Masters Dissertation

Evaluation of community based irrigation scheme: The case study of Tshiombo

irrigation scheme

By

Mudau Mafulo Stenley

Student no: 11574486

A RESEARCH SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

FOR MASTERS DEGREE IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF

GEOGRAPHY AND GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCES

School of Environmental Sciences

March 2018

Supervisor: Dr MUDAU N.V

Signature …………………………….. Date: ……………………

Co-supervisor Mr. MOKGOEBO M.J

Signature ……………………………… Date: ……………………..

Declaration

I, Mudau Mafulo Stenley, hereby declare that the research for the Master of
Environmental sciences degree (MENVSC) at the University of Venda, hereby submitted
by me, has not been submitted for a degree at this or any other university, and that it is
my own work in design and execution and that all reference materials contained have
been duly acknowledged.

Student: Mr MS Mudau

Signature......................................................... Date: .......................................

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Dedication

I sincerely dedicate this Masters Dissertation to my parents, siblings, entire family at large
and university of Venda community. Their presence played a vital part in this study. They
have been the motivation behind the completion of this dissertation. In fact, there are my
God’s greatest gifts.

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Acknowledgements

To claim that I bore this alone would be unfair. I am obliged to a number of people and
institutions for their priceless, moral and material support during the period of my Masters
studies. The University of Venda provided inspiring environment for this project. Dr NV
Mudau and Mr MJ Mokoebo deserve special thanks and appreciation. They did not only
guide me as my supervisors and mentors; they went beyond the call of duty to provide
me with parental advices. I am gratefully acknowledging the financial support of the
University of Venda (work study), and hand-outs from friends during desperate times.
Again, I am indebted to Vhembe Department of Agriculture officials who worked tirelessly
with Tshiombo irrigation scheme extension officers and its farmers for allowing me to
interview them and also for letting me to use their resources in realising this project.

I would also like to thank Prof NH Mutshaeni (University of Venda CHETL Directorate) for
her guidance and magnificent resolute support, Mr MA Monyane (Univen), Prof JO Odiyo
(Dean school of environmental sciences and Dr NS Nethengwe (HOD school of
environmental sciences) were all instrumental in helping me conceptualise this study. Of
the people whose patience I have taxed, my family come first. My parents Ps Mudau TB
& Mudau TM always supported me and had confidence in me. My brother Humbudzani
and my fiancé Nemalili V undergone and tolerated my absence from home and time away
from them. Without them to pull and push me through, I am not sure I would have come
this far. Again, thanks for all. Most highly, I thank the almighty God for his omnipresence
in my life and for giving me intelligence and strength to complete my research.

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Abstract

Agricultural abandonment is a challenge in areas of South Africa more especially in rural

areas. The study employs both qualitative and quantitative methods of in sampling and
collection and analysis. It adopted a case cross-sectional study design. This design is a
case study in nature, hence this study compared the active and none active farmers in
identifying the causes and effects of the phenomenon studied. Comparatively, the study
sought to find out if there are factors influencing farm abandonment and its consequences
in Tshiombo village. The study was based on field surveys allowing for observation and
with respect to agricultural abandonment. In addition to observation open ended
questions together with questionnaires were administered to extension officers. The data
collected from open ended questions and questionnaires was recorded and subjected to
descriptive analysis. Several factors have been identified influencing farm abandonment.
The challenges ranges from needs prioritization, infrastructure and capacity. It was
recommended that government should reinstate its support to small scale farmers
prioritize the maintenance of irrigation canals. The prioritisation of agriculture will attract
many into agricultural practice with the aim of reducing poverty and starvation in rural
communities.

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Acronyms

AC : Active Farmers

AB : Abandoned farmers

AIDS : Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

EXT : Extension officers

EU : European Union

FAO : Food and agriculture organization

FEWSNET : Famine early system network

HIV : Human immunodeficiency virus

HNV : High nature value

N : Total

PTO : Permission to occupy

WHO : World health organization

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Table of Contents

Declaration ........................................................................................................................................... i
Dedication ............................................................................................................................................ ii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................... iii
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... iv
Acronyms ............................................................................................................................................. v
1.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 3
1.3. Aim of the Study ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.4. Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 3
2. Research Questions ...................................................................................................................... 4
3. Description of the Study Area....................................................................................................... 4
3.1. Climate ..................................................................................................................................... 5
3.2. Topography and drainage ..................................................................................................... 5
3.3. Soil and Vegetation ................................................................................................................ 8
3.4. The Historical Development of the Irrigation Scheme ...................................................... 8
4. The Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 10
5. Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................... 11
6. Structure of the Study .................................................................................................................. 12
7. Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 14
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 Causes of Agricultural Activities Abandonment ........................................................................ 15
2.2.1 Agricultural Policy ................................................................................................................... 15
2.2.2 Climate change ....................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.3 Farm Mismanagement ........................................................................................................... 17
2.2.4 Lack of skilled manpower ...................................................................................................... 18
2.2.5 Access to market .................................................................................................................... 19
2.2.6 Soil infertility ............................................................................................................................ 19
2.3 Environmental Impacts of Abandoned Agricultural Activities ................................................. 19
2.3.1 Positive impacts of agricultural activities abandonment ................................................... 20
2.3.2 The negative impacts of agricultural activity abandonment ............................................. 20

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 2.4 The Social and Economic Impact of Agricultural Activity Abandonment .............................. 21
2.5 Farm Management and Mitigation Strategies ........................................................................... 21
2.6 Irrigation Scheme........................................................................................................................... 22
2.6.1 The importance of irrigation schemes ................................................................................. 23
2.6.2 Periods of smallholder irrigation ........................................................................................... 23
2.7. Land Abandonment ...................................................................................................................... 26
2.7.1. Causes of land abandonment ............................................................................................. 27
2.8. Summary........................................................................................................................................ 30
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... 31
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 31
3.2 Research Design ...................................................................................................................... 31
3.3 Population and Sampling Procedures ................................................................................... 32
3.4 Data Collection Methods ......................................................................................................... 33
3.5 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 34
3.6 Validity and Reliability .............................................................................................................. 35
3.7. Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................................. 35
3.8 Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND THE ANALYSIS OF RESULTS ............... 37
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 37
4.2 Background of Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme ............................................................................. 37
4.2.1. The Organogram structure of Tshiombo irrigation scheme ............................................ 37
4.2.1. The extension officers’ education and experience ........................................................... 40
4.5 Causes of Farm Abandonment ................................................................................................... 45
4.5.1 Physical factors....................................................................................................................... 46
4.4.2 None physical factors ............................................................................................................ 49
4.4.3 Economic factors influencing farm abandonment ............................................................. 51
4.4.4. Social factors influencing farm abandonment ................................................................... 52
4.4.5. Political factors....................................................................................................................... 54
4.6. The Social and Economic Impact of the Irrigation Scheme ................................................... 55
4.7. Possible Strategies for preventing further Farm Abandonment ............................................ 55
4.8. Summary........................................................................................................................................ 56
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF THE STUDY FINDIDNGS AND RECCOMENDATIONS ........ 57
5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 57

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 5.2. Summary of the Research Findings .......................................................................................... 57
5.2.1. What are the causes of the abandonment of the agricultural activities? ...................... 57
5.2.2. What are the social and economic impacts of the abandoned agricultural land? ....... 57
5.2.3. Which mitigation strategies can be implemented to re-activate the abandoned
agricultural activities? ...................................................................................................................... 59
5.3. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 60
5.4. Recommendations ....................................................................................................................... 61
5.4.1. Measures to influence farming and limit farm abandonment ............................................. 61
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 63
APPENDIX A............................................................................................................................................. 73
APPENDIX B............................................................................................................................................. 77

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List of Tables
Table 1: The Research Design Matrix ................................................................................31
Table 2: Population Size ....................................................................................................33

List of Figures
Figure 1: Thulamela Local Municipal Map, shows the study areas. ..................................... 7
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................11
Figure 3: Organogram structure of Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme ........................................38
Figure 4: Age of participants ..............................................................................................39
Figure 5: Crops that farmers cultivate in their farms ...........................................................42

List of plates
Plate 1: sweet potatoes, maize, cabbages and tomatoes…………………………………43
Plate 2: effective irrigation canal and maize 47……………………………………………..43
Plate 3: emerging infrastructure in a productive of land ……………………………..……44
Plate 4: broken irrigation system ……………………………………………………………..45
Plate 5: abandoned farm ……………………………………………………………………..47
Plate 6: abandoned farm due to sand deposit………………………………………………48
Plate 7: storage dam that has now turned into a soccer field …………………………….49
Plate 8: dysfunctional canals………………………………………………………………….50
Plate 9: majority of female farmers ……………………………………………………….....53

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1. Introduction

Agriculture is one of the most important economic activities in the world. It provides people
with basic products that are essential for life. Farming as we know it today, developed
gradually from hunting and gathering to crop production and the rearing of animals. Crop
production and animal rearing meant that people were now permanently settled in specific
areas. Due to the uncontrolled land use, and poor soil management by the land users,
this resulted in land degradations. Once land became unproductive, it was abandoned.
The environmental impacts of abandoned farmland could be either a chance for the
ecological restoration of the state of the land to its original state prior to agricultural
activities, or the failure of the land management process that potentially threatens the
surrounding biodiversity (Haddaway et al., 2013). The threat posed by the abandoned
agricultural land depends on the ecological opportunity in the context of the agricultural
history and the presence of the ecological systems that depend on land management for
their existence (Haddaway et al., 2013).

