Unit 3: Data representation

Introduction to Unit 3
In this unit you will look at different ways to represent data in tables, charts,
graphs and diagrams. The emphasis is not on the techniques to produce these
representations, but on the question of whether or not the representation best
represents the data.

Purpose of Unit 3
The aim of this unit is to look at a variety of ways to represent data and to
compare these for the best representation of the data given. The unit will
look at : frequency tables, pictograms, bar charts, line bar charts, histograms,
pie charts, line graphs, frequency polygons, stem-leaf plots, scatter plots.

Objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
• organise data
• describe data
• read and interpret displays of data
• construct appropriate displays of data: frequency table, pictogram, bar
chart, line bar chart, histogram, pie chart, line graph, frequency polygon,
stem-leaf plots, scatter plots
• justify the choice of display used for given data
• critically analyse data displays
• state common pupil errors in data representation
• illustrate methods to misrepresent data
• use appropriate project work in the classroom to assist the pupils in their
learning of data representation

Time
To study this unit will take you about 10 hours.

Module 6: Unit 3 57 Data representation

Unit 3: Data representation
Section A: Represent or model data
What is the best way to represent the collected data? Is the data discrete or
continuous, is the data qualitative or quantitative, how does one change from
one form of representation to another, what is the effect of changing scale?
These are questions to be considered. Too frequently the emphasis is on
operational understanding, on the techniques of drawing a bar chart, a pie
chart, a cumulative frequency curve while questions as to why to use the
(most of the time) stated representation in the given circumstances (are they
valid? are they appropriate?) are hardly considered. It should be left to the
pupils to decide what is the most appropriate way to represent their data (and
that is the difficult part—the actual drawing of chart is not the problem in
general, and could be done by a computer). One way to do this is by
comparing different forms of representing the data.
Graphical displays should:
• show the data
• induce the viewer to think about substance rather than about
methodology
• represent large data sets in a relatively small space
• make large data sets coherent
• encourage pupils to make comparisons between different pieces of data
• reveal the data at several levels of detail
• serve a reasonably clear purpose
• be integrated with the statistical and verbal descriptions of the data

Section B: Tables
Data collected is generally first tabulated in frequency distribution tables.
These tables might contain data that is grouped or ungrouped. Sometimes
two-way tables are used.
These were covered in the previous Unit 2, section D1.

Section C: Nature and format of data

The type of representation that can be used depends on
a) the nature of the data, i.e., discrete or continuous data
b) the format in which the data is given ungrouped or grouped
Discrete data
Discrete data can be displayed in bar charts (categorical data), bar-line
graphs (discrete quantitative data) or pie charts (categorical data / discrete
quantitative, provided the number of categories or discrete values is not
large).

Module 6: Unit 3 58 Data representation

 In a bar graph or bar-line graph the height of the bar or line is proportional
to the frequency.
Bars are to be drawn separated equally, with same width. The discrete value
or category is placed at the centre of the bar. The frequencies, along the
vertical axis, are placed against the lines (NOT the spaces). Bar-line graphs
are very appropriate with discrete data (number of children in the family,
shoe size of pupils, etc.), bar graphs (also called frequency diagrams) are
more appropriate for grouped discrete data or for categorical data.
In a pie chart the angle at the centre of each sector is proportional to the
frequency. Therefore the radius of the pie chart is not relevant. The number
of sectors should, generally, not exceed 6 - 8 to make the presentation
meaningful and allow comparison between the various sectors.
Continuous data
Continuous data is best displayed in histograms. In a histogram the
frequencies are proportional to the area of the bar. In cases where bars of the
same width are considered the histogram becomes a bar graph, but the bars
touch each other. Details will be discussed below.
N.B. It is rather common to display certain discrete data (for example, scores
on a test, number of children in a family, i.e., numerical data that can be
ordered) in a bar graph with the bars touching each other. This is strictly
speaking not correct, but you should not try to make the distinction with
students of this age.
Independent vs. dependent variables
An independent variable is presumed to have an effect on another variable.
It is the variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to
investigate the effect on a dependent variable. It is also known as the
manipulated or experimental variable that we have discussed above. The
effect of the manipulation is observed on the dependent variable. The
independent variable is a variable that by itself does not necessarily give rise
to the behaviour of interest except if manipulated.
The dependent (or outcome) variable is that variable which occurrence or
frequency of occurrence depends on the conditions and the manipulation of
the independent variable. It is called the dependent variable because its value
depends on and varies with the value of the independent variable.
The independent variable is commonly plotted along the horizontal axis and
the dependent variable along the vertical axis.

Write down the different data representations (charts, graphs, diagrams) you
remember.
1. What type of data is most appropriately represented by each of the
representations you listed above?
2 What type of data cannot be represented by each of the representations
you listed?

Module 6: Unit 3 59 Data representation

 Section D: Graphical representations
Data can be represented in various ways, and in the following sections you
are going to look at the following representations of data.
• Bar charts (Section D1)
• Line/stick graphs (Section D2)
• Histograms (Section D3)
• Pie charts (Section D4)
• Pictograms (Section D5)
• Line graphs/charts (Section D6)
• Frequency polygons (Section D7)
• Stem-leaf diagrams (Section D8)
• Scatter diagram (Section D9)
In each section special attention will be given to the type of data that can be
represented in that particular way.

Section D1: Bar charts (bars horizontal or vertical)

Most appropriate use: to compare categories (qualitative data, the
independent variable is non-numerical) and grouped discrete quantitative
data (scores on a test, amount spend by customers in a shop)
How to draw: Rectangles with equal width are used. The height/length
represents the frequency of the category. Do not draw the bar adjacent. Label
the diagram as a whole (title), the bars and the frequency axis. Indicate scale
on the frequency axis.
Examples of qualitative data display

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 Examples of quantitative discrete (grouped) data display.

Number of customers in a group

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 Section D2: Line/stick graphs
(can be horizontally or vertically displayed)
Most appropriate use: to compare discrete variables
How to draw: lines/sticks of length proportional to the frequencies.Labelling
as with the bar graph.

Section D3: Histograms

Most appropriate use: to represent grouped continuous variables. Always
depicts frequency (or count) versus a continuous or nearly continuous
variable.
How to draw: Rectangles whose areas are proportional to the frequencies.
The rectangles are adjacent (that is, the rectangles touch each other.) The
axes are labelled, the graph has a title.
Example: The height of 100 maize plants was measured, to the nearest cm,
one month after planting.
Height of maize plants Frequency Frequency density
1 - 20 cm 12 0.6
21 - 40 cm 28 1.4
41 - 60 cm 54 2.7
61 - 70 cm 6 0.6

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 N.B.
(i) Different notations for the classes are in use, 1 - 20 standing for
heights from 1 to 20 both inclusive in the above case. Also the
notation [1, 20] or 1 ≤ height ≤ 20 can be used.
Some books use as the first class 0 - 20 to mean 0 ≤ height < 20 and
write the next class as 20 - 40 to imply 20 ≤ height < 40, etc. The
notation to be used is a matter of agreement.
(ii) Attention is to be paid to the upper and lower boundaries. The
context dictates how they have to be taken.
In the above example of measurements to the nearest cm, the
boundaries are half way between two classes. The rectangles are to
be drawn—in the above example—from 0.5 (the lower boundary) to
20.5 (the upper boundary), from 20.5 to 40.5 and the last one from
60.5 to 70.5.
In case the variable is age (a continuous variable) the situation is
different. Ages are given in completed years, not to the nearest year.
A person of 20 years and 11 months and 25 days is still considered to
be 20. Consider the following example.
The ages of applicants for a teaching post have the following
distribution.
Age Frequency
20 - 24 4
25 - 29 2
30 - 34 2
35 - 44 2
In the class 20 - 24 fall all applicants with age 20 ≤ age < 25, in the
class 25 - 29 fall all applicants with ages 25 ≤ age < 30, etc. The class
boundaries are 20, 25, 30, 35, 45.

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 (iii) The frequency density is the frequency divided by the class width
(upper boundary – lower boundary of the class). This is a fine point,
probably one that you should not teach.
(iv) In cases that classes have all the same width, the frequency density
and frequency are directly proportional and some authors will label
the axis: “frequencies” in that case.
(v) Discrete grouped data (test scores, amount of money spent in a shop)
should be displayed in bar graphs. However it is rather common
practice to display grouped discrete data as if continuous.
Amount spent by pupils
in the tuckshop (thebe) Frequency
1-100 6
101 - 200 11
201 - 300 7
301- 400 4
401- 500 2

The data is best displayed on a bar chart.

Module 6: Unit 3 64 Data representation

 However the data is also displayed in histograms - taking the data as if it is
continuous. Class boundaries 0.5 /100.5/200.5, etc. are then correct, but for
students of this age, whole-number boundaries on a histogram would be
“close enough.”

