CREATIVE TECHNOLOGY REVIEWER

VERNICE MORTEGA

I. Capacitors
 Capacitors store electrical energy, in 4. Tantalum Capacitors
an electric field between two
conductive plates separated by an • Similar to electrolytic capacitors
insulating material (dielectric). but use tantalum metal. They are known for their
 They can store and release energy high capacitance in a small size.
quickly, making them useful in
applications requiring rapid energy
transfer. C. Application of
Capacitors
A. SYMBOL AND UNITS 1. Timing Circuits
• Capacitors are often used in
"TWO PARALLEL PLATES WITH A GAP
conjunction with resistors to create timing
BETWEEN THEM"
circuits in electronics.

2. Power Supply Filtering

• Capacitors smooth out
fluctuations in voltage, providing a stable power
supply.

B. Types of Capacitors
3. Signal Coupling and
1. Electrolytic Capacitors
Decoupling
 These have a liquid electrolyte and
are polarized, meaning they have a • Capacitors can be used to
positive and a negative terminal. couple AC signals while blocking DC
Commonly used for high components. They are also used for decoupling
capacitance values. to prevent noise in power lines from affecting
sensitive components.

2. Ceramic Capacitors
II. Transformers
• Made of ceramic materials and
suitable for high- frequency applications. They • Devices used to transfer
come in various shapes and sizes. electrical energy. It can change the voltage and
current in the process which is very useful.
However, they only work with alternating
current (the direction of the flow of electrons
3. Film Capacitors switches back and forth at regular intervals or
• Constructed with a thin plastic cycles). They do not work with direct current
film as the dielectric. They are often used in (the flow of electric charge in only one
precision applications. direction).
 • Transformers are rated VA for current.
volt amps or even kilovolt amps kVA
• We are surrounded by
transformers from small ones like the ones used
in doorbells or chargers, larger versions that
supply our homes, or even the whole town.

A. Symbols
2. Step Down Transformers
• works by having less turns of wire in the
secondary side thus decreasing the voltage on
the output and increasing the current.

B. Structure of Transformers
• They have two separate coils of
wire wrapped around an iron core
• The generator or supply is
connected to one coil known as The Primary
Side ⁃ Energy loss from a cable
depends on the electrical current and resistance
• And the load which is the thing of the cable. There will be a huge energy loss if
we need to provide power is connected to the the current is high and the voltage is low. In
other coil and this is known as the Secondary contrast, if the current is low and the voltage is
Side high, there will still be loss of energy, but it will
only be a tiny amount.