According to Bedeke, 2011, Community-based Irrigation is the collective management of

irrigation water to improve human well-being and poverty reduction. It aims to devolve
authority of irrigation water management to the local (community) level, thereby
empowering communities to manage their own resources without permanently damaging,
depleting or degrading them. According to Braimah et al, 2014, local users of irrigation
resources, if empowered as a group to participate actively in the management of water
resources, have the incentive to manage it more efficiently and sustainably than a wholly
centrally financed government agency.

According to Pointereau et al., 2008, farmland abandonment can be defined as the

cessation of agricultural activities on a given surface of land. Farmland abandonment
occurs when a particular stretch of land becomes unproductive, hence ceases to be
economically viable or sustainable (where changes in farming practices have been

1
expanded and failed) (MacDonald et al., 2000). It should be noted that there is a lack of
standardised definitions of this concept. Another problem is the difficulty of matching the
concept with available data for an accurate estimate of abandoned areas. Ramankutty
and Foley (1999) concluded that the abandoned global cropland was estimated to be over
1.47 million km2 between the years 1700 and 1992.

The abandonment of land has a number of well-studied causes which include

environmental (for example, reductions in soil fertility), economic (for example market
globalization) and, social and political (for example rural depopulation) (Hobbs and
Cramer, 2007). Pointereau et al., 2008, suggest that the abandonment of intensive
agricultural land often results in the ecological benefits for the affected piece of land, while
the abandonment of low-intensity agricultural land is more likely to result in a negative
ecological impact, owing to the role of such agricultural practices in maintaining systems
classified as high nature value (HNV). From a social and economic perspective, an
abandoned agricultural land is usually regarded as detrimental owing to the implication of
the loss of employment and income in the rural areas. Resilience and the adaptability of
farming systems are controlled by a number of factors, including remoteness, climate and
physical constraints, traditional cultural values and the limited skills among the local
population (MacDonald et al., 2000). The limitations to adapt may be compounded by a
historical paucity of agricultural practices in these areas (Jodha, 1990).

The number of environmental factors such as climate, soil, topography, economic, social
and political have influenced farm abandonment both globally, especially in South Africa
(FAO) 1999. In this country, for instance, the land redistribution policy has left some
formerly productive farms abandoned in certain areas (Kirsten, 2011). The noted
examples include, among others, farms in Tzaneen (Limpopo Province) and others in the
Eastern Cape Province (Mbanga, 2012). The same applies to other African states that
have embarked on a radical land reform policy, with Zimbabwe a typical example here.
The country was once Africa’s bread basket due to its agricultural production. Zimbabwe’s
radical and politically driven land policy resulted in mostly white-owned agricultural land
being abandoned by its owners who fled the country in fear for their lives (Moyo, 2007).

2
Those who took over (mostly former liberation struggle guerrillas), unfortunately, failed to
productively utilise the swathes of land they had occupied (Munyoro, 2006). The results
were devastating hunger, chronic starvation and an unstable economy as Zimbabwe
could no longer produce enough food for its population, and export.

1.2. Problem Statement

The increase of abandoned agricultural land since 1994 is a serious challenge to South
Africa’s rural communities as it includes both the traditional and government owned
pieces of land. Agriculture is the backbone of this country’s economy, hence an essential
part of rural dwellers’ subsistence. Be that as it may, certain rural areas have shot
themselves in the foot as they have vast tracks of abandoned land. A case in point is that
of Tshiombo irrigation scheme where farmland has been abandoned. That is, much of the
land that used to be very productive now lies fallow. This implies that there are factors
that contribute to this negative state of affairs in our farms. Equally concerning are the
consequences that follow farm abandonment in South Africa, especially in the Limpopo
Province. Thus, the abandonment of agricultural land has serious implications for food
security in this country, if not the region as a whole.

Given this dichotomous situation, the study’s problem is the under researched
abandonment of agricultural land and its inherent consequences at the Tshiombo
Irrigation Scheme.

1.3. Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of the abandoned agricultural land at the
Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme, in the Vhembe District of Limpopo Province, South Africa.

1.4. Objectives

The following make up this study’s objectives;

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  To find out why some agricultural land was abandoned in Tshiombo Irrigation
Scheme.
 To identify the social and economic impacts of abandoned agricultural land.
 To identify suitable supportive strategies that can help the remaining small-scale-
farmers to survive in Tshiombo.
 To find out how farm abandonment can be reduced in Tshiombo.
2. Research Questions

The study answered the following main research question;

 Why do farmers abandon their agricultural land in Tshiombo and what are the
consequences for this?
In order to fully answer the above question, the study answered the following secondary
questions as well;
 What are the social and economic impacts of abandoning agricultural land in
Tshiombo?
 What are the suitable supportive strategies that can help small-scale-farmers to
continue practising their agricultural activities in Tshiombo?
 How can the abandonment of agricultural land in Tshiombo be reduced?

3. Description of the Study Area

The purpose of this section is to provide a geographical outline of the Tshiombo Irrigation
Scheme, where its social and physical settings are prominent here. Tshiombo Irrigation
Scheme is situated at 220 48 South and 300 26 East, and about 30-45 km from
Thohoyandou. Mutale River borders it to the north, and to the east, there is Mudaswali
River. The southern side of the irrigation scheme has the village’s main road as its
boundary. The area lies approximately 648 to 650 meters above sea level. The total area
is about 110.596 hectares, with 931 fields, of which each one is approximately 1.286
hectares in size. According to the 1996 census, there were approximately 2500 people
resident in the seven villages that make up Tshiombo Community. These are, Matangari,
Tshiombo, Maraxwe, Mianzwi, Muhotoni, Mbahela and Mutshenzheni.

4
There are several factors that influenced the turning of this area into an irrigation scheme.
The area is arable and fertile, and is endowed with plenty water, what with the perennial
Mutale River. The soil is dark-brown loam, sand, most suitable for agricultural purposes.
Its structure is crumbly with medium porosity. The infiltration capacity is high and the
texture is fine. This type of soil promotes the growth of crops because it is rich in plant
nutrients. Farmers here practise crop rotation as a natural way of conserving and
preserving soil and its nutrients. The commonly grown crops are, inter alia, sweet
potatoes, maize, and groundnuts. To maintain soil fertility and moisture, these farmers
use cow dung manure, hand plough, and crop fields in the process. These are cultural
practices that have been passed from one generation to the next heir. The area is good
for both crop and fruit production, hence potentially good business opportunities. The
irrigation scheme is furrow-fed from the Mutale River.

3.1. Climate

The Thulamela municipality falls within the sub-tropical climate, with an average rainfall
range of between 300-1000 mm per year (Kabanda and Munyati, 2010). Most of the rain
falls during summer (between October and March). However, the mountainous areas
receive an enormous amount of rainfall yearly, with an average of about 1329 mm
(Marete, 2003). Annual evaporation increases gradually from 1400 mm in the west, to
1900 mm in the east.

The daily temperatures vary, with an average range of between 17̊ and 27̊ C in summer
and 4̊ C in winter. Some parts of this area could be extremely hot during summer, with
temperatures rising to as high as 45̊ C in certain days. The average seasonal humidity
within the area is about 80% during the summer, and 38% in winter (Kabanda and
Munyati, 2010).

3.2. Topography and drainage

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The Thulamela topography is gentle and undulating, with prominent mountains. The
municipality area is composed of granite gneiss of the Precambrian Age, which is referred
to as the ‘golden plate gneiss’. This is a high grade metamorphic rock, which is not easily
eroded. The current landscape has been largely moulded due to the process of
weathering, while faults and intrusions of competent dolerite dyke sills have influenced
the formation of hills and scarps (Mucina and Rutherford, 2006).