(vi) Grouping data is a means to summarise the raw data. Be aware that
by grouping some of the original information is lost.
If, for example, in a test marked out of 10 the scores were:
Mark 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency 3 3 3 2 3 3 4 3 3 2 1

Then by grouping:
Mark Frequency
0 -1 6
2-3 5
4-5 6
6-7 7
8 and more 6
some of the original information can no longer be found in the grouped
frequency table. This has implications for calculation of mean / median /
mode. These measures obtained from the raw data will differ from
(approximated) values obtained from the grouped frequency table. Changing
the class width will again lead to different approximations for the measures
of central tendency. Grouping results in what is referred to as “grouping
error.” The error is reduced by using small class intervals. If the class
intervals are increased so does the ‘grouping error’ in the approximation for
the mean and median obtained from the grouped frequency table.

Module 6: Unit 3 65 Data representation

 Self mark exercise 1
1. Represent the following data in a bar chart.
The month in which form 1 pupils in a school were born are tabulated in
the frequency table below.
Mon. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Freq. 3 33 21 6 18 30 24 18 54 21 6 9

2. Represent the following data in a bar chart.

The amount (in thousands of litres) of petrol sold at a petrol station
during a month was
Type of petrol Leaded Unleaded Diesel
Number of litres (x 1000) 45 35 20
3. Represent the following data in a bar chart.
The percent of pupils obtaining a certain grade in a test are listed:
Grade A B C D E F G
% of pupils 2 5 36 24 15 9 4
4. Use the following raw data of the length (mm) of nails found in packets
of ‘assorted nails’.
11 48 53 32 28 15 17 45 37 41
55 31 23 36 42 27 19 16 46 39
41 28 43 36 21 51 37 44 33 40
15 38 54 16 46 47 20 18 48 29
31 41 53 18 24 25 20 44 13 45

a) Make a grouped frequency table taking class intervals 10 -14,

15 - 19, etc., and draw a histogram.
b) Make a grouped frequency table taking class intervals 10 - 19,
20 -29, etc., and draw the histogram.
Compare the two representations of the data.

Suggested answers are at the end of this unit.

Module 6: Unit 3 66 Data representation

 Section D4: Pie charts
Most appropriate use: to represent data as part of a whole, to illustrate
differences in categories (qualitative or discrete variables) provided the
number of categories is limited (generally between 2 and 8).
How to draw: Measure of the angle at the centre of the circle is proportional
to the frequency
frequency of the category
(measure of the angle at the centre = × 360º)
total of all frequencies

Section D5: Pictograms

Most appropriate use: to illustrate broad differences between categories
(qualitative and discrete variables).
How to draw: Draw simple pictures (instead of bars) to represent the
frequency. A key is to be added to show what each picture represents.

Module 6: Unit 3 67 Data representation

 Self mark exercise 2
1. Display the following data in a pie chart and pictogram.
The total world wool production was distributed over various countries
as follows in 1994:
Country % of wool world production produced
Australia 30%
USSR 30%
New Zealand 20%
Argentina 10%
SA 10%
Others 10%
2. Display the following data in a pie chart and pictogram.
The type of vehicles coming to a petrol station during one day are
tabulated below
Person cars 26
Lorries 12
Busses 8
Combis 14
3. Display the following data in a pie chart and pictogram.
The sizes of T-shirts sold during a month in a shop were
Size S M L XL
Number sold 12 34 56 18
4. Comparing the two representations, pie chart and pictogram, list some
advantages and disadvantages of each.

Suggested answers are at the end of this unit.

Module 6: Unit 3 68 Data representation

 Section D6: Line graphs/charts
Most appropriate use: to illustrate changes of continuous variables (over
time)
How to draw: plot the given corresponding pairs of data as points and join
consecutive points by line segments.
Example

If trends—changes over time—are looked for, line graphs can be used.

Line graphs are used for both discrete and continuous data. For example, in
the line graph is displayed the number of cars sold in a certain garage over
1
the first 8 months of a year. Although ‘in between’ values such as 2 , 3 1 ,
2 4
etc., do not exist the points are joined with straight lines to show the trend.
For trend lines not all ‘in between’ values have to make sense. Trend lines
should not be confused with linear graphs. In linear graphs the ‘in between’
values must exist, otherwise it would be inappropriate to draw the line.

Module 6: Unit 3 69 Data representation

 Self mark exercise 3
1 Represent the following data in a line graph and comment on the trend.
Number of pupils in a primary school 1993 - 1999
Year 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Number 450 435 465 478 490 510 524
2 a) Represent the following data in a line graph and comment on the
trend.
Infant mortality rate per 1000 live births
Year 1971 1981 1991
Infant mortality rate 100 71 45
b) If the trend is continuous what do you expect the infant mortality rate
to be in 2001?
3 The number of teacher trained for the Senior Secondary School in
Botswana are tabulated:
Year 1996 1997 1998 1999
Number trained 81 105 115 184
a) Represent this data in a line graph and comment on the trend.
b) If the trend is continuous what number of Senior Secondary school
teachers do you expect to be trained in the year 2000?

Suggested answers are at the end of this unit.

Module 6: Unit 3 70 Data representation

 Section D7: Frequency polygons
Most appropriate use: to compare grouped continuous variables, for
example, distribution of the height of girls (in grouped form) and distribution
of the height of boys (in grouped form). Drawing the frequency polygons on
the same axes allows easy comparison. This is far superior to drawing two
histograms on one grid!
How to draw: Plotting the points with co-ordinates (mid-interval value,
frequency) and connecting these with straight line segments. Adding points
on the horizontal axis at both sides.
Example: The following grouped frequency table summarises the net content
of 50 packets of a supermarket’s brand of potato crisps labelled 25 grams.

Net mass (× g) Mid-point Frequency

23.5 ≤ × < 24.5 24.0 2
24.5 ≤ × < 25.5 25.0 9
25.5 ≤ × < 26.5 26.0 25
26.5 ≤ × < 27.5 27.0 9
27.5 ≤ × < 28.5 28.0 4
28.5 ≤ × < 29.5 29.0 1
TOTAL 50

A frequency polygon is drawn by plotting the frequency for each interval

against the mid-point of the interval and joining the points with straight line
segments. The points (24.0, 2), (25.0, 9), ... (29.0, 1) are plotted and joined.
The polygon is continued to the axis so the points (23.0, 0) and (30.0, 0) are
included.

Module 6: Unit 3 71 Data representation

 Self mark exercise 4
1. A factory producing hats measured the circumference of the heads of 100
people in centimetres to the nearest centimetre. The following results
were obtained.
Head circumference c (cm) Frequency
50 ≤ c < 52 8
52 ≤ c < 54 12
54 ≤ c < 56 30
56 ≤ c < 58 44
58 ≤ c < 60 6
a) Represent the data in a frequency polygon.
b) If you are to give advice to the factory manager as to the size of hats
to be produced what advice would you give? Explain.
2. a) Represent the following data in a frequency polygon. The data gives
the mass of apples from one tree.
Mass of apple (g) 20 –30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Frequency 6 18 34 30 12
b) Using the same scale and axes, represent the following data giving
the mass of the same type apples from another tree in the orchard.
Mass of apple (g) 20 –30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Frequency 3 14 26 36 21
c) Comparing the two polygons what conclusion(s) can you make?
Explain.

Suggested answers are at the end of this unit.

Section D8: Stem-leaf diagrams

Most appropriate use: To represent ungrouped quantitative data. Also to
compare two sets of ungrouped quantitative data (male and female data on
the same variable for example). Stem-leaf diagrams are the only graphical
representations that also display all the original data values.
How to draw: Part of the number, often the whole number part, is used as the
stem (placed vertically under each other), the other part of the number forms
the leaves. Place an explanatory legend beneath the diagram and a title above
it.
Example:
Potato crisps come in packets marked 25 grams. The mass of 25 packets was
found to the nearest 0.1 g.
26.4 25.2 26.3 26.0 24.1
25.3 25.6 26.2 27.8 24.5
25.0 27.5 25.8 26.0 25.7
25.5 26.4 25.5 24.7 26.9
27.3 25.3 25.1 27.7 26.8

Module 6: Unit 3 72 Data representation

 Data can be organised in stem-leaf diagram. The whole number part of the
mass can be used to form the stem shown at the left of the vertical line and
the decimal part of the masses forms the leaves on the right. The leaves on
each level or row in the diagram increase in value outwards from the stem.
Contents of packets of crisps (g)
24 157
25 0123355678
26 00234489
27 3578
n = 25 24 | 1 represents 24.1 gram
The ‘scale’ is very important as 24 | 1 could mean 241, 24.1, 2.41, 0.241,
etc., depending on the quantities displayed. The diagram has a title and the
sample size n = 25 is noted.
The stem-leaf diagram can be stretched by choosing the stem to represent
more levels.
For example
24.0 to 24.4
24.5 to 24.9
25.0 to 25.4
etc.
Contents of packets of crisps (g)
24 1
24 57
25 01233
25 55678
26 002344
26 89
27 3
27 578
n = 25 24 | 1 represents 24.1 gram
The stem-leaf diagram can also be made ‘double’ allowing comparison.
For example, the following stem-leaf diagram gives the height of pupils in a
class. The girls are on the left, the boys on the right.
Height of pupils in Form 2X
Girls Boys
443310 15 2
9865 15 579
43220 16 12234
865 16 5566889
42 17 044
17 58
n = 41 16 | 8 represents 168 cm

Module 6: Unit 3 73 Data representation

 The diagram makes visual that on the whole the girls are shorter than the
boys. Or does it?