1. Step Up Transformers
• works simply by having more
C. How it works
turns of wire in the secondary thus increasing • In the transformer, the
the voltage on the output and decreasing the frequency that we put in is the frequency we get
out. We can just increase or decrease the
voltage, not the frequency.
• When we wrap the wire into a
coil. this magnetic field becomes stronger. The
wire has to be insulated with an enamel coating
to ensure the current flows along the entire
length. Otherwise it will just take the shortest • ICs process electronic signals by
route and it will not work combining and manipulating them using their
integrated components. They're like mini
• Magnetic field in constantiy
electronic orchestras, creating the symphony of
changing polarity as well as intensity this
technology.
disturbs the free electrons and causes them to
move and we call this electromotive force.
• Again, it only works with
alternating current. The Only time it will work
with direct current is briefly when the switch is
opened and closed because this energizes and
de-energizes the magnetic field of the coil
• Why alternating current? It is B. Types of ICs
because we get a constant output voltage
because the magnetic field is constantly
1. Digital ICs
changing. • Any semiconductor-based chip
comprising an integrated set of digital circuitry.
• There will be eddy current
Digital ICs operate using discrete digital signals,
flowing around the core which will heat up
which represent binary values (Os and 15).
transformer and waste energy. To reduce this,
These circuits perform logical operations and are
the core is made up of lots of thin laminated
widely used in computers and digital systems.
sheets which restricts the eddy current
movement and reduces their effects.
• The AC frequency causes the 2. Analog ICs
sheets to contract and expand which causes
vibrations thus generating a humming sound. • Integrated circuits that process
continuous signals, representing a range of
values in electrical form. They are crucial in
handling real-world signals like sound,
III. Integrated Circuit temperature, and voltage.
• Also known as "ICs," are the • These are used for designing
unsung heroes that make our electronic gadgets operational amplifiers, linear regulators,
tick. From the smartphone in your pocket to the oscillators, active filters, and phase-locked
computer on your desk, these minuscule loops.
wonders play a pivotal role in shaping the
technological landscape we navigate daily.
• Its ability to allow for the 3. Mixed Signal ICs
miniaturization of components. they're the
reason our gadgets are small, affordable, and • Any integrated circuit that has
powerful. From your smartphone to the both analog circuits and digital circuits on the
smartwatch, they're the brains that make things same chip, bridges the gap between the
happen. continuous nature of analog signals and the
discrete nature of digital signals. Their usage has
A. Function grown dramatically with the increased use of
cell phones, telecommunications, portable
electronics, and automobiles with electronics diodes can protect the circuit well, prevent the
and digital sensors. circuit from being burned out due to short
circuits, etc., and also keep the function of
traditional switches.
IV. Diode
• A diode is an electrical device
that allows current to flow in one direction only.
• A diode is a two-terminal
electronic component that conducts electricity 2. In limiter circuit (signal
primarily in one direction. It has high resistance control)
on one end and low resistance on the other end.
⁃ In electronic circuits, limiter
• A diode is a specialized circuits are commonly used to process various
electronic component with two electrodes called signals. It is used to selectively transmit a part of
the anode and the cathode. the signal within a preset level range. Most
diodes can be used as limiters, but sometimes
special limit diodes, such as protection
instruments, are needed.

3. In regulator circuit (over-

voltage protections)
⁃ Zener diodes are usually used in
voltage stabilizing circuits. It is a surface-
• Anode (+) -the positive terminal junction silicon semiconductor diode
• Cathode (-) -the negative manufactured using a special process. This
terminal special diode has a high impurity concentration,
a high charge density in the charge space, and is
A. Function easy to form an electric field.

• Diodes are used in virtually all

electronic circuits. The use of semiconductor
diodes in the circuit can protect the circuit and
4. In varactor circuit (signals
extend the life of the circuit. The development of demodulation)
semiconductor diodes has made integrated
⁃ Varactor diodes are commonly
circuits better and played an active role in
used in varactor circuits to realize automatic
various fields.
frequency control, tuning, frequency
modulation, and scanning oscillation of circuits.
They are widely used in microwave circuits such
1. In switching circuit (current as parametric amplifiers, electronic tuners, and
steering) frequency doublers.