6
Figure 1: Thulamela Local Municipal Map, shows the study areas.
Source: The researcher

7
The Thulamela Municipality area is well-drained due to dendritic perennial rivers. These
are Mutale, Mutshindudi, Mutangwi and Tshinane, in addition to Luvuvhu River. All these
rivers empty their waters into the Limpopo River to the north, which borders South Africa
and Zimbabwe. Also located within this municipality is Phiphidi Dam, which supplies water
to the municipality’s households as well as for agricultural purposes.

3.3. Soil and Vegetation

The area is mainly covered by soils derived from quartzite and sandstones. In this respect,
the soil is generally shallow, gravelly, and is well-drained with low nutrient levels, and is
acidic in nature (Mucina and Rutherford, 2006). Soils of the basaltic origin and diabase
dykes are fine-textured, clayey and of considerable thickness. Soils of the Aeolian
Kalahari are fine-grained. The areas along the northern slope of the municipality are
devoid of soils, they are mainly rocky (Mucina and Rutherford 2006). The general soil
types within the municipality are sandy soils, silt soils and clayey ones found within the
river valley.

Diverse plant species are found within the area, and the Lebombo ironwood forests are
noteworthy here. Several grasslands with scattered trees, baobab trees, short open
woodland and bushes of different kinds cover the entire municipality. There are finger
grasses, herbaceous plants, woody plants, grasslands and farmlands within the area
(Mucina and Rutherford, 2006).

3.4. The Historical Development of the Irrigation Scheme

The Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme was initiated in June 1962, when the Chief, acting on
instructions from the government, allocated Tshiombo residents with a plot of about 1.286
hectares each. Some residents were able to register more than one plot because of
corruption and selfishness, although there is no evidence to this effect. During the plot
allocations, men and women were treated equally.

8
The establishment of the irrigation scheme, however, compelled the government to
relocate affected individuals to the foot of the mountain range. Fearing the unknown, a
significant number of these villagers fled to the neighbouring villages. Their belief was
that the government intended to exploit them to provide cheap labour. When they later
returned to claim their land back, it was all in vain, however. Those who had remained
were provided with agricultural inputs such as fertiliser and lime by the Department of
Agriculture. Due to the lack of agricultural expertise in the form of ignorance, however,
women used the lime to decorate their houses. In the mid-1960s, farmers received free
services from the government. With the appointment of extension officers in 1968, these
farmers were expected to pay 50 cents annually. Over the years, and due to inflation, this
amount rose to R12. The government continued to provide tractors for these farmers to
till the land. For the ploughing, farmers paid R181.28 per hectare, an undertaking that
saw them roughly R234 poorer for an 1.286 hectares job in 2000.

The Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme is divided into eleven blocks. There are ten reservoirs,
of which five are at Matangari, other blocks have one reservoir each. The Mutale River is
the main supplier of water to these reservoirs. But, those with small plots within the
irrigation scheme use the Mudaswali River for their water supply. The furrows or canals
from the dams supply the fields with water. Each irrigation block has two extension officers
and one supervisor, serving an average of 13 farmers. There are also auxiliary officers
who assist extension officers in their work. These deal with the drawing up of watering
timetables for an organised and efficient watering process by farmers within these eleven
irrigation blocks. For any misunderstands between or among farmers, there is a standing
committee that was specifically set up to solve such problems.

9
4. The Significance of the Study

The agricultural land abandonment culminates into a plethora of environmental, social

and economic challenges. There is a need, therefore, to study its causes and impact in
order to determine how the phenomenon could be reduced. This study would motivate
rural developers and policy makers to evaluate and readjust policies so that they are at
par with the agricultural sector’s developmental needs in rural communities. South Africa,
like many other countries in Africa, is faced with a host of challenges in its food production
sector, hence its food security is threatened. The hardest hit are those living in rural areas,
where there is an upsurge in land abandonment for whatever purposes. The research
aims at determining the social and economic impacts and the causes of the abandonment
of farm lands at Tshiombo irrigation scheme. The research aims at finding out why the
activities were abandoned and what must be done to revive them, as part of rural
development. There is a need to revive the irrigation schemes in order to reduce
starvation, hence contribute towards the country’s economic development.

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5. Conceptual Framework

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework

Source: Formulated by the researcher.

Figure 2 illustrates the conceptual framework which guided this study. The structure
indicates the problem at the top, and then breaks it down to capacity, factors and possible
solutions. It focuses on the factors that cause the abandonment of agricultural farms, such
as environmental, agricultural policies, farm management and climate change. These
factors are influential towards the abandonment of agricultural land in Tshiombo Irrigation
Scheme.

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6. Structure of the Study

Chapter one provides the introduction and background to the study, the problem
statement, the aim and objectives of the study, as well as the research questions. In
addition, the study’s significance is outlined, a section that defines the keywords is
outlined, and the conceptual framework is also provided here.

The next Chapter is that of the review of the related literature. This Chapter mainly deals
with literature that focuses on land abandonment as a phenomenon that affects the world.
The section about the theoretical foundation for this study is included in addition to issues
that are affecting the farming.

Chapter Three is that of the methodological aspects of this study. Here, issues such as
the research design, the study’s population, its sample and the data collection techniques
are outlined. The ethical considerations section concludes this Chapter.

In Chapter Four, data collected during the field work are presented, discussed and
analysed in order to ascertain whether the study’s research questions are answered in
the context of the study problem.

The last Chapter provides the study’s findings. A section that concludes the study is also
provided in order to lay the basis for its recommendations. These close the study.

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7. Summary

This Chapter introduces the study and how it was done. Of note here is the study’s
problem, which provides the reader with an idea of why it is done. The study’s significance
is that not much has been done in terms of research on why the Tshiombo Community
farmers decided to abandon their farming projects. It is interesting to note that most of the
issues that pertain to the conduct of this study necessitated its production. As much as
its objectives are concerned, the study managed to formulate them in such a way that
they were achievable. Their achievability translate to its success.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Community Based Irrigation Scheme is derived from participatory management, a

movement that for three decades has been sweeping across many parts of Asia, Africa
and industrialized nations (Mam1996; Carson1999). Unique to its parent approach, which
sees the government as key in facilitating participatory planning and decision making, it
puts its core focus on local communities, which, according to ken(2005) the central role
in identifying resources, defining development priorities, adapting technologies and
implementing management practices. Theoretically, Community Based Irrigation Scheme
aims to ensure livelihood security of local people by giving them easy, equitable and
timely access to irrigation water, and at the same time promote resource sustainability
from one generation to another through social sanction in the command area (Li 2002;
Armitage 2005; Hibbard & Lurie 2006).

Agricultural activities have been a source of livelihoods since time immemorial (FAO,
1997). During the pre-new millennium period in Zimbabwe, for example, agriculture was
the country’s economic mainstay (Rukuni, 2003). However, this came to nought when
privately owned white farms were invaded, thereby triggering the country’s economic free-
fall. The country suddenly turned into an African beggar’s basket instead (Muchenje,
2007). According to FAO, the world’s population is ballooning at a geometric rate,
therefore, the need to sustain as well as to increase agricultural activities cannot be
overemphasized. In addition to man-made farm land calamities, natural disasters such as
recurrent droughts, floods, pests and landslides all contribute to farm land abandonment.
In respect of the food security in the world, there is a need to increase agricultural
activities so as to cover up for the shortfalls due to disaster areas (FEWSNET, 2008).

According to Koch et al., (2005) agricultural production also leads to developments such
as upstream and downstream industries, the employment of people, revenue to the fiscus
through tax, and increases in the much-need foreign exchange through exports.

14
Countries in West Africa, particularly enjoy this through exporting cocoa, an ingredient
that is needed in the production of chocolate (Okpala et al., 2011). Zimbabwe has had a
share of this, through its flagship crop, the Virginia tobacco. It was for this reason that the
crop is affectionately called the ‘golden leaf’ (Mutambi et al., 2012). Agricultural activities
also increase precipitation through evapotranspiration. Vast swathes of land covered by
crops act as carbon sinks, thereby reducing global warming (Hatcher, 2009).

Based on the above, the need for continued agricultural activities is justified. However, it
is quite disheartening to realise that these activities are being discontinued in some areas.
In this Chapter, literature on the causes, impact and mitigating measures on the
abandonment of agricultural activities is reviewed.

2.2 Causes of Agricultural Activities Abandonment

In this section, literature on the causes of the abandonment of agricultural activities is

reviewed. According to FAO (1999) the abandonment of agricultural activities is due to
factors such as agricultural policy, climate change, farm mismanagement, lack of skills,
market-access failure, war and soil infertility, among others. These are discussed in detail
below, in the order they appear above.