Self mark exercise 5

1. A sample of eggs from an one day’s production has mass in grams:
40 50 72 51 60
55 67 46 57 53
55 42 51 59 49
52 46 64 43 66
54 64 48 58 52
Draw a stem-leaf diagram using stems 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7
2. Represent the following data in (a) a grouped frequency table (b) a
histogram.
Contents of packets of crisps (g)

24 14
24 57
25 0122233
25 55556778888
26 0000112233344
26 56789
27 001134
27 5678

n = 50 27 | 0 represents 27.0 gram

Suggested answers are at the end of this unit.

Module 6: Unit 3 74 Data representation

 Section D9: Scatter diagrams
Most appropriate use: When looking at statistical data it is often observed
that there are connections between sets of data. For example the mass and
height of persons are related: the taller the person the greater his/her mass.
To find out whether or not two sets of data are connected scatter diagrams
can be used.
How to draw: In a scatter diagram each plotted point represent a pair, for
example a (mass, height) pair of one person.
Example

The scatter graph illustrates that generally taller boys have greater mass.

Module 6: Unit 3 75 Data representation

 The relationship in a scatter diagram between the two sets of variables is
described with the word correlation.

Positive correlation between two variables x and y can be described in words

as: if x increases then y will also increase or if x decreases then y will
decrease (x and y are directly proportional). Negative correlation between
two variables x and y can be expressed in words as: if x increases y will
decrease or if x decreases then y will increase (x and y are inversely
proportional).
Strong positive or negative correlation between two sets of data does not
prove that the two variables are causal related. For example, the length of a
spring and the mass attached to it are likely strongly positively correlated
and a greater mass attached causes the spring to extend more. If in a scatter
diagram a positive correlation was found between the scores in mathematics
of the pupils in a class and the distance they stay from the school (those
staying close to school score low, those staying far from school score high)
then it is very unlikely that there is any causal relationship (if a pupil moves
to a place far from school his/her marks in mathematics are unlikely to
increase!). This type of non causal correlation is called spurious

Module 6: Unit 3 76 Data representation

 correlation, and is surprisingly common.

Estimating values:
If two sets of data show correlation you can use your scatter graph to
estimate missing values. You draw the ‘best fitting’ line through the point
with co-ordinates (mean value of x, mean value of y).

Example:
Two judges awarded marks in a science fair for projects. Judge A scored out
of 20 and judge B scored out of 15.
Judge A 15 12 8 19 7 6 17 8 15 16
Judge B 12 9 7 13 8 3 12 5 12 14
Plotting these data in a scatter graph gives the following graph.

The line of best fit is drawn through the point (12.3, 9.5) as the mean score
of judge A is 12.3 and the mean score of judge B is 9.5 and such that about
the same number of points is at each side of the line.
Judge A scored a project 14 marks but the project was not seen by judge B.
You can now use the line of best fit to obtain an estimate for the score of
judge B. You find 14 on the Judge A axis. Follow the arrows in the diagram
to find the estimate for the mark judge B most likely should have given: 10.4
(or rounded to 10 as only whole marks were awarded).

Module 6: Unit 3 77 Data representation

 Self mark exercise 6
1. Do you expect positive (strong or weak), negative (strong or weak) or no
correlation between the following variables? Justify your answer.
a) Number of days absent from school and the mark in the examination
b) Number of boys and number of girls in a family
c) Level of education and income
d) Income and time spent in bars
e) Age and number of pages read in one hour
f) Number of rooms in a house and the number of doors
g) Arm length and length of javelin throw
h) Circumference of head and intelligence
i) Length of spring and mass attached to its end
j) Amount of pocket money and number of friends
k) Age of a car and its second-hand selling price
l) The shoe sizes of pupils and the distance they travel to school
m) Depth of tread on a car tyre and the distance travelled
2. During the term 10 pupils obtained the following scores in mathematics
and science (out of 50).
Maths 29 38 22 27 32 41 20 32 36 31
Science 27 34 26 34 27 42 21 28 34 29
a) Draw a scatter graph to represent the data.
b) Are pupils’ score in mathematics and science correlated?
c) Find the mean of the maths scores and the science scores to draw the
line of best fit.
d) A pupil scored 35 in mathematics. Work out an estimate for the
pupil’s score in science.
e) Another pupil scored 40 in science. Work out an estimate for the
pupil’s score in mathematics.

Module 6: Unit 3 78 Data representation

 3. A supermarket asked randomly some of their customers how many times
they come to the supermarket in a three month period and how far away
they live from the supermarket.
The results are tabulated below:
Number of visits Distance from supermarket (km)
9 10
7 8
12 6
11 7
14 4
12 5
6 12
8 11
15 3
13 4
5 13
10 8
4 15
9 11
2 16

a) Plot a scatter graph to represent this data.

b) Describe the correlation of the data.
c) Find the mean number of visits and the mean distance. Use these to
draw a line of best fit.
d) Estimate the number of visits made by a customer living 10 km from
the supermarket.
e) How reliable do you think the estimate in (d) is?

Suggested answers are at the end of this unit.

Section E: Representing data for understanding

Representing data in diagrams is to enhance the understanding of the data.
The question to be asked in each situation is: What kind of representation(s)
would help you to make sense of the given data? Too frequently questions
are set that prescribe to transform data (frequency table data for example)
into a given format (bar chart for example). However it is important that
pupils learn to decide what might be the most appropriate format to present
their data. Different formats should be considered and within a given format
(bar chart for example) the effect of re-scaling or changing class width.
Transforming from one format to another is also a skill to be developed.

Module 6: Unit 3 79 Data representation

 Practice task 1
1. Find some realistic raw data (3 different sets) and represent the data
using several of the above-mentioned forms of representation. Discuss
and justify which of the representations is the most appropriate to
represent your raw data.
2. The table below gives different forms of representing data and the skill
required to transform from one format to the other.
To Verbal Table Graph/Chart/ Formula
Leaf-Stem/
From Pictogram
Verbal reformulating, analysing, modelling analytical
expressing in extracting modelling
own words data
Table reading reorganising, plotting fitting
regrouping
Graph/Chart/ interpretation reading off Re-scaling, curve
Leaf-Stem/ using different fitting
Pictogram class width
Formula explaining computing sketching changing
subject
Illustrate each transformation with an appropriate example.
3. Class based activity
Split your class into two groups A and B. Present to each group the same
data sheet.
Group A is to use the data to make the country look as good as possible
when compared with the other countries.
Group B using the same data is to present the data such that it shows that
the country has much to do to catch-up with the other countries.
Groups are to be encouraged to use any diagram: bar charts, pie-charts,
pictograms, histograms, frequency polygons, scatter graphs, stem-leaf
plots.
The data sheet is on the following page.
Write an evaluative report on the activity.

Module 6: Unit 3 80 Data representation

 Data sheet
Botswana Namibia Zimbabwe Zambia Mozambique
Population density 2 2 29 52 20
(#/km2)
Annual pop. growth 2.9% 3.1% 2.8% 2.7% 3.3%
Children per woman 5.2 6.0 5.5 6.5 6.5
Under 5 mortality 85/1000 120/1000 88/1000 200/1000 292/1000
Doctors 1/5000 1/4600 1/7000 1/10 000 1/38000
Safe water available 54% 72% 66% 60% 24%
to x% of population
Access to health 80% 52% 82% 50% 22%
services
Literacy, male 84% 72% 74% 81% 45%
Literacy, female 65% 48% 60% 65% 21%
Secondary enrolment 54% 41% 48% 20% 10%
University 30/10 000 28/10 000 43/10 000 19/10 000 -
(students/inhabitants)
TV sets per 1000 16 21 26 26 3
inh.
Radios per 1000 inh. 122 127 84 81 47
Inflation rate 13% 12% 14% 48% 38%
Food import 75% 31% 5% 7% 22%
dependency
Economic growth 6.1% -1.0% -0.9% -2.9% -3.6%
Pop - population
Inh - inhabitants

Module 6: Unit 3 81 Data representation

 Representing data for understanding (continued)
An activity for use in the classroom
Use of visual representations of written text is frequently very helpful to
understand the text. The ‘standard’ representations as used in statistics are
not the only way data or text can be represented.