⁃ In digital and integrated circuits,

the unidirectional conductivity of a diode is used
to turn on or off a circuit, and this technology B. Types of Diodes
has been widely used. For example, switching 1. Recitifier Diodes
- They allow current to flow in only one C. Other types of Diodes:
direction, making them ideal for use in
power supplies. includes two layers of 1. Laser Diode
semiconductors. One layer of the ⁃ It is a different type of diode as
semiconductor material is doped with P- it produces coherent light. It is highly used in
type material and the other layer with N- CD drives, DVDs and laser devices. These are
type material. The combination of these costly when compared to LEDs and are cheaper
both P and N-type layers form a junction when compared to other laser generators.
known as the P-N junction. Hence, the
name P-N junction diode. P-N junction Limited life is the only drawback of these diodes
diode allows the current to flow in the
forward direction and blocks the flow of 2. Avalanche Diode
current in the reverse direction ⁃ This diode belongs to a reverse
2. Zener diodes bias type and operates using the avalanche
- are used to regulate voltage. They allow effect. When voltage drop is constant and is
current to flow in both directions, but independent of current, the breakdown of
they have a reverse breakdown voltage avalanche takes place. They exhibit high levels
that limits the amount of voltage that of sensitivity and hence are used for photo
can be applied to them. This makes them detection.
ideal for use in voltage regulation
circuits It is the most useful type of 3. Schottky Diode
diode as it can provide a stable reference
⁃ It has a lower forward voltage
voltage. These are operated in reverse
than other silicon PN junction diodes. The drop
bias and break down on the arrival of a
will be seen where there is low current and at
certain voltage. If current passing
that stage, voltage ranges between 0.15 and 0.4
through the resistor is limited, a stable
volts. These are constructed differently in order
voltage is generated. Zener diodes are
to obtain that performance. Schottky diodes are
widely used in power supplies to
highly used in rectifier applications.
provide a reference voltage.
3. Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 4. Photodiode
- are used to convert electrical energy into
light. They are made of materials that ⁃ A photo-diode can identify even
emit light when exposed to an electric a small amount of current flow resulting from
current. In other words, light is the light. These are very helpful in the detection
generated when a sufficient amount of of the light. This is a reverse bias diode and used
forwarding current passes through it. In in solar cells and photometers. They are even
many diodes, this light generated is not used to generate electricity
visible as there are frequency levels that
do not allow visibility. LEDs are
available in different colours. There are D. Uses
tricolour LEDs that can emit three
colours at a time. Light colour depends
1. Rectifier Diode
on the energy gap of the semiconductor • Used in power supply circuits to
used convert alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC).
 • Found in electronic devices like • Converts light into an electrical
chargers, power adapters, and power supplies for current and is used in light-sensitive applications
electronic equipment.
• Found in various devices such
2. Zener Diodes as light sensors in automatic lighting systems,
solar cells, and optical communication systems.
• Used for voltage regulation and
stabilization in electronic circuits.
• Commonly employed in voltage V. Transistors
regulators to maintain a constant output voltage. A. What are transistors?
3. Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) - A transistor is a semiconductor device used to
amplify or switch electrical signals and power. It
• Used for illumination in various
is one of the basic building blocks of moder
applications, such as household lighting,
electronics. It is composed of semiconductor
indicator lights on electronic devices, and
material, usually with at least three terminals for
automotive lighting
connection to an electronic circuit.
• Found in display panels of TVs,
B. Symbol of Transistors
monitors, and electronic signage.

4. Laser Diodes
• Essential components in laser
devices used for communication (fiber optic
communication), laser pointers, barcode
scanners, and optical storage devices (e.g., CD,
DVD, Blu-ray drives).