2.2.1 Agricultural Policy

Agricultural policy refers to the legislation(s) or laws governing agricultural land

ownership, agricultural practices and marketing (Moyo, 2007). Agricultural policies have
accounted for much of the land abandonment in many areas in Africa (Jodha, 1990). In
South Africa, for instance, the land repossession policy has led to uncertainty, hence the
abandonment of agricultural activities in some parts of the country, particularly those that
used to be very productive (Kirsten, 2011). As stated earlier, notebly examples here
include farms in the Tzaneen area and others in the Eastern Cape (Mbanga, 2012).

In addition, Zimbabwe’s radical land policy, fast-tracked at the beginning of the new
millennium, resulted in agricultural-activity abandonment (Moyo, 2007). Here, the
15
beneficiaries, mostly former liberation struggle guerrillas, took over large patches of
productive land, but dismally failed to maintain production, leaving such land abandoned
(Munyoro, 2006). Commercial, agricultural land previously adorned with crops and
livestock, have either been neglected or totally abandoned (Muchenje, 2007). Mahiya et
al., 2002 state that Zimbabwe’s agricultural land policy is such that the land is state owned
and farmers are provided with a 99 year lease contract, after which they have an option
to renew. As a result, the farmer cannot use the land or part of it as a collateral to acquire
capital from financial institutions (Rukuni, 2009).

2.2.2 Climate change

According to Haddaway et al., (2013) climate change refers to a permanent shift from
traditional precipitation levels and temperature. Agriculturally, this affects crops that have
adapted to the traditional climate. Climate change has led to the abandonment of some
agricultural activities (Moyo, 2007). This is particularly so in parts of Limpopo, Free State
and the North West Provinces where maize farmers have abandoned their land, while
some have scaled down their operations to a few hectares of this crop (Grain SA, 2013).
This is due to climate-change induced erratic rainfall. In Zimbabwe, a similar trend is
observed in parts of Masvingo and Matabeleland North and South Provinces (FEWSNET,
2008). The connection here is that South Africa’s Limpopo Province and Zimbabwe’s
Matabeleland region fall under the same geographic zone (regions three, four and five of
the Savannah), hence similar patterns of climate change (Gibb, 2004).

Ranchers in Matabeleland Province involved in extensive cattle ranching have either

significantly reduced their herds or stopped business altogether, acts that amount to the
phasing out of such agricultural activities (Gibb, 2004). Herd reduction is necessitated by
diminished pastures, a product of climate change. Kenya’s Masai pastoralists, well known
for their nomadic herding tendencies, cull their herds to small sizes, then settle in
mountainous areas with modest pasture, in the process abandoning other areas (Marete,
2003). The point is, the Masai’s traditional grazing lands no longer produce sufficient
pastures for their herds, hence the need to shift to those with good pasture.

16
2.2.3 Farm Mismanagement

Farm mismanagement relates to the inappropriate use of human, material and financial
resources by those accountable to the farm (Kirsten, 2000). Du Toit et al., (2010) argue
that farm mismanagement goes beyond the farm to include the responsible authorities’
failure to come up with or implement successful marketing plans for the farm produce.
Farm mismanagement has by far been credited for the demise of most agricultural
activities, leading to their abandonment (Munyoro, 2006). As part of farm
mismanagement, financial misappropriation has been the most outstanding catalyst for
farm failures, leading to farm abandonment. Financial misappropriation, in this case
relates to the rewarding of or any form of remuneration by farm management without
necessarily taking into consideration the farm’s future financial needs (Bembrige , 2000).

If the expenditure is more than income, production is adversely affected and it ceases in
that particular farm (Baudry, 2006). Financial misappropriation on the farm also occurs
when financial resources are allocated to farm enterprises that do not perform well or are
not profitable. It also involves the wrongful investment in non-essential equipment and
vehicles (Du toit, 2005). Farm mismanagement may also be a result of misinformed
cultural decisions on the farm, for instance, when a manager decides to use sprinkler
irrigation when drip irrigation is more appropriate and highly productive (Gibb, 2004).

On the other hand, a farmer may choose to plant crops in a season or under climatic
conditions that are not favourable to those types of crops. This may lead to crop failure,
hence land abandonment (FAO, 1997). For example, the Savannah’s regions four and
five (Limpopo and Beitbridge areas) are known for their low rainfall due to low altitude,
hence are suitable for drought resistant crops such as finger millet, rapoko and a certain
type of sorghum. Thus, cultivating crops that require large amounts of rainfall such as
maize, rice, wheat and sorghum is merely courting disaster. Similarly, a farmer may
decide to keep livestock in conditions they have not adapted to, leading to a fall in
production. Mac Donald et al., (2000) argue that mismanagement also occurs when a
farm fails to market its products properly. This leads either to its products perishing or

17
being affected quality wise, thus necessitating their sell at giveaway prices. If this
becomes a trend, then the farm becomes unviable in the long run, and the subsequent
discontinuation of farming becomes imminent (Rukuni, 2003). Mismanagement also
happens when farms do not conduct adequate and informed market research for their
products. The effect is that a farm may produce more than the market could absorb. In
this case, excess products become waste, thus loss of investing capital. In short, the farm
becomes unsustainable, forcing the owner(s) to stop production altogether (Beinart,
2001).

2.2.4 Lack of skilled manpower

The success of any agricultural venture is anchored on the availability of skilled labour
(Moyo, 2008). That is, for any agricultural activity to take place successfully, there should
be suitably skilled personnel (Moyo, 2007). Evidence abounds that a skilled workforce is
the panacea for any viable agricultural venture. Much of the land that has been
repossessed in South Africa by tribal authorities is either under utilised or production on
it has since stopped. This is largely attributed to unskilled and inexperienced managers
who have taken over the farm productions (Kirsten, 2011).

Reclaimed lands that show success in agricultural production are run by the former
owners who are regarded as partners or mentors in some cases. These are skilled and
experienced individuals, whose involvement in this sector spans over years (Van
Averbeke, 1998). Zimbabwe’s land reform has not been spared the agricultural
catastrophe of lacking skilled labour (Rukuni et al., 2009). Beneficiaries of the land reform
who are mainly liberation struggle stalwarts and cronies of the ruling elite, only fancied
having productive farms, but lacked sufficient skills (Averbeke et al., 2006). Zimbabwe’s
agriculture, which was the cornerstone of the economy was thus brought to its knees.
From the above, it is clear that the lack of skilled labour may lead to the abandonment of
agricultural activities.

18
2.2.5 Access to market

Agricultural sustainability relies on a steady cash flow system. That is, cash inflow and
outflow (Averbeke et al., 2006). Ideally, the steady cash flow should be such that the
inflow is superior than outflow (Rukuni, 2009). This desirable scenario can only be
achieved when there is a ready market for agricultural produce and at a sustainable price.
That is to say, if there is no market and sustainable prices, cash outflow will be greater
than inflow, leading to business unviability and the subsequent halt of agricultural
activities (Elbakidze and Angelistam, 2007). The lack of market access and unsustainable
prices has led to the demise of agricultural concerns, particularly smallholder farmers.

Smallholder farmers are usually elbowed out of business by commercial farmers (Du toit,
2007). These big ventures usually have the financial muscle for marketing strategies.
They are also naturally accepted by processors and other corporations such as chain-
supermarkets. In Zimbabwe, many maize farmers abandoned their farming activities
because of market uncertainties (Backebrg, 2006). The Grain Marketing Board (GMB)
the sole official board for grain crops, offers low prices and does not pay on time, leading
to unsustainable farming and the subsequent farm stoppages (Haddway et al., 2013).

2.2.6 Soil infertility

The abandonment of agricultural activities in some areas has been attributed to the
dwindling levels of soil fertility (McDonald, 2000). Farmers who depend on the natural soil
fertility have a tendency to vacate their fields when they realise the reduction in soil
fertility, and they relocate to virgin lands with fertile soils (Muchenje, 2007). Shifting
cultivation is pronounced in many African subsistence societies, particularly in rural
Zimbabwe, Botswana and the Congo (FAO, 1997).

2.3 Environmental Impacts of Abandoned Agricultural Activities

The abandonment of agricultural activities culminates into a plethora of positive and

negative effects both environmentally and, social and economically (May, 2000). In this
19
section, literature on the impact of abandoned agricultural activities on the environment,
social and economic spheres was reviewed.

2.3.1 Positive impacts of agricultural activities abandonment

Agricultural activities such as commercial farming, involve the use of nitrites in the
fertiliser. Its use is known to cause eutrophication in water bodies. This has been the case
in areas around the Vaal River (Du toit, 2005). Eutrophication reduces the amount of
oxygen in water bodies and this put aqua life at risk, thus compromises the aqua
ecosystem (Strauss, 2009). Abandoning agricultural activities in areas such as these
could lead to the reduction in cases of eutrophication and certainly, the restoration of the
aqua life. Agricultural activities are also known for loosening the soil structure and
triggering of soil erosion (Khan, 2007). This causes the siltation of rivers and dams, in the
process threatening aqua life.