Practice task 2
1. Below are descriptions of five situations. Present these to pupils working
in groups and ask them to come up with at least two diagrams to clarify
the situation described. Each group could be given one or two situations
to represent in diagrams, pictures, charts, etc.
2. After the groups have worked on the activity they are to present their
work to the class for discussion. Some of the questions to be asked could
be: What is the strength of the suggested representation? What is the
weakness? How could it be improved? Are there other alternatives?
The instruction given to pupils in each of the situations is:
What kind of representation(s) would help you to make sense of each of
the following passages (situation 1 – 5)?
3. a) Write an evaluative report on the activity. Questions to consider are:
Did pupils meet difficulties? Were pupils well motivated to work on
the activity? Were the objectives achieved? Did you meet some
specific difficulties in preparing the lesson or during the lesson?
b) Present the report to your supervisor.

Situation 1: Kidnapped
One of the most influential educationalists in Botswana, Cees, was
kidnapped from outside his Gaborone home this morning by masked armed
men. Although he was seized in broad daylight on one of the main streets
leading to the station fly over, only two eye witnesses have been found by
the police and they have been of little help.
Mr. Cees left his home in DO IT street just before 7 am. His driver saw him
into the back of the UB INSET van and was driving down the road towards
the station flyover when he was forced to pull out to overtake a champagne-
coloured Toyota station car that seemed to be vary badly parked.
Immediately opposite was a minibus double-parked and therefore well out
from the pavement. The car was forced into what seemed to be an innocent
narrow passageway. As the driver was negotiating the gap, a motor cyclist
pulled in front of him forcing him to stop. Two masked men jumped out of
the back of the Toyota and the motor cyclist pulled a gun.
The men knocked out the driver who was thrown into the minibus that drove
off towards Molepolole where he was found dumped along the road a few
minutes later. One of the kidnappers jumped into the driver’s seat of the UB
INSET van and with another holding Mr. Cees at gun point in the back,
drove off into the traffic heading for the station fly over. The car was found
later at Tlokweng.

Module 6: Unit 3 82 Data representation

 The kidnapping was all over in seconds and the witnesses have been able to
give only vague descriptions of what they saw.
Situation 2: Ladybirds to the rescue
The Australian cottony cushion scale insect was accidentally introduced into
America in 1888 and increased in number until it seemed about to destroy
the Californian citrus orchards where it lived. Its natural predator, a ladybird,
was artificially introduced in 1889 and this quickly reduced the scale insect
population. Later, DDT was used to try to cut down the scale insect
population still further. However the net result was to increase their number
as, unfortunately, the ladybird was more susceptible to DDT than the scale
insect! For the first time in fifty years the scale insect again became a
problem.
Situation 3: What foods contain which vitamins?
Vitamin A is found mainly in fats and the fatty parts of some foods, so
plenty of milk and butter will help to provide it. Other valuable sources are
fish-liver oils and certain vegetables, especially carrots, tomatoes and dark
green leafy vegetables. Vitamin D is also found in butter, cheese, milk and
eggs but the richest source is fish-liver oils. Sunlight acting on the skin
produces vitamin D in the tissue. Vitamin C is found in fresh fruit and
vegetables, so plenty of these should be served. In addition orange juice
should be given every day. The B vitamins are found in whole meal bread,
oats, yeast, liver and dairy foods. One pint of milk a day will supply all the
riboflavin (B2) that a child under five needs.
Situation 4: What are you doing in your holiday?
Well it depends. My mum and dad might buy a new car or a colour
television or nothing. If we have a car, dad says we will just go for a few
day-trips. If we buy nothing we might go to Harare or perhaps Cape Town to
stay with Grandma and Grandpa. If we have a colour television, dad says he
will only have enough money to travel to Durban and stay for free in the
caravan of uncle Sam.
Situation 5: How time works
Emulo gave a description of how to work out what time it is in different
parts of the world and completed a table of cities, their longitudes and hence
their local times. She wrote:
How time works
If you want to know what time it is in another place you see what the time is
and then whether the country is east or west of Botswana. If it is east every
15° of longitude you pass over you add one hour and if it is west of
Botswana you take an hour off Gaborone time as you pass over 15° of
longitude. So if it is 10.00 am in Gabs and you want to know what time it is
somewhere 60° west of Botswana, fifteen goes into 60 four times so this
place is four hours behind Gabs time which it 6.00 am in somewhere 60°
west of Botswana.
The verbal description process is rather cumbersome. Is not there an easier
way to represent the situation?

Module 6: Unit 3 83 Data representation

 Information for the teacher on the above situations.
Here are a few possible suggestions, but pupils will come up with many
others.

UB INSET

Module 6: Unit 3 84 Data representation

 What foods contain which vitamins?

Where are you going for your holidays?

How time works

Module 6: Unit 3 85 Data representation

 Section F: Misconceptions of pupils in descriptive
statistics
Note: Points 1) through 5) in this list covered common misconceptions in
inferential statistics. They were listed in Unit 2 Section C. Below are
misconceptions in descriptive statistics.
6) Histograms and bar charts (categorical data: qualitative data) / line charts
(discrete numerical data: the possible numerical values are separated
from each other by impossible values)
In a histogram the area is proportional to the frequency, while in a bar
chart or line chart the height (or length) is proportional to frequency. The
width of the blocks in a histogram need not be equal.
7) Confusing the observations with the frequencies (count) of the
observation. Pupils often have a ‘surface’ concepts of mean, median and
mode. Superficially the median is thought of as the ‘middle value’ and
the mode as ‘the most frequent value’. But the middle value of what?
The most frequent value of what? In a frequency distribution pupils
might erroneously take the ‘middle’ or the ‘largest’ frequency instead of
the appropriate observation.
8) Difficulties in the interpretation of the meaning of something to
represent another thing. There are two concepts of ‘represent’ to
distinguish:
a) the accurate representation. A histogram, for example, represents the
sample accurately.
b) the probabilistic representation. A sample represents a population
probabilistically. The confidence in the representation will depend on
randomness (being unbiased) of the sampling technique and the size
of the sample.
Pupils tend not to distinguish between these two types of representation.
This results in the idea sample = population and if it differs they think the
experimenter must have made a mistake.

Module 6: Unit 3 86 Data representation

 Self mark exercise 7
In each of the following question 1 & 2:
a) Identify the error / misconception of the pupil
b) Develop activities using realistic data that will
- confront pupils with (common) misconceptions
- resolve the conflict
- consolidate the correct concept

1. An examination was taken by 1000 students and the overall average was
80%. A random sample of 10 examination scripts was taken from the
1000. The first script picked randomly had a score of 60%.
What do you expect the average of the sample to be?
Pupil answer: 80%
2. The following data are given:
Height of 133 plants in cm
Height 160 161 162 163 164 165 166
Frequency 10 15 29 28 24 21 6
Pupils are to find the mode and the median.
Pupil answers: mode 29
median 28
3. Which graphical representation(s) would you use in each of the
following situations? Choose from: pie chart, bar chart, histogram, stem-
leaf plot, scatter graph. Justify your answer.
a. Testing the reaction speed of people after drinking a number of cans
of beer.
b. Representing the amount of money Government spends on health,
education, armed forces, etc.
c. Comparing the prices for the same brand of shoes in different shops.
d. Comparing the salaries of workers in a factory.
e. Comparing the height of boys and girls in your class.

Suggested answers are at the end of this unit.

Module 6: Unit 3 87 Data representation

 Section G: Making nonsense of statistics
Pupils are to learn to look critically at data presentations. Data is at times
presented so as to carry misleading information to a careless observer. The
irreverent name for this is “How to lie with statistics.”
Common misleading techniques are:
• vertical axis labelled unevenly
More learner drivers are passing in our driving school year after year.

• no scale provided

• vertical scale not starting at 0, without clearly indicating this (“squeezed”

line)
Crime rate in town has increased very rapidly over the past 5 years.

Because the vertical axis does not start at zero the number of crimes appear
to be increasing quickly.

Module 6: Unit 3 88 Data representation

 In the other graph the data has been redrawn using a different scale and
starting from zero on the vertical axis. This illustrates that the number of
crimes have very slightly increased.
• different scales used in two displays to ‘show’ that a certain company or
product is doing better
Sales of two newspapers “Guardian” and “SUN” over the first 3 months of
1996 are illustrated below. The SUN claims: Our readership is increasing
faster than the readership of the Guardian.

As the scales in the two graphs to be compared differ, a false impression is

created: both increased by the same amount from 3000 to 3500.

• using 2D- area or 3D- solid diagrams. To display ‘doubling’, for

example, all dimensions are doubled and hence in the area case the area
is 4x the original and the solid is 8x the original.
Our sales of tyres have doubled from 1998 to 1999.