5. Avalanche Diodes
• Employed in high-voltage
applications and as noise generators in electronic
circuits. 1. NPN and PNP types of transistor?
• Utilized in avalanche ⁃ A PNP transistor is made up of
breakdown mode for generating random two P-type semiconductor junctions that share a
numbers in cryptographic applications. thin N-doped region, whereas an NPN transistor
is made up of two N-type semiconductor
6. Schottky Diodes junctions that share a thin P-doped region
• Commonly found in rectifier 2. What are the differences between
circuits, signal demodulation, and RF (radio NPN and PNP transistors?
frequency) applications.
⁃ Both NPN and PNP transistors
• Used in high-frequency have differences based on their construction,
applications due to their fast switching speed operation, and applications. One of the striking
differences is in the NPN transistor, the current
7. Photodiode flows from the collector to the emitter when a
positive supply is applied to the base, whereas in
the PNP transistor, the charge carrier flows from ⁃ Cell Phones: In cell phones,
the emitter to the collector when a negative transistors amplify signals and control the power
supply is applied to the base supply to different components. They also play a
role in the phone's processing power and
memory capacity.
C. Function of transistors ⁃ Automotive: Modern cars and
trucks use transistors for engine control, power
⁃ A transistor is generally used for
inverters for electric drives, power windows and
two types of applications, switching type
other electronic systems. Transistors play a vital
operations and amplification of signals. A solid-
role in the electric vehicle market as they control
state switch can be created using a transistor.
the flow of electricity in the car's power
⁃ The transistor functions as a electronic systems, thereby allowing for efficient
closed switch when operated in the saturation conversion and distribution of power.
zone and as an open switch when operated in the
cutoff area. Both PNP and NPN transistors can E. Importance of transistors
be utilized as switches. A transistor conducts
⁃ The importance of transistors in
current across the collector-emitter path only
modern electronics cannot be overstated as they
when a voltage is applied to the base. When no
have revolutionized technology and have played
base voltage is present, the switch is off. When
a central role in the digital age by making it
the base voltage is present, the switch is on.
possible to miniaturize electronic devices and,
therefore, resulting in smaller, faster, and more
energy-efficient products.
D. How do transistors work
⁃ A transistor works when the
electrons and the holes start moving across the VI. Inductors
two junctions between the n-type and p-type A. What is an Inductor?
silicon. The small current that we turn on at the - An inductor is a passive component that
base makes a big current flow between the is used in most power electronic circuits
emitter and the collector. to store energy in the form of magnetic
energy when electricity is applied to it.
⁃ A transistor can use a small
One of the key properties of an inductor
signal applied between one pair of its terminals
is that it impedes or opposes any change
to control a much larger signal at another pair of in the amount of current flowing through
terminals, a property called gain. it. Whenever the current across the
5. Example of Transistors (Use of inductor changes, it either acquires
charge or loses the charge in order to
transistors in everyday life)
equalise the current passing through it.
⁃ We use them in digital logic The inductor is also called a choke, a
circuits, memory chips and microprocessors, reactor or just a coil.
which are all crucial components of a computer.
B. Types of Inductors
⁃ Computers: Transistors are a
fundamental building block of modern 1. Iron Core Inductor
computers. We use them in digital logic circuits, - As the name suggests, the core of this
memory chips and microprocessors, which are type of inductor is made of iron. These
all crucial components of a computer. inductors are low-space inductors that
 have high power and high inductance - Coils in an inductor can be used to store
value. However, they are limited in energy. The function of the inductor
high-frequency capacity. These depends upon the frequency of the
inductors are used in audio equipment. current passing through it. That is,
2. Air Core Inductor higher frequency signals will be passed
- These inductors are used when the less easily and vice versa. This function
amount of inductance required is low. tells that it blocks AC Current and
Since there is no core, it does not have a passes DC Current. Hence, it can be
core loss. But the number of turns the used to block AC signals.
inductor must have is more for this type 2. Storing Energy
when compared to the inductors with the - Inductor stores energy in the form of
core. This results in a high-quality magnetic energy. Coils can store
factor. Usually, ceramic inductors are electrical energy in the form of magnetic
often referred to as air-core inductors. energy, using the property that an
3. Iron Powder Inductor electric current flowing through a coil
- In this type of inductor, the core is iron produces a magnetic field, which in turn,
oxide. They are formed by very fine and produces an electric current. In other
insulating particles of pure iron powder. words, coils offer a means of storing
High magnetic flux can be stored in it energy on the basis of inductivity.
due to the air gap. The permeability of
the core of this type of inductor is very
less and is usually below 100. They are D. Applications of an
mainly used in switching power
supplies. Inductor:
1. Filter
- Inductors are used extensively with
4. Ferrite Core Inductor capacitors and resistors to create filters
- In this type of inductor, ferrite materials for analog circuits and in signal
are used as the core. The general processing.
composition of ferrites is XFe2O4, 2. Motors
where X represents transition material. - Inductive motors leverage the magnetic
Ferrites can be classified into two types: force applied to inductors to turn
soft ferrites and hard ferrites. electrical energy into mechanical
4.1 Soft Ferrite: These are materials that energy.
have the ability to reverse their 3. Energy Storage
polarity without any external - The main use for inductors as energy
energy. storage is in switch-mode power
4.2 Hard Ferrite: These are permanent supplies, like the power supply in a PC.
magnets, that is, their polarity will
not change even when the magnetic
field is removed.

C. Function
1. Controlling Signals