Clevers et al., (2011) argue that intensive livestock production has led to the production
of much carbon and this has led or contributed to an increase in global warming. Stopping
or reducing this form of farming reduces carbon dioxide production, hence a decrease in
cases of global warming. WHO (2009) suggests that an increase in global warming has
also been attributed to agricultural activities, particularly in the Congo and Amazon
basins. This has been due to the shifting cultivation tendencies by the farmers in these
regions who are in the habit of clearing massive pieces of land in search for new fertile
land (Marius, 2008). By doing so, they remove trees that act as carbon sinks. The forest
of the Congo and Amazon Basins are the world’s largest carbon sinks, therefore, the
abandonment of shifting agricultural activities would help global warming.

2.3.2 The negative impacts of agricultural activity abandonment

The stopping of existing agricultural activities may have a negative impact on the
environment (Gibb, 2004). Vast swathes of agricultural land, especially those used in crop
production, have acted as carbon sinks, for instance, the vast corn cultivation in Texas.

20
Cropping has also been credited for its contribution to precipitation as crops are a platform
for the production of evapotranspiration (Averberke et al., (2006). Crop plantations also
reduce soil erosion as the crop roots aid in binding soil particles together.

2.4 The Social and Economic Impact of Agricultural Activity Abandonment

The abandonment of agricultural activities has social and economic consequences in the
long run (Munyoro, 2006). A halt to agricultural activities leads to employee redundancy
as those employed in these activities lose their employment. This triggers social ills such
as, among others, theft, robbery and prostitution, when people seek other means to
survive. Prostitution has the effect of increasing the transmission of deadly sexual
infections such as HIV/AIDS and syphilis, inter alia (FAO, 2003). Some of these diseases
are fatal, while some leave a person susceptible to other diseases that are fatal. The
abandonment of agricultural activities also causes food insecurity in a country.

2.5 Farm Management and Mitigation Strategies

As a result of climate change, agricultural production in most parts of the world not only
face less predictable weather conditions, but also weather extremes become
predominant. Agriculture is not well prepared to cope with climate change, especially in
Southern Africa and Asia (Kristensen, et al., 2008).

Intensive agriculture has not encouraged the use of traditional skills and knowledge.
Organic agriculture, on the other hand, has always been based on practical farming skills,
observation, personal experience and intuition – traditional systems that function without
relying on modern inputs. This practical adaptation “reservoir” of knowledge (Tengö and
Belfrage, 2004) is important for manipulating complex agro-ecosystems, for breeding
locally-adapted seeds and livestock, and for producing on-farm fertilisers (compost,
manure, green manure) and inexpensive nature-derived pesticides.

21
Farming practices that conserve and improve soil fertility are important for the future of
agriculture and food production. Erratic rainfall, droughts, floods and other natural
disasters are expected to increase with rising temperatures. Soil organic matter can help
mitigate or avoid these disasters’ negative effects while increasing primary crop
productivity. Soils under organic management retain significantly more rainwater, thanks
to the sponge-like properties of organic matter. For example, due to the sponge properties
in heavy loamy soils in the temperate climate in Switzerland, the soil structure, stability is
20 to 40 percent higher in organically managed soils than in conventional managed ones
(Mäder, et al., 2002).

In different long-term field experiments in the USA, organic matter was considerably
higher in organically-managed soils than in conventional ones, and soil stability was
improved (Marriott and Wander, 2006). In addition, higher organic-matter content and
more biomass in soils make organic fields less prone to soil erosion (Reganold, et al.,
1987; Siegrist, et al., 1998)

2.6 Irrigation Scheme

Backeberg (2006) estimated the number of South African smallholder irrigators to range
between 200 000 and 250 000, but most of these practised in very small plots, primarily
for subsistence purposes. The South African smallholder irrigation schemes are multi-
farmer irrigation projects larger than 5 ha in size that were either established in the former
homelands or in resource-poor areas by black people or agencies assisting their
development. Using this definition, Gibb (2004) gave an estimate of about 287
smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa in 2004. Estimates of the combined
command area covered by the South African smallholder irrigation schemes range
between 46 000 and 49 500 ha (Bembridge, 2000; Backeberg, 2003; Gibb, 2004;
Denison, 2006).

22
2.6.1 The importance of irrigation schemes

The importance of smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa arises primarily from the
number of participants involved (Bembridge, 2000). In 2003, Gibb (2004) estimated that
the land under smallholder irrigation schemes had about 31 000 plot holders, representing
about 15% of the total smallholder population. By comparison, South Africa’s large-scale
commercial sector has about 1.2 million ha of irrigated land, owned by roughly 28 350
farmers (Backeberg, 2006a, 2006b). Most smallholder irrigation schemes are found in
South Africa’s former homelands areas, where poverty is rife (May, 2000; Aliber, 2003).
Under these social and economic environments, smallholder irrigation schemes present
an attractive opportunity for the development of local economies.

2.6.2 Periods of smallholder irrigation

I. The peasant and mission diversion scheme era

Available evidence indicates that irrigation was an innovation that was introduced after
colonisation. The first era of smallholder irrigation development occurred during the 19 th
century and can be referred to as the peasant and the mission diversion scheme era. This
is so in that it was associated with missionary activities and the emergence of the African
peasantry (Bundy, 1988; Crais, 1992; Bruwer and Van Heerden, 1995). Situated within
the broader history of irrigation development in South Africa, the peasant and mission
diversion scheme era coincided with the early part of the individual diversion scheme era
identified by Backeberg and Groenewald (1995).

II. The smallholder canal scheme era

Renewed smallholder irrigation development occurred several decades later in the form
of canal irrigation schemes. Broadly speaking, this second era lasted from 1930 until
about 1960 and can be referred to as the smallholder canal scheme era. It coincided with

23
the era of public storage schemes in the history of national irrigation development
described by Backeberg and Groenewald (1995). More specifically the second phase of
this era, referred to as the Great Depression and the Second World War by Bruwer and
Van Heerden (1995).

Most of the smallholder schemes that were established during this era were constructed
after the Second World War. They were primarily aimed at providing African families
residing in the “Bantu Areas” with some form of subsistence (The Commission for the
Social and Economic Development of the Bantu Areas within the Union of South Africa,
1955, hereafter referred to as The Commission, 1955). The “Bantu Areas” were created
by the Land Act of 1913 and the Land and Trust Act of 1936, which largely restricted land
owned by black people in South Africa in these territories. The Commission (1955)
identified “smallholdings on irrigation schemes in the north of South Africa that were
supervised by Europeans” as the most successful smallholder farm enterprises in the
“Bantu Areas”.

The irrigation projects established during the smallholder canal scheme era obtained their
water from a river by means of a concrete weir diversion, but schemes using dams were
also established. Water for irrigation was brought to the edge of the field by means of the
canal system. The size of the plots of these schemes ranged between 1.5 and 2 Morgen
(1.28 to 1.71 ha). However, both schemes (smaller and larger plots) were also established
here (Bembridge, 1997; Van Averbeke et al., 2006).

On most smallholder canal schemes developed during this era, the land was detribalised
and its ownership transferred to the state. Farmers under these schemes owned the land
through the Permission to Occupy (PTO) land ownership system. This form of tenure
provided the state with the necessary powers to prescribe land use, and to expel and
replace farmers whose practices did not comply with the PTO regulations (Van Averbeke,
2006a). In selected cases, the state effectively used these powers to enforce the overall
objective of the schemes by evicting poorly performing families (Van Averbeke, 2006a).
A similar authoritarian and paternalistic approach by the state prevailed on white settler

24
schemes established during the Great Depression and WW II period (Backeberg and
Groenewald, 1995).

III. The independent homeland era

The third period of smallholder irrigation development can be referred to as the

independent homeland era. This era in the smallholder irrigation development, from 1970
to 1990, was deemed as an integral part of the economic development of the homelands.
The post WW II apartheid policy made the black people citizens of specific independent
homelands. These homelands had their origin in the “Bantu Areas”. Each homeland was
to cater for a particular ethnic group. To give credence to the concept of independence,
it became imperative that the economy of these different homelands be improved,
because without exception, they were islands of underdevelopment and poverty (Beinart,
2001).

The establishment of new irrigation schemes with funding from South Africa formed part
of the economic development strategy of the homelands (Van Rooyen and Nene, 1996;
Lahiff, 2000). Agriculture was regarded as the main internal development opportunity for
the homelands, because the resource base of these territories had remained essentially
rural. Gibb (2004) indicated that at least 64 of the existing smallholder irrigation schemes,
covering a total of about 13000 ha, were established during this era. The number of
existing schemes that date back to this period is probably higher, because much of the
15 896 ha of the existing irrigation land that could not be dated was probably developed
during the period 1970 to 1990.