10 000 tyres 20 0000 tyres

In ‘picture graphs’ it is the area (or volume that represents the quantities).
The radius for the 1999 tyres sales is double that of the 1998 one. However
that implies that the area of the circle representing the 1999 sales is 4-times
the area of the circle representing the 1998 sales!

Module 6: Unit 3 89 Data representation

 Self mark exercise 8
1. Look at the following graphs and explain why they are misleading. Give
a better presentation of the data.
a) “Invest with FAST GROWTH, your investment will grow faster than
with any other company”

b) “Our profits have increased faster over the past three years”

Continued on next page

Module 6: Unit 3 90 Data representation

 c) “Cost of living increase has been reduced”

2. Chocco Sweets Company wants to impress their shareholders that their

sales have increased from 20 000 kg in 1997 to 40 000 kg in 1998 to
60 000 kg in 1999.
a) Represent the data in a bar chart.
b) Design a picture graph to create an impression of much greater
increase than actually is the case.
3. The following line graph was found in the newspaper with the heading
“Unemployment figures have gone down rapidly over the past four
years.” Do you agree with the newspaper? Justify your answer.

4. The following table gives the number of cars sold in a garage during the
first three months since a new sales manager took over.
Month August Sept Oct
Number sold 80 74 64
The sales figures are clearly going down.
a) You are the sales manager and are to present the figures to the board
of directors in a bar chart. As much as possible you want to disguise
the dropping sales figures. Draw the bar chart you would present to
the board.
b) You are the supervisor of the sales manager and want to impress on
her that since she took over sales figures are dropping. Draw a bar
chart you would use to get your message powerfully across.
Continued on next page

Module 6: Unit 3 91 Data representation

 5. The following table displays the percent of households in some countries
having television sets.
Country Botswana Namibia Zimbabwe Zambia
% of households 20 26 32 18
with TV
a) You live in Zimbabwe and you want to make your country look
wealthier than all the other countries. Draw a bar chart with a scale
that will help you to make your point.
b) You are living in Zambia and want to make your country look as
wealthy as possible as compared to the other countries. Draw a bar
chart with a scale that will help you to make your point.

Suggested answers are at the end of this unit.

Section H: Interpreting data

In magazines and newspapers you frequently come across data
representations in a variety of forms. Data representations need to be looked
at critically. Reading and interpreting graphical representations of data is not
a trivial task. Many diagrams, charts or graphs in newspapers and magazines
have been designed to magnify differences or to emphasise minor points.
You are to ask yourself questions such as: How was the data collected? Does
the representation give a fair picture of the data? Are the data reliable? What
purpose do the presenters of the data have?

Self mark exercise 9

For each of the following seven data representations answer the following
questions:
1. What is the representation about?
2. What type of data is represented (qualitative, quantitative; discrete,
continuous; grouped, ungrouped)?
3. What type of graph is it?
4. How do you think the data was collected?
5. What conclusions can you draw from the diagram?
6. What other representation would you consider appropriate for the data?
Justify.
Suggested answers are at the end of this unit.

Module 6: Unit 3 92 Data representation

 Fig 1:

Fig 2:

Fig 3:

Module 6: Unit 3 93 Data representation

 Fig 4:

Fig 5:

Fig 6:

Module 6: Unit 3 94 Data representation

 Fig 7:

Practice task 3
1. Choose one (or more) of the data representations in Section D, or an
activity related to Section G or H.
2. Write a lesson plan with clearly stated objectives. Prepare worksheets for
the pupils to work in groups.
3 a. Write an evaluative report on the lesson. Questions to consider are:
Did pupils meet difficulties? Were pupils well motivated to work on
the activity? Were the objectives achieved? Did you meet some
specific difficulties in preparing the lesson or during the lesson?
b. Present the lesson plan and report to your supervisor.

Summary
Data handling and interpretation is one of the few topics in Secondary
Mathematics that impacts the daily lives of most thinking people. Graphs,
like those in Section H and like the biased ones in Section G, abound in the
media. Students should also produce representations of the data they
gathered in their own projects—and, if possible, recommend a decision that
could be taken on the basis of their work. Groups will learn a great deal from
presenting their work to the class as a whole.

Module 6: Unit 3 95 Data representation

 Unit 3: Answers to self mark exercises

Self mark exercise 1

1.

2.

3.

4a Class interval Frequency 4b Class interval Frequency

10 ≤ l ≤ 14 2 10 ≤l ≤ 19 10
15 ≤ l ≤ 19 8
20 ≤ l ≤ 24 5 20 ≤ l ≤ 29 10
25 ≤ l ≤ 29 5
30 ≤ l ≤ 34 4 30 ≤ l ≤ 39 10
35 ≤ l ≤ 39 6
40 ≤ l ≤ 44 8 40 ≤ l ≤ 49 15
45 ≤ l ≤ 49 7
50 ≤ l ≤ 54 4 50 ≤ l ≤ 59 5
54 ≤ l ≤ 59 1

Module 6: Unit 3 96 Data representation

 4b.

Changing the class width to 10 (as in 4b) gives a less informative

representation of the data, as some information is lost. On the other hand,
as the number of bars is reduced, the diagram becomes easier to read.

Self mark exercise 2

1.

Module 6: Unit 3 97 Data representation

 2.

Module 6: Unit 3 98 Data representation

 3.

4. Pie Chart
Advantages
• Allows easy comparison of parts with whole
Disadvantages
• At times tedious to calculate the sector angles
• The actual frequencies are not shown and need to be obtained by
interpreting the chart
Pictogram
Advantages
• Can be made visually attractive
• Pictures make ‘topic’ clear
Disadvantages
• Hard to draw
• ‘Fractional’ pictures difficult to interpret

Module 6: Unit 3 99 Data representation

 Self mark exercise 3
1.

2a)

2b) 24
3a)

3b) 260

Module 6: Unit 3 100 Data representation

 Self mark exercise 4
1. Plot the points ((49, 0), 51, 8), (53, 12), (55, 30), (57, 44), (59, 6), (61, 0)

1b) Produce 45% size 56 - 58, 30% of size 54 - 56, 15% of size 52 - 54,
and 55 each of size 50 - 52 & 58 - 60.
2a) Plot (15, 0), (25, 6), (35, 18), (45, 34), (55, 30), (65, 12), (75, 0)
2b) Plot (15, 0), (25, 3), (35, 14), (45, 26), (55, 36), (65, 21), (75, 0)

2c) Both trees produced 100 apples. The apples from the second tree on
average have a greater mass. The ‘top’ of the graph of the masses of the
apples from the second tree is more to the right.

Self mark exercise 5

1. 4 023
4 6689
5 0112234
5 55789
6 044
6 67
7 2

n=25 4 6 represents 46 g.

Module 6: Unit 3 101 Data representation

 2a) Mass frequency
24 ≤ m < 25 4
25 ≤ m < 26 18
26 ≤ m < 27 18
27 ≤ m < 28 10
2b)

Self mark exercise 6

1a) Weak / strong positive correlation (as it will depend on the achievement
level of the pupil. A high achiever will not suffer much from being
absent, but an average or low achiever will be affected by missing school
days).
b) No correlation.
c) Weak / strong correlation. People with higher levels of education
generally will get better paid positions. However in business, people
without much formal education can become business tycoons.
d) Difficult to predict. One might argue for different types of correlation.
E.g., positive correlation - people with higher incomes have more money
and can spend more time in bars.
Negative correlation - people with low incomes spend the little they have
on drinks in bars, while the people with higher incomes prefer to drink in
their houses and not in public places.
No correlation - a group of people with low incomes as well as a group
of people with high incomes spend time in bars.
e) No linear correlation. Children take a long time to read a page and with
an increase in age they might start to read faster, but at an older age the
speed might go down again.
f) Strong positive correlation. Each room will need (at least one) doors to
enter. More rooms leads to more doors.
g) No correlation expected. Technique and strength of muscles might be
more relevant than arm length.
h) No correlation.

Module 6: Unit 3 102 Data representation

 i) Strong positive correlation. The more mass attached the more the spring
will extend.
j) No correlation.
k) Negative correlation. The older the car the less its value will be.
l) No correlation.
m) In the form the question is set: no correlation as a car might have
covered many thousands of kilometres but just have new tyres.
If the question is intending to say: distance travelled with those tyres,
then there is a strong negative correlation. Depth of tread reduces if
number of kilometres travelled with those tyres increases.
2a)

b) A positive correlation exists between the scores.

c) Mean Maths 30. 8, mean science 30.2.

d) 35 e. 40
3a)

Module 6: Unit 3 103 Data representation

 b) The data are negatively correlated, i.e., the number of visits to the super
market decreases when the distance the person is away from the
supermarket increases. Or the number of visits increases if the distance
the person is away from the supermarket decreases.
c) Mean number of visits 9.13, mean distance 8.87

d) 8
e) As the correlation is rather strong the estimate is reasonable reliable.

