weighted Residual Method:

The weighted residual method is a numerical technique used to
approximate solutions to differential equations. It involves multiplying the
differential equation by a set of weighting functions and integrating over the
domain of interest. The resulting equation is then used to construct a system
of algebraic equations that can be solved numerically.

The weighting functions used in the method are chosen to satisfy

certain properties, such as orthogonality or continuity, which ensure that the
resulting approximation is accurate and stable. Different types of weighting
functions can be used, such as polynomial functions, trigonometric functions,
or piecewise functions.

The method is called "weighted" residual because the weighting

functions are used to assign different weights to the residual (i.e., the
difference between the approximate solution and the exact solution) at
different points in the domain. The residual is then minimized with respect to
the unknown coefficients in the approximation, resulting in an approximate
solution to the differential equation. The weighted residual method is a
general method that can be applied to a wide range of differential equations,
including partial differential equations.
With a suitable example, Explain the Galerkin method
The Galerkin method is a numerical technique used to solve partial
differential equations (PDEs). It is a specific form of the weighted residual
method, where the weighting functions are chosen to be the same as the basis
functions used to approximate the solution.

Find the deflection at the centre of a simply supported beam of span length 'I'
subjected to uniformly distributed load throughout its length as shown in
Figure below, using Galerkin's method.
Galerkin method
With a suitable example, Explain collocation method, sub domain
method

Example

Find the deflection at the centre of a simply supported beam of span length 'I'
subjected to uniformly distributed load throughout its length as shown in
Fig.(i), using (a) point collocation method, (b) Sub-domain method
The spring assembly is shown in Figure below Assemble the finite
element equation by using direct approach and potential energy
approach.
TWO MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. State the methods of Engineering analysis.

There are three methods of Engineering analysis. They are:
1. Experimental methods.
2. Analytical methods.
3. Numerical methods or approximate methods.
2. What is meant by finite element?
A small unit having definite shape of geometry and nodes is called finite
element.
3. What is meant by finite element analysis?
➢ Finite element method is a numerical method for solving problems of
Engineering and Mathematical physics.
➢ In the finite element method, instead of solving the problem for the
entire body in one operation, we formulate the equations for each finite
element and combine them to obtain the solution of the whole body.
4. Give examples for the finite element.
➢ 1. One dimensional elements: (a) Truss elements.
(b) Bar, Beam elements.
➢ 2. Two dimensional elements: (a) Triangular elements.
(b) Rectangular elements.
3. Three dimensional elements: (a) Tetrahedral elements.
(b) Hexahedral elements.
5. What is meant by node or joint?
Each kind of finite element has a specific structural shape and is
interconnected with the adjacent elements by nodal points or nodes. At the
nodes, degrees of freedom are located. The forces will act only at nodes and
not at any other place in the element.
6. What is the basis of finite element method?
Discretization is the basis of finite element method. The art of subdividing
a structure into a convenient number of smaller components is known as
discretization.
7. What are the types of boundary conditions?
There are two types of boundary conditions. They are:
1. Primary boundary condition.
2. Secondary boundary condition.
8. State the three phases of finite element method.
The three phases are: 1. Pre-processing.
2. Analysis.
3. Postprocessing.
9. What is structural and non-structural problems?
Structural problems: In structural problems, displacement at each nodal
point is obtained. By using these displacement solutions, stress and strain in
each element can be calculated.
Non-structural problems: In non-structural problems, temperatures or fluid
pressure at each nodal point is obtained. By using these values, properties
such as heat flow, fluid flow, etc., for each element can be calculated.
10. What are the methods are generally associated with the finite
element analysis?
The following two methods are generally associated with the finite element
analysis. They are:
(i) Force method.
(ii) Displacement or stiffness method.
11. Explain force method and stiffness method?
In force method, internal forces are considered as the unknowns of the
problem. In displacement or stiffness method, displacements of the nodes are
considered as the unknowns of the problem. Among them two approaches,
displacement method is desirable.
12. Why polynomial type of interpolation functions are mostly used in
FEM?
The polynomial type of interpolation functions are mostly used due to the
following reasons:
1. It is easy to formulate and computerize the finite element equations.
2. It is easy to perform differentiation or integration.
3. The accuracy of the results can be improved by increasing the order of the
polynomial. methods movations
13. Name the variational
1. Ritz method.
2. Rayleigh-Ritz method.
14. Name the weighted residual methods.
1. Point collocation method.
2. Subdomain collocation method.
3. Least squares method.
4. Galerkin's method.
15. What is meant by post processing?
Analysis and evaluation of the solution results is referred to as post
processing. Post processor computer programs help the user to interpret the
results by displaying them in graphical form.
16. What is Rayleigh-Ritz method?
Rayleigh-Ritz method is a integral approach method which is useful for
solving complex structural problems, encountered in finite element analysis.
This method is possible only if a suitable functional is available.
17. What is meant by discretization and assemblage?
The art of subdividing a structure into a convenient number of smaller
components is known as discretization. These smaller components are then
put together. The process of uniting the various elements together is called
assemblage.
18. What is meant by degrees of freedom?
When the force or reaction act at nodal point, node is subjected to
deformation. The deformation includes displacement, rotations, and/or
strains. These are collectively known as degrees of freedom.
19. What is "Aspect ratio"?
Aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of the largest dimension of the
element to the smallest dimension. In many cases, as the aspect ratio
increases, the inaccuracy of the solution increases. The conclusion of many
researches is that the aspect ratio should be close to unity as possible.
20. What is truss element?
The truss elements are the part of a truss structure linked together by
point joints, which transmit only axial force to the element.
21. List the two advantages of post-processing.
1. Required result can be obtained in graphical form.
2. Contour diagrams can be used to understand the solution easily and
quickly.
22. What are 'h' and 'p' versions of finite element method?
'h' versions and 'p' versions are used to improve the accuracy of the finite
element method.
In 'h' versions, the order of polynomial approximation for all elements is kept
constant and the number of elements are increased. In 'p' version, the number
of elements are maintained constant and the order of
polynomial approximation of element is increased.
23. During discretization, mention the places where it is necessary to
place a node?
The following places are necessary to place a node during discretization
process.
(i) Concentrated load acting point.
(ii) Cross-section changing point.
(iii) Different material inter junction point.
(iv) Sudden change in load point.
24. What is the difference between static and dynamic analysis?
Static analysis: The solution of the problem does not vary with time is known
as static analysis.
Example: Stress analysis on a beam.
Dynamic analysis: The solution of the problem varies with time is known as
dynamic analysis.
Example: Vibration analysis problems.
25. Name any four FEA software’s.
1. ANSYS.
3. COSMOS.
2. NASTRAN.
4. NISA.
26. Differentiate between global and local axes.
Global axis is defined for the entire system. They are same in direction for all
the elements even though the elements are differently oriented.
Local axis is established in an element. Since it is in the element level, they
change with the change in orientation of the element. The direction differs
from element to element.
By
G. Guru Mahesh & S. Jaya Kishore.
Assistant Professor
S V college of Engineering, Tirupati