The irrigation development during the independent homeland era was characterised by
modernisation, functional diversification and the centralisation of scheme management.
Technologically, this era coincided with the third phase of the public storage scheme era
in the South African irrigation development as identified by Backeberg and Groenewald
(1995), which Bruwer and Van Heerden (1995) referred to as the recent development
phase. Typical examples of large schemes (>500 ha) developed during this era were

25
found mainly in the Eastern Cape and these included the schemes at Keiskammahoek,
Tyefu, Xonxa and particularly Ncora (Van Averbeke et al., 1998).

The irrigation and farming technology that was implemented on these larger schemes
was amongst the most modern that was available at the time, but even on smaller
schemes, pressurised overhead irrigation systems were used instead of surface irrigation.
On larger schemes, economic viability was pursued by means of a strategy of functional
diversification. Included here were a commercial function in the form of a central unit,
which was farmed as an estate, a commercial smallholder function in the form of medium
sized plots, also called mini-farms, of 5 to 12 ha in size, and a subsistence function in the
form of food plots, ranging from 0.1 ha to 0.25 ha in size (Van Averbeke et al., 1998).

2.7. Land Abandonment

Helming et al., (2008) defined land abandonment as a complex multi-dimensional process

with interlinked economic, environmental and social entities. Within this process,
agricultural policy potentially plays a key role in determining whether or not land is utilised
for agriculture. Understanding the nature of this relationship is, therefore, an important
prerequisite for developing future agricultural policies.

Within the European Union (EU), for example, various concerns have been raised that
reductions in support to agriculture and reforms of the trade policy will lead to widespread
land abandonment across the EU, with negative environmental and social consequences
(Keenleyside and Tucker, 2010). This case was made strongly during the 2003 reform
process where, as noted by the European Commission, some Member States considered
that the full decoupling of support from production could lead to several risks such as the
abandonment of production, the lack of raw material supply for processing industries, or
to social and environmental problems in areas with few economic alternatives.

Baudry (1991) defined land abandonment as a change towards “a less intensive pattern
in land use or as the total termination of the use and managing of the soil such that the

26
soil is left to its own spontaneous dynamics”. The land abandonment occurs when the
agricultural system is affected by external drivers or because of its own dynamics toward
intensification, which is usually driven by economic conditions or the social environment
(Baudry 1991 and Rudel 2009).

2.7.1. Causes of land abandonment

I. Improved access, and increasing shortage of labour

The construction of the Sidhartha Highway, linking Pokhara to Sunauli between 1964 and
1972, made it possible to import essential goods such as food at cheaper prices from the
Terai plains of Nepal and India. As such, the increase in urban services and amenities
such as education and health, and the investment opportunities in Pokhara attracted
many families to migrate permanently from the study area. About 255 families emigrated
permanently from these two settlements after the 1960s, which amounts to more than
half of all families in the two villages of Sikles and Parche (Baudry 1991).

Pokhara was one destination for more than 213 families who emigrated from these
settlements. Since the beginning of the 19th century, short-term emigration in search for
jobs has been one of the strategies of people in Nepal, including those in the present
study area, in order to minimise the risk of food shortage and rural indebtedness
(Kansakar 1974; Khanal 2002). Many members of Gurung families were recruited for the
British and Indian armies. However, employment opportunities at that time were limited
to certain ethnic groups. The opening of employment opportunities in foreign countries,
especially in the Gulf countries after 1970, attracted many young people from this area.
As a result, the proportion of the absentee population increased from 5.8% in 1954 to
19.1% in 1999/2000 (Khanal 2002).

II. Land abandonment in Russia

Widespread agricultural expansion is a major driver of habitat loss and changes in the
ecosystem functions (Vitousek et al., 1997; Tilman 1999). However, many developed and
27
emerging economies are concurrently experiencing a decline of agricultural areas
(Baldock et al., 1996; Benjamin et al., 2007 and Bergen et al., 2007). This was also
supported by Grau et al., (2003); Meyfroidt and Lambin, (2008). The rapid social,
economic and institutional changes may accelerate land-use and land-cover change
(LULCC) or shift land use to a new mode.

A major recent and rapid social and economic change was the collapse of socialism and
communism in the USSR and its Eastern Block countries, and the subsequent transition
from state-controlled to market-driven economies in the early 1990s (Kontorovich, 2001;
Shkolnikov et al., 2001). However, the impact of this transition on LULCC are not well
understood. They further argued that the dismantling of state-controlled economies, the
withdrawal of governmental support, and the implementation of open markets has
drastically changed economies, human welfare, and health in post-Soviet countries. For
instance, from 1990 to 2000 in Russia, the average life expectancy declined from 69 to
65 years, and the male life expectancy in Russia’s rural areas declined, even more rapidly
– from 61 to 53 years (Rosstat, 2002).

During the same period, the World Bank, 2008 pointed out that Russia's GDP declined
by 67%. The profound changes were particularly common in rural regions of Russia,
where state support of agriculture ended and rural development ceased almost entirely
(Rosstat, 2002). It was said that between 1990 and 2000, investments in the Russian
agricultural sector declined from $39 billion to $2 billion (Goskomstat, 2000). The removal
of fertiliser subsidies caused crop yields to decline and depleted the soil fertility (Fruhauf
and Keller, 2010).

III. Effects of Agricultural land abandonment

Agricultural land abandonment substantially affects both environmental, social and

economic processes (Vuichard et al., 2009). For instance, reforestation of abandoned
agricultural lands can defragment forests, sequester carbon and improve hydrological
regimes (Sileika et al., 2006). However, Dumbin et al., (2010) and Smelansky, (2003)

28
argue that the early successional vegetation that grows on abandoned fields provides fuel
for wildfires and increases the propagule pressure of weeds, pests and pathogens on the
remaining agricultural fields.
The land abandonment may also cause spillover effects that lead to the economic
marginalisation of agricultural landscapes (Elbakidze & Angelistam, 2007). In the
globalised world, the widespread agricultural land abandonment in one area may shift
agricultural production and land use elsewhere, potentially threatening vulnerable
ecological systems (Lambin and Meyfroidt, 2011). For example, drastic declines in
domestic meat production in post-Soviet Russia after 1990 resulted in a steep increase
in meat imports from Brazil (Novozhenina et al., 2009), and this contributed to
deforestation in Amazonia (Kaimowitz et al., 2004).

Conversely, a reduction of agricultural land abandonment and re-cultivation of abandoned

areas may result in increased agricultural production and reduce the pressure on world
food markets (FAO, 2010). In sum, changes in agricultural land use have multiple
repercussions on the ecosystem services, biodiversity, and the economy. Therefore, a
better monitoring and understanding of the determinants and drivers of agricultural land
abandonment is important and can provide valuable guidance for land-use policies.

Ample knowledge exists about the determinants of agricultural land abandonment in the
EU countries, where this was widespread during the 20th century, especially after the
Second World War (Baldock et al., 1996). There, the abandoned agricultural land is
generally found in unfavourable environmental conditions (for example, higher elevations,
steeper slopes, poorer soils, and poorly ameliorated agricultural fields) as well as in
remote and isolated agricultural areas (Baldock et al., 1996 and MacDonald et al., 2000).

Agricultural land abandonment is also associated with landowner characteristics (Baldock

et al., 1996). However, authors like Grinfelde and Mathis, (2004), Kristensen et al.,
(2004), Van Doorn and Bekker (2007) state that part-time farmers and older landowners
have a greater likelihood of abandoning agricultural land than any other type of
landowner.

29
Farm structures also shape the abandonment patterns. That is, smaller farms throughout
Europe have a greater likelihood of abandoning farmland than larger enterprises (Baldock
et al., 1996 and Kristensen et al., 2004). Market access and the availability of better-
paying jobs in urbanised areas also influence agricultural abandonment. For example,
this process occurs in southern France (Van Eetvelde and Antrop, 2004) and in
Switzerland, where agricultural land abandonment is more common closer to
administrative centres and in areas with rapid population growth (Gellrich et al., 2007).

2.8. Summary

Literature reviewed indicates that agricultural land abandonment is a world phenomenon.

Several countries suffer from its negative effects as a result. The issue is, poor rural
dwellers are the ones who bear the brunt of this. As such, both national and provincial
governments should work tirelessly to find strategies whose implementation would see
the reduction of this phenomenon. Given that South Africa, particularly the Limpopo
Province is not spared this calamity, one is justified to conduct a study of this nature.