Self mark exercise 7

1a) The pupil thinks that the sample must have the same mean as the
population.
b) (i) Ask pupil to explain how (s)he worked the question.
(ii) Create mental conflict. Suppose only 2 scripts were taken at random.
The first has a score of 55%. What is the expected mean of the
sample of two?
Here the pupil will discover it cannot be 80% because then the
second script would need a mark of 105%, more than is possible.
(iii) Guided questioning should bring out:
One script has score 60%, the other nine scripts, we don’t know, but
looking at the mean we have as our only option to assume that those
nine will have an mean of 80%. Hence the expected mean of the
sample will be (60% + 9 × 80%) ÷ 10 = 78%.
(iv) Consolidate the ‘new’ knowledge of the pupil by setting similar
questions.
2a) Pupil confuses observations with frequencies. Mode and median are
observation related, not frequency.
b) (i) Ask pupil to explain how (s)he worked the question.
(ii) Create mental conflict by looking at data set
160, 160, 160, 161, 161, 162, 163
Ask pupil for mode and median.
Next ask pupil to place the data in a frequency table thus:
Height 160 161 162 163
Frequency 3 2 1 1

Module 6: Unit 3 104 Data representation

 Ask again for mode and median.
Ask pupil what is to be looked at for mode and median, the height
row or the frequency row.
(iii) Guide the pupil through the set problem, which will be not so hard
after step (ii). The pupil is now aware of the error and will work with
the correct row.
(iv) Set similar questions—given a distribution table of discrete data, to
find median and mode—for consolidation purposes.
3a) Line graph to see whether or not there is a trend.
b) Bar graph if the number of categories turn out to be large (8 or more).
Otherwise use pie chart to compare the amounts spend on each category.
c) Bar chart or bar line chart, the height of the bars giving the prices.
d) Pictogram / bar chart if comparing discrete salaries (or range of salaries)
of different groups of workers. If the data is to display how many
workers earn a salary in a particular range a histogram might be
appropriate (unequal classes).
e) Frequency polygons on the same axes will allow easy comparison.

Self mark exercise 8

1a) The two line graphs use different scales on the vertical axis (that they do
not start at zero is less serious although the ‘squeeze’ should have been
indicated).
Draw the two line graphs on the same axes system (or if on different then
use the same scale on the vertical axis). The FAST GROWTH company
has the same trend as the others.
b) The scale along the vertical axis is uneven. First two squares represent
P5 million, next 5 squares are used to represent the same amount.
Draw the graph using consistent scale along vertical axis and note that
the increase is the same for both 3 year periods.
c) No scale is available, so no conclusion can be drawn from the graphs.
They should be drawn on the same axis—but due to missing scale you
cannot do it.
2a)

Module 6: Unit 3 105 Data representation

 2b)

3) The vertical axis is not labelled. Hence no valid conclusions can be

made.
4a)

4b)

Module 6: Unit 3 106 Data representation

 5a)

5b)

Self mark exercise 9

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7
2. What type of data? Quant, Qual, Quant, Quant, Quant, Qual, Qual?,
(Answers may vary) contin., discrete, contin., contin., mixed, contin., contin.,
ungrouped grouped grouped grouped grouped grouped grouped
3. What type of graph? Line Bar Bar* Bar Bar Pie Pie/Bar**

* Not Pie, because (a) two sets of data are displayed and a pie chart can
show only one, and (b) each bar is separate from its neighbour, as in a bar
chart but not in a pie chart. Another description of this is a “stacked bar”
chart consisting of two bars, except that the bars are not vertical.
Incidentally, the graph shows bias! Compare the two bars for “renewable
forms” and for “lignite”: they are clearly not sized correctly for the numbers
they represent.
** This clever graph could be considered a line graph turned on its side, or
as four pie charts which each add up to 100%. Although not mentioned in
this course, this graph is also a “stacked bar” graph turned on its side, since
stacked bar graphs often have tie-lines that connect a level in one bar to the
same level in the next bar. It is not a pictogram, since the pictures of houses
do not represent counts or frequencies—only categories.

Module 6: Unit 3 107 Data representation

Unit 4: Measures of central tendency
Introduction to Unit 4
The use of the mind should precede the use of the mean. This is to say that
one has to look further than the mere calculation of averages.
There are four aspects to consider when it comes to giving meaning to the
represented data:
1. Look behind the data
Data sets are related to a context and gathered and presented by someone
who might have a particular agenda. It is therefore important to look
behind the data. Questions that are to be considered are: is there bias,
attempts to disguise some data, attempts to mislead with data, attempts to
present the data from only one point of view? Misuse and abuse of
statistics are to be an important aspect of pupils’ data handling
experiences.
2. Look at the data
This covers computational and representation aspects: which statistics are
meaningful to compute and what is the best way to represent the data in
chart or diagram.
3. Look between the data
This is the comparison aspect of the analysis: looking for differences and
similarities.
4. Look beyond the data
This is to cover the inference part of the analysis: what conclusion can be
(safely) drawn from the results.

Purpose of Unit 4
In this unit you are going to look at different averages: mean, mode and
median and how to calculate them when data is grouped or ungrouped, as
well as which average is most appropriate to use in a given situation. The unit
begins with reasonably standard material on central tendency. However, it
includes classroom assignments with a twist: students determine the central
tendency of their own understanding of central tendency! Thus, an underlying
purpose of this unit is to help you teach statistics by means of statistics.

Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
• find the measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode) of
ungrouped data (frequency tables)
• find an estimate of mean, median and mode of grouped data given in a
frequency table and /or histogram or cumulative frequency curve
• justify which measure of central tendency is most appropriate to use in a
given context

Module 6: Unit 4 108 Measures of central tendency

 • investigate the effect of increasing/decreasing all data by a constant, or
increasing/decreasing all data by a given factor on the mean, median and
mode
• investigate the effect of data value of 0 on mean, median and mode
• set activities for pupils to enhance their understanding of measures of
central tendency
• state the common misconceptions of pupils related to measures of central
tendency

Time
To study this unit will take about 10 hours.

Module 6: Unit 4 109 Measures of central tendency

Unit 4: Measures of central tendency

You must be familiar with the three averages: mean, median and mode.
Write down how you have been teaching these concepts to your pupils.
Illustrate with the examples you generally use.
When reading through the next section refer to what you wrote down.

Section A: Averages: mean, mode, median

Many questions related to mean, mode and median merely test a pupil’s
ability to recall a formula, to substitute the values into the formula and to
compute an arithmetically correct answer (operational or instrumental
understanding) while pupils lack a relational or functional understanding of
these measures of central tendency. Many questions in data handling deal
only with arithmetical aspects and not real statistical questions. How to
compute measures for central tendency is of limited value when the pupil
does not know how to interpret the values. Interpreting the meaning of a
stated measure of central tendency should be part of the activities presented to
pupils.
A question such as: Find the mean of 6.3, 5.4, 4.9, 4.3 and 0.8 does nothing to
test a pupil’s understanding of the functional characteristics of the mean as a
representative statistic, or model of the given data, and so is a bad question. It
can also be criticised because it is based on a small sample of meaningless
figures. Data is to be interpreted in a context.
For example:
A train is to leave the station at 8.30 each morning. The departing time on
Monday was 35 minutes late due to a fire in the restaurant car. On Tuesday
the train was delayed 5 minutes, on Wednesday 3 minutes, Thursday 3
minutes and Friday 4 minutes.
What was the average number of minutes that the train was late leaving? (10
minutes)
Is this ‘average’ a good figure to use to represent the week’s data? (No,
because the delay on Monday is an exceptional instance, and hence it should
NOT be included in the average; the 10 minutes are not a reflection of what
passengers might expect.)
The problem of when to consider an outlier as an outlier and when as an
extreme (but possible) value is seldom considered by teachers. In the first
example based on meaningless data, pupils with real understanding of the
statistical concept ‘average’ face serious problems: is 0.8 an outlier or not?
There is no context to provide clues.
Data handling has to relate to a context to make it meaningful. Providing
pupils with meaningful and realistic problems is essential for developing
understanding of measures of central tendency or more generally for the
understanding of data handling.