That is, as much as there is an abundance of literature on agricultural land abandonment,

not much is known about this issue in Tshiombo Village. Literature that reflects on land
abandonment in South Africa do so in the context of other areas, particularly those under
white people’s control. As such, the effects of land abandonment in Tshiombo remain
hidden from the public. This then leads to the next Chapter.

30
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This Chapter explains the systematic way this study was conducted. It covers methods
used for sampling, data collection and analysis processes. The research design and
methodology followed here are discussed. This is to reveal how the study was conducted.
The following sections provide the detailed content of the above, starting with the study’s
design.

3.2 Research Design

Research design is a plan describing how the research was conducted. It provides the
overall framework for collecting data, and outlines the steps to be followed in the data
gathering process (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The research was designed to utilize both
qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis. It adopted a case
cross-sectional study design. This design is case study in nature, hence this study
compared the active and none active farmers in identifying the causes and effects of the
phenomenon studied. Comparatively, the study sought to find out if there are factors
influencing farm abandonment and its consequences in Tshiombo Village.

Table 1: The Research Design Matrix

Unit of Sampling Population Sample Data Data analysis

analysis method size size collection
(quantitative) tools
Non active Random 402 40 Focus group Descriptive
farmers sampling interview and narrative
Active Random 623 64 Focus group Descriptive
farmers sampling interviews and narrative
Extension None 8 8 Interviews Descriptive
officers and narative

31
3.3 Population and Sampling Procedures

This research was conducted at Tshiombo irrigation scheme, which consists of seven
villages namely; Mutshenzheni (47 farms), Mbahela (87 farms), Maraxwe (233 farms),
Mianzwi (98 farms), and Tshiombo (1150). Matangari is the seventh village. This village
is divided into sections, that is, Matangari main village (243 plots) and Matangari
Matombotswuka (202 farms). The irrigation scheme is composed of 1025 farmers, each
representing a household from the above villages. The total area of the scheme is
1197,332 hectares, each plot is 1,286 hectares, except Matangari with 1,284 per plot.
The research’s units of analysis were former plot owners who abandoned their land, and
those who still own and work on their land.

The random sampling technique was applied using excel software. This is how the
respondents were selected. The table below illustrates the villages, plot numbers and the
sample size per village. In every village, only 10% of the total numbers of farmers, both
active and non-active, were selected for interviews. That is, in Mbahela, out of 51 active
farmers, only five were sampled as active respondents, while 36 non active farmers
provided four interviewees. All extension officers in each village were interviewed. Plot
numbers were put in excel in order to select the sample. The total number of non-active
farmers was 402, and the sample size was 40, while active farmers were 621, giving a
sample size of 64.

32
Table 2: Population Size

Village Total active 10% samples Non active 10%samples

farmers farmers
Mbahela 51 05 36 04
Maraxwe 183 19 48 05
Matangari 130 13 113 11
Matombotswuka 101 10 101 10
Mutshenzheni 33 04 14 01
Mianzwi 58 06 40 04
Tshiombo 65 07 50 05
Total N=621 N=64 N=402 N=40

3.4 Data Collection Methods

Both primary and secondary data collection tools were used to collect data. Secondary
data were collected using census, journals and the government’s Department of
Agriculture materials, and the extension officers provided vital oral information in this
regard.

Primary data were collected using face to face interviews and focus group discussions
with farmers who abandoned their land and those who are still active. In this way, the
researcher obtained the empirical data, which helped to answer the study’s research
questions. Focus group discussions, as a qualitative method of data collection, was used
because it is effective in eliciting data from a group of people. It also generates a broad
overview of issues of concern to the population represented. The focus group discussion
was useful for exploring ideas and concepts as raised during the research. It also provides
an insight into the participants’ internal thinking. The researcher was able to examine how
the participants reacted to each other during interviews. This allowed him to probe, as
there were possibilities of tapping in for more content.

33
An interview guide was used, with open ended questions structured in such a way that
they solicited for relevant information for this study. The advantage here was that
questions could be asked in any order, in addition to their wording which could also be
changed anyhow as well, depending on what the researcher deemed to be appropriate
at that moment in time. All eight extension officers from each village were interviewed
following the said interview schedule. An observation of the abandoned fields was done
in order to ascertain their state. For an orderly observation process, an observation
checklist was developed to assist the researcher with variables that were considered
afterwards. These included variables such as the proximity to water sources and their
flow direction and the distance from the main road in terms of marketing. Such factors
were considered to have played a huge role in the abandonment of agricultural practice
in the area.

3.5 Data Analysis

The data were analysed qualitatively, where the scrutiny of textual data sought to obtain
an informed understanding of the density of the subject matter of the data obtained. The
quantitative data analysis of the questionnaire responses and interviews from the sample
was done using descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistical procedures and techniques
were frequencies, standard deviation, cross tabulation and chi-squares. These enabled
the researcher to make a detailed analysis of collected data. The results were presented
in the form of pictures, tables, graphs and pie-charts. A brief discussion of each
representing table was given as a summary of the analysed data. Data collected through
interviews was analysed and coded in themes. Thereafter, data were presented in a
simple, descriptive and narrative form. In addition, the content analysis approach was
used in the study since its nature is descriptive and explanatory, thus the generation of
themes is central to qualitative techniques.

34
3.6 Validity and Reliability

The research adopted the control question system on the questionnaire to test the
authenticity of the results. That is, some questions were strategically asked in order to
test how valid the information provided was. The control questions were put in
questionnaires to obtain certain information from the interviewees’ responses. Such
questions were also inserted in the focus group’s schedule. This assisted in finding out if
the information or data collected from the respondents was valid.

The reliability of the results was checked against the way the informants responded to the
questions asked. If the respondents skipped some of the questions, or if the respondents
could answer some, but fail to answer others, this indicated the data’s reliability. The way
in which the questions were answered proved how reliable the data was.

3.7. Ethical Considerations

Ethics are defined as the principles governing the science of human behaviour and
conduct in a research. The intention is to value and safeguard human dignity, promoting
justice, equality, truth and trust. Ethics are associated with morality (Babbie, 1991).
Professionalism is of importance in conducting any research because the researcher has
an obligation to maintain personal and professional standards. In particular, the
participants have to have confidence that privacy and anonymity would be observed and
that the research would be conducted professionally.

The department of agriculture, granted me the permission to interview farmers and

extension officers in the study area. The letter from the Head of Department of Agriculture
was given to the researcher so that the respondents could see that their office was aware
of this study. The university’s research office granted an ethical clearance certificate to
clear this research. The department of agriculture, after being shown this certificate,
provided a letter to inform the extension officers and the farmers about this research. The
participants’ personal information was confidentially kept, hence their identities were
withheld. Written consent letters, and the proof of identity from the university was
35
produced and shown to the participants to allay their fears and ensure their free
participation.

3.8 Summary

Any successful study has to follow a particular path. This was the case with this research.
It followed a mixed methods path that enabled it to collect both qualitative and quantitative
data. The most important aspect here was the opportunity provided by this methodology
for the researcher to visit the study area and observe for himself how the abandoned land
affect the environmental, social and economic aspect of the Tshiombo Village. Tracks of
once used land were everywhere like litter after a political rally. This brings us to the fourth
Chapter where these consequences are revealed.

36
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND THE ANALYSIS OF
RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

This Chapter presents the analysed data obtained through field observations, focus group
discussions and interviews. Those interviewed were active farmers and none active ones,
as well as extension officers. Data were interpreted using graphs, tables, charts and
images. Themes dealt with include demographic, social and economic variables. These
have a reflective effect that influences the abandonment of agricultural land at Tshiombo
Irrigation Scheme because the research adopted a mixed method approach. There are
four identified geographical factors that affect agriculture at Tshiombo irrigation scheme.
These are natural, economic, social and political factors.

4.2 Background of Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme

A total of seven extension officers and 104 active and non-active farmers provided
information through open ended questions. Both active and non-farmers said that
Tshiombo irrigation scheme was officially handed over to them by the Limpopo
Department of Agriculture in 2009. These informants indicated that the scheme was
formed as a strategy to eradicate hunger in underdeveloped rural areas, which were also
affected by unemployment. The abandoned farmers indicated that villagers were assisted
to start farming ventures through the allocation of pieces of land by the traditional leaders.
The scheme predominantly produces maize, sweet potatoes, potatoes, ground nuts,
carrots, tomatoes, chilies and other vegetables.

4.2.1. The Organogram structure of Tshiombo irrigation scheme

Figure 3 is a structural Organogram of the Tshiombo irrigation scheme that was obtained
from extension officers. It indicates how the government provides knowledge and support
to the scheme’s farmers. The government used to provide farmers with resources such
as seeds, tractors, water bailiffs and skilled personnel to monitor the water distribution

37
from one village to another. In addition, maintenance personnel to fix damaged irrigation
canals were also from the Department of Agriculture. This was then, however, as such
government support has been withdrawn for no clear reasons.