Module 6: Unit 4 110 Measures of central tendency

 Section B: The concept of the mean
The following aspects need attention.
1) The mean is located between the extreme values.
For example: The number of pupils present in class during a week are as
follows:
Monday 26 Tuesday 18 Wednesday 24
Thursday 29 Friday 28
The mean is (26 + 18 + 24 + 29 + 28) ÷ 5 = 25
This is between the extreme values of 18 and 29.
2) The sum of the deviations from the mean is zero.
Using the same data as in the example above, the deviations from the
mean 25 are
+1, -7, -1,+4, +3. The sum being zero.
This property is important for estimating the mean of a set of numerical
data. It can be taught effectively by reversing the traditional order: instead
of giving data and asking to compute the mean, the teacher can give the
mean (say 25) and ask to find a data set (of say 10 data) with that mean.
Pupils quickly discover the “balance strategy”, i.e., if I include 23 (two
below the mean of 25), it is to be balanced by say 27 (two above the
mean).
3) The average is influenced by values that deviate from the average.
Using the above data and assuming that on Saturday 28 pupils attended,
the mean attendance over the six days will be different from 25. However
if on Saturday 25 pupils attended (the mean over the first five days) the
mean over the six days will remain 25.
4) The average does not necessarily equal one of the values that was
summed.
The mean over the six days is (26 + 18 + 24 + 29 + 28 + 28) ÷ 6 = 25.5.
However 25.5 pupils can never attend. The mean is not a value equal to
any of the values averaged.
5) The average can be a fractional value with no counterpart in reality.
The example in 4 shows that the mean (25.5) can be a decimal with no
real object it can refer to in reality: 25.5 pupils do not exist.
6) The average value is representative of the values that were averaged.
This is an important property used when interpreting data. The mean
represents all the data in the data set.
7) In computing an average, a value of zero, if it appears, is to be taken into
account.
Some pupils have the misunderstanding that 0 is ‘nothing’ and hence need
not to be included in calculation of the mean. However 0 is a legitimate
numerical value. For example somebody might have 0 brothers and
sisters, the temperature might be 0o C.

Module 6: Unit 4 111 Measures of central tendency

 8) Relating the mean to the representations of data.
In a bar chart the mean frequency will be the height of a rectangle
enclosing an area equal to the area of the bars.
For example: The bar chart represents the number of pupils present in
class from Monday to Friday.

The mean number of pupils in class during the five days was 25. The area
from the “mean” line down to the lower axis equals the area of the five
bars.
Section B1: The average or mean has three meanings
Take for example the statement that “On average a box of matches contains
35 matches.”
1) measure of location
Words such as ‘around’, ‘near’, ‘about’, ‘close to’ were used by pupils to
explain the above statement. These responses (the great majority) indicate
that pupils understand mean as a measure of location.
2) representative number
This notion is usually lacking among 13 -14 year olds. They do not
understand the mean as a measure resulting from a stochastic process, i.e.,
a random process based on chance.
3) expected value
Words such as ‘normally’ ‘the usual amount’ express the idea of
expectation. That one might expect 35 matches in the box.

Section B2: Misconceptions and pupils’ errors

The following are some misconceptions that can be expected.
1) any difference in the means between two groups is significant
If the average height of pupils (12 - 13 years old) in Form 1A is 158 cm
and in Form 1B the average is 160 cm, this difference need not be
significant. It would be incorrect to conclude that the pupils in Form 1B
are taller than the pupils in Form1A (additional information would be
needed to make such a statement). It could be that there is one very tall
girl in Form 1B causing the mean to go up, while all other pupils might in
fact be below the height of 158 cm.

Module 6: Unit 4 112 Measures of central tendency

 2) a lack of awareness of regression to the mean in everyday life
If a process is repeated many times (throwing a dice) the number of times
a six is thrown will come closer to the theoretical mean.
3) errors due to inconsistent notation used in different textbooks
The conventions used in different textbooks are not the same and are
problematic to pupils that are not fluent in the use of mathematical
symbols. As project work implies consulting different textbooks a teacher
should be aware of this possible source of errors. To avoid errors caused
by differences in conventions a teacher should make it a rule NEVER to
present concepts exclusively in symbolic algebraic format. A word format
should be presented as well.

Section C: Mean, median and mode for ungrouped data

I(a) The mean of n listed values:
The mean of n numbers a1, a2, a3, .... an-1, an is (sum of all the
data values) ÷ ( number of data values) . In formula form
n

a1 + a 2 + a 3 + K + a n−1 + a n
∑a i
= i=1
n n
Σ(pronounced: sigma) is the Greek letter for S. It is used to mean
“the sum of .”
n

∑a i means the sum of all the ai where I take values from 1 to n.

i=1

It is short for a1 + a2 + a3+ ... + an-1 + an

I(b) The mean of numbers given in a frequency distribution
Number a1 a2 a3 ..... ...... an-1 an
Frequency f1 f2 f3 .... ...... fn-1 fn
The mean of a1, a2, a3, .... an-1, an if the numbers have frequencies of
n

∑fa i i
i =1
respectively f1, f2, f3, .... fn-1, fn is n

∑f i
i =1

The mean can be obtained from discrete or continuous quantitative data.

Qualitative data cannot be summarised by a mean. If you have data on the
favourite type of music of the pupils in your class it does not make sense
to average ‘gospel music’ with ‘reggae’.
II The mode is the observation with the highest frequency. The mode uses
the frequencies and hence a mode can be obtained for both quantitative
and qualitative data.
II(a) The mode of n listed observations.

Module 6: Unit 4 113 Measures of central tendency

 For example:
(i) 10 people were asked for their favourite drink and the responses were
tea, fruit juice, milk, fruit juice, fizzy drink, fruit juice, fizzy drink,
milk, fruit juice, tea.
The mode being: fruit juice.
(ii) The height of ten plants was 1.64 m, 1.58 m, 1.67 m, 1.71 m, 1.65 m.,
1.68 m, 1.65 m, 1.60 m, 1.65 m, 1.71 m.
The most frequent height is 1.65 m. The mode is 1.65 m. Both
qualitative and quantitative data can have a mode.
II(b) The mode read from a frequency distribution.
Number of words in a sentence in a nursery rhyme.
No. of words 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency 3 3 6 5 4 4

The highest frequency is 6. The mode is 7. Seven words per sentence

occurred most frequently.
III The median is the middle observation if the number of observations is
odd or the mean of the two middle observations if the number of
observations is even provided the data is written in increasing (or
decreasing) order. Median can be obtained for quantitative data;
qualitative data has no median.
III(a) The median of n listed values:
The scores of the school’s netball teams during a tournament were
Team A: 2, 4, 5, 3, 4, 1, 7 Team B: 3, 6, 4, 2, 4, 5, 8, 6.
The median number of goals scored by the school’s netball teams
requires ordering the given data first:
Team A: 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 7
Team B: 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 8.
The first team A had a median score 4, the middle of the seven
ordered scores.
1
The middle value of n observation, when n is odd, is the ( n + 1) th
2
observation.
The median of team B is the mean of 4th and 5th observation (as the
number of observation is even there are two numbers in the middle).
4+5
The median is therefore = 4.5 .
2
The middle value of n observation, when even, is the mean of the
1 1
n th and the ( n + 1) th observation.
2 2
III(b) The median of quantitative data given in a frequency distribution.
Using the same data as above
No of words 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency 3 3 6 5 4 4

Module 6: Unit 4 114 Measures of central tendency

 The median is found by first finding the total number of observations
(3 + 3 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 4) = 27.
The median is therefore the 13th observation: the 3rd observation is 5, the
sixth (3 + 3) is 6, the 12th (3 + 3 + 6) is 7, the 13th is the first of the
five, 8. The median is 8.

Self mark exercise 1

1. The heights of three friends are 1.56 m, 1.67 m and 1.61 m.
Find the mean height.
2. The frequency distribution table shows the number of pips in 50 oranges.
number of pips 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
frequency 2 5 12 10 6 7 5 3
Find the mean number of pips in the 50 oranges.
3. A survey in the class on the number of hours spent by pupils to study for
the end of year Science examination gave the following data (to the
nearest hour).
1 3 1 2 5
3 2 3 3 1
4 2 2 1 6
3 2 2 4 5
Find the mean, mode and median of this data.
Which of the three averages best represents the data? Justify your answer.
4. Number of days pupils were absent during one week in form 2A4.
Days absent 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 6 0 2 2 1 1
Find the mean, mode and median of this data.
Which of the three averages best represents the data? Justify your answer.
5. The stem-leaf diagram represents the height of boys and girls in a class.
Height of pupils in form 2X
Girls Boys
443310 15 2
9865 15 579
43220 16 12234
865 16 5566889
42 17 044
17 58
n = 41 16 | 8 represent 168 cm
Find the mean, mode and median of (i) girls (ii) boys.
Continued on next page

Module 6: Unit 4 115 Measures of central tendency

 Compare the averages of boys and girls and make some statements based
on the averages calculated.
Represent the data in one bar chart (150-154, 155 - 159, 160-164, etc.)
placing the bars for boys and girls next to each other (double bar chart).
6. Tashata collected data on the number of people in a car, parking in front
of a shopping centre between 09 00 h and 10 00 h.
Number of people 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of cars 42 20 14 12 10 2

a) Find the mean, mode and median.

b) Represent the data in a graph/chart. Justify your choice.
7. Packets of crisps are marked 30 g. A sample of packets was taken and the
mass of crisps determined to nearest gram. The results are as listed:
Mass (g) 29 30 31 32 33
Frequency 20 50 45 10 25

a) Find the mean, mode and median.

b) Represent the data in a histogram.
8. Two running teams A and B took part in a competition. The times, to
nearest 0.1 of a second, of the members of team A and team B in the
100 m are listed below.
Team A Team B
11.9 12.0
12.4 12.5
13.1 13.2
13.3 13.8
13.6 14.1
12.9 12.6
13.8 13.5
13.3 12.7
12.8 12.1
12.4 13.7
12.0 11.8
a) Find the mean, mode and median.
b) Which average best represents the data? Explain.
c) Which is the ‘better’ team? Justify your answer.

Suggested answers are at the end of this unit.

Module 6: Unit 4 116 Measures of central tendency

 Section D: Which is the best average to use?
Which is the best average to use depends on the situation and what you want
to use the average for. The mean is the most commonly used measure of
central tendency as it is the only one of the three averages using all the data.
It takes all the data in the distribution into account. The mean—being
arithmetically based—can be combined with the means of other groups on the
same variable. For example: If you found that the average score on a
mathematics test in class 1A was 68% and in 1B the average score was 71%,
the average score of the combined class 1AB can be computed. The median
and the mode, not being arithmetically based, do not have such a property. If
the modal height in form 1A is 165 cm and in 1B is 167 cm, you cannot draw
any conclusion with regards to the mode of the combined class 1AB.
However using the mean can give a rather distorted picture of the data if there
are outliers, or if the mean is not meaningful in the given context.
Examples:
1. The leader of a youth club can get discounts on cans of drinks if she buys
all one size. She took a vote on which size the members of the club
wanted.
Size of can (ml) 100 200 330 500
Number of votes 9 12 19 1
Mode = 330 ml, median = 200 ml and mean = 245.6 ml (1 decimal point)
Which size should she buy?
The mean is clearly of no use—cans of size 245.6 ml do not exist. The
median would be possible as 200 ml cans are for sale. However only 12
out of the 41 club members want this size. In this case the mode is the
best average to use as it is the most popular one among the club members.
2. A teacher wants 50% of his pupils to get a credit in a test and wants to set
the minimum mark for the credit. Which average should the teacher use?
In this case the median is the only appropriate average as this is the
middle score—50% will be above and 50% below this score. (N.B. the
median mark can only be set after the test is written).
3. In a small butchery the four labourers earn each R 400 per month, the
supervisor earns R 1200 and the manager R 2600. Which average best
represents the monthly wages earned?
The mean (R 900) is misleading as it is more than twice the salary earned
by most workers. The median (R 400) is representative. The other
appropriate average to use is the mode: it gives the wages of most of the
workers. When datasets are skewed to one side, like wages or house
prices, the median and mode are more realistic than the mean.
4. The time taken (in hours) by 6 pupils to complete their project was
20, 25, 31, 35, 87, 87.
The mean is 47.5 but most pupils worked less than that on their project.
The mode is 87 but is also misleading. The median is

Module 6: Unit 4 117 Measures of central tendency

 1 
33  (31 + 35) = 33 which is the best to use as it tells us that half of the
2 
number of pupils needed less than 33 h and half needed more.
5. The number of border crossings at 5 border posts between Botswana and
Zimbabwe on a certain day were 40, 60, 60, 80 and 810. The median is
60, the mode is 60 and the mean is 210. The outlier 810 makes the mean
move to 210, a value atypical for the data. The median would be a better
value to represent the data.
6. Occasionally, distributions arise for which none of the averages is
particularly informative. For example:
The table shows the number of cigarettes smoked per day by 50 persons.
Number of cigarettes Number of people
0 30
1 10
2 5
3 3
4 2
The mean is 7.4, the mode is 0 and the median is 0. None of these
averages represent the data well. In this case it would be better to state
that 60% are non-smokers and that the smokers smoke on average (mean)
18.5 cigarettes a day.
The mean is generally used if the data is more or less symmetrically grouped
about a central point, i.e., the data do not contain outliers. If further
calculation is required (e.g., measures of dispersion) or comparison with a
similar measure on another group is intended, or the (sample) mean is to be
used in estimating parameters of the population then the mean is to be used as
mode and median cannot be used in ‘further’ calculations.
A distribution with outliers is frequently best described by using the median.
The mode is used when the context suggests ‘most usual’ or ‘typical’ value.

Self mark exercise 2

1. Decide which of the following averages—mean, mode or median—is the
most appropriate to use to summarise the following data. Justify your
answer.
a) number of children in the family
b) number of letters in pupils’ surnames
c) number of pupils born in a certain month
d) shoe size of the boys in the class
e) favourite subject in school
f) number of days each pupil in a class was absent during the term
g) method of payment for goods bought in a furniture shop
h) most popular activity of pupils during a long weekend
Continued on next page

Module 6: Unit 4 118 Measures of central tendency

 2a. Calculate mean, median and mode for each of the following sets of data.
b. Decide and justify which of the three best represents the data.
(i) Modise scored the following number of goals during the eight
matches of the school’s football team:
1, 1, 0, 6, 2, 1, 3, 0
(ii) A pupil scored the following percent grades in geography:
75%, 72%, 68%, 57%, 62%, 10%, 75%.
3. There are six possible ways of listing the three averages in ascending
order of size. For example: mean, mode, median; mean, median, mode,
etc. Write down all six and then try to find sets of numbers which will fit
each arrangement.
For example, to make the order mode < median < mean you could choose
the four numbers 1, 1, 3, 11 with mode 1, median 2 and mean 4.
4. Averages are meant to represent the data. List advantages and
disadvantages of the mode, median and mean and give examples when
you would use one instead of the others.
5a. (Challenge question for the strong mathematicians.) In mathematics you
might also meet the geometric mean of numbers. The geometric mean of
p and q is ( pq) .
Show that always for two numbers (arithmetic mean) ≥ (geometric mean).
1 1 1
b. The harmonic mean H of two numbers p and q is defined as = + .
H p q
Express H in terms of the geometric and arithmetic mean.

Suggested answers are at the end of this unit.

Section E: Mean, mode and median: classroom lessons

The following pages give suggestions for an investigative approach to mean,
mode and median. It is assumed that pupils have basic knowledge of what
each of these measures stands for. The sequence of activities starts with a
diagnostic test. This will give feedback to the teacher as to the ideas of the
pupils and help to plan the lessons: which points need to be emphasised. At
the end of the lesson sequence the teacher might decide to discuss some of the
questions in the diagnostic test with the pupils.
The main objective is to make pupils aware of the effect on the three
measures (mean, mode and median) when values are added to the group. For
example, a new pupil, age 12 years 3 months, height 1.58 m, mass 58 kg joins
the class. How will the mode, median and mean age / length / mass of the
class change? The lessons also aim at developing in pupils an awareness as to
which measure is most appropriate to use in a given context. The lessons use
an investigative method, with pupils working in groups, to discuss points with

Module 6: Unit 4 119 Measures of central tendency

 each other before (if needed) whole class discussion is used to round up the
activities.

Practice task 1
1. Work through the diagnostic test and lesson outlines by yourself. Write
down any problems you encounter.
2. Administer the diagnostic test to your class and analyse the results. Write
a report on your findings.
3. Based on the outcomes of the diagnostic test make, if necessary, changes
in the lesson outline and work out the lessons in detail. Prepare detailed
lesson plans and notes. Prepare the worksheets for the pupils. You might
need different versions for different levels of achievement of your pupils
(differentiated worksheets to meet ‘mixed ability’ of your class).
4. Try out the planned activities / lessons and write an evaluative report.
Cover questions such as:
Were the objectives attained? How do you know?
Did pupils enjoy the activities?
What needs changing in the material?
Was the method different from what you used to use?
Present the assignment to your supervisor.

A diagnostic instrument
Answer the following questions. Give reasons for your answers.
1. Suppose you have calculated the average age of a family. Afterwards a
baby is born in that family. If you were asked to re-calculate the average
age of that family, your task is very simple. Since the baby is 0 years old
the average age will be exactly the same.
TRUE / FALSE (circle the correct answer)
Reason:
2. Somebody has calculated the average of a set of numbers. She tells her
friend that if you take the total of all differences between the average and
the numbers in the set you will always find zero.
TRUE / FALSE (circle the correct answer)
Reason:
3. A mode of a set of scores is the score with the highest frequency. What is
the mode of the following set of scores: 60, 58, 33, 98, 58, 60, 42, 58
A) 60 B) 58 C) 33 D) 98 E) 42 (circle correct answer)
Reason:

Module 6: Unit 4 120 Measures of central tendency