Farmers

Extension officer

Water committee
members

Tribal authority

Figure 3: Organogram structure of Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme

The farmers rated the importance of each organisation by its distance from the centre of
the chart. The further away, the less contact with the farmers, and the lower they rated its
importance. The extension officers are located near the farmers because they are
constantly in contact with them as they often move around monitoring the fields. When
they are not doing their routine rounds, farmers who experience problems report these to
their office. The water committee members are further off because they do not have
regular contact with farmers as they do not frequent the fields. Their role is to monitor
how the farmers use the water, and this is not done regularly. In other words, the farmers
are the ones who take their water problems to the committee. Thus, their contact is mainly
governed by the frequency of water problems encountered by farmers. The tribal
authorities are the furthest from the farmers. This is because they do not have much

38
contact with the farmers as they do not even visit the farms. Traditional leaders mainly
deal with social issues that are often divorced from farming activities.

The extension officers are government employees hired to assist local farmers. Their
duties include, inter alia, providing information and recommendations to the farmers
regarding the types of crops to grow. These officers also assist the farmers in establishing
markets to sell their agricultural products.

Figure 4 below is of people involved in agricultural production at Tshiombo irrigation

scheme. These are represented age-wise.

Age of farmers
6%
9%

85%

Figure 4: Age of participants

The information gathered from active farmers in the Tshiombo irrigation scheme indicates
that out of 64 sampled active farmers, 54 (85%) are between the ages of 56 and 65, and
6 (9%) are between 46 and 55. Only 4 (6%) are younger than 45 years. These farmers
pointed out that young and middle aged farmers abandon agriculture because it is not a
profitable venture.

39
4.2.1. The extension officers’ education and experience

Extension officers interviewed are between 45 and 65 years of age. These officers have
work related experience of more than five years each. Due to their experience, they have
managed to identify challenges that face smallholder farmers in Tshiombo. The
identification of the problem has enabled both the extension officers and the farmers to
come up with strategies to combat the said problematic issues. It should be noted that
the bulk of the extension officers were involved with these farmers as early as the days
of the government aid. Their assistance has boosted farm production here.

Retrospectively, the extension officers 5 out of 7 (71% of them) are of the view that
farming in the area used to yield good crops in spite of the farmers’ limited agricultural
knowledge. Another noted fact was the government’s earlier involvement in assisting the
smallholder farmers. This was said to have motivated these farmers, as they had access
to free seeds, tractors and other necessary farm implements. Conversely, the extension
officers were of the view that the government’s withdrawal crippled the moral strength
and resource capabilities of most farmers. A consequence of this was the abandonment
of farm land by those who could not survive the devastating effects of the government’s
action. These farmers’ surrender could also be linked to their lack of basic agricultural
skills and their economic vulnerability once the government withdrew its support. In
another sense, by over relying on government support, these farmers became the victims
of the path dependency syndrome (to borrow from the path dependency theory). As such,
their being social welfare cases was exposed when the governmental assistance ceased.
Given this, it is no surprise that a considerable number of them are no longer active
farmers since then.

Education plays a crucial role in agricultural production. That is, for one to understand
modern farming technics and the implications of the lack of applying them in modern
agricultural production, one has to be educated. This is true in the context of the seven
extension officers who all have tertiary qualifications in their field of operation. Four of
these have university degrees, while the other three are diploma holders. This shows that

40
these officers are experts in the field of agriculture. As such, suffice, it to conclude that
their tertiary qualifications enable them to provide expert advice to farmers. In Africa,
particularly in its rural setting, uneducated people practice subsistence agriculture
(Arshad and Coen, 1992). That being the case, the Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme farmers
have also been observed to rely on agriculture in order to feed their families and to fund
their children’s education. Due to these basic necessities, it is obvious that rural dwellers
resort to cheap farming as a survival strategy that has been passed from generation to
generation.

4.3 The State of the Irrigation Scheme

The irrigation scheme was built in a good landscape that lies from Mbahela to Matangari
Village. Both active and inactive farmers acknowledged that the government’s
maintenance of the irrigation canals was very helpful to farmers for their crop production
business. The canals used to supply water from Mbahela to the low lying areas of
Matangari Village.

 Crop Production and marketing at Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme

However, about 91% of these farmers produce sweet potatoes because they are less
expensive to cultivate and maintain. Both the active and ex-farmers, in their production
endeavors (it seems), tend to overlook crucial factors that could make them do well with
other crops as opposed to relying on the production of sweet potatoes. The inherent
weakness here is that the over production of one crop tends to flood the market, hence
creates an intense competition for customers among the farmers. The effects of this are
economically devastating, the collapse of agricultural ventures due to sustainability
issues. Consequently, farms are inevitably abandoned thereafter. These farmers could,
however, do themselves a great favour if they were to investigate different methods for
cultivating a variety of crops in order to attract different customers at all times. This would
definitely lead to the sustenance of their farms, in the process ensuring their prosperity
and well-being.

41
 Active farmers production

9%

91%

Active farmers producing sweet potatoes

Active farmers producing other vegetables

Figure 5: Crops that farmers cultivate in their farms

The farmers sell their agricultural produce either individually or supply the local market.
Previously, they used to export their products to foreign countries, in addition to doing
business with prominent companies that used to buy potatoes and maize from them.
Since the scheme is no longer doing well, the farmers now sell their products to the local
community. This has negatively affected production due to reduced profits, a culmination
of retailing as opposed to wholesaling.

These include sweet potatoes, maize, and tomatoes. The farmers and extension officers
indicated that they chose such crops because they require little water, less maintenance
and their seeds are locally found. This has resulted in higher production of these crops.
The majority of the farmers in the scheme produce the same types of crops. This has
resulted in a tight competition for customers, and it is also the reason why the profits are
low.

42
Plate 1: Sweet Potatoes, maize cabbages and tomatoes
Source: field work.

Plate 1 above is that of the maize crop taken from the fortunate active farmer who is at
close proximity to the source of irrigation water. The maize was lush, strikingly attractive
to the eye and under large scale production. It is evident from the above picture that
Tshiombo irrigation scheme’s produce used to be overwhelmingly encouraging. Farmers
and extension officers indicated that the scheme was doing well compared to now. Due
to the abandoned land, some people have invaded these farms, constructing houses on
unattended land. Some are deliberately turning their farms into residential areas.

Plate 2: Canal for Irrigation and maize

Source: field work.

43
Another interesting scenario was that of dilapidated canals and new building structures
that signified the new land use, informal settlements. This should ring alarm bells to the
authorities as informal settlements are notorious for their crime, diseases and substance
abuse. Through observations as well, the researcher discovered appalling living
conditions under which ex-farmers survived. Their lives were a sorry state, a plain sight
of cheer poverty and misery. Tying this together with information collected orally and
materially, the study arrived at the conclusion that land abandonment has dire social
consequences.

The picture below is testimony to this. In fact, this place has turned into a mixture of
farming and residential areas.

Plate 3: Houses under construction in a productive piece of land

Source: field work.

The picture above shows some houses built by those who have invaded the scheme. The
farmers attributed this invasion to long abandoned farms, giving the impression that
people have no land to live on. This also means that people would rather have a place to
live in than land to embark on subsistence agriculture.

44
In terms of the abandoned farm land, about 91% of the erstwhile farmers cultivated sweet
potatoes, maize and potatoes. These farmers admitted that they abandoned their farming
ventures due to bad climatic conditions, lack of canal maintenance, farms accessibility
and also their proximity to the market or lack thereof. Another issue raised by farmers as
leading to their ‘throwing in the towel’ was the lack of government support as it was
withdrawn, leaving them hopelessly stranded in their farms. Many farmers have
abandoned farming due to the lack of irrigation water. About 90% of the former farmers
pointed out the issue of the shortage of water as a serious concern in their community,
and it contributed towards their abandoning farming. Other contributory factors were said
to be inadequate canals and a dysfunctional irrigation system. Plate 4 below testifies to
the above claim, the broken irrigation system.

Plate 4: Broken Irrigation systems

Source: field work.

4.5 Causes of Farm Abandonment

A total of 104 sampled active farmers and dormant ones provided information during field
work. They provided different views on factors and causes of farm abandonment in ir
areas. Their responses were given as follows:

45
4.5.1 Physical factors

Physical factors are known to be natural factors. They are neither man made, nor man
controlled. The non-active farmers said that the physical factors include climate,
precipitation, topography and soil.

I. Climate

A wide range of agricultural activities is controlled by climate and weather, temperature

being the signature factor here. Areas deficient in heat are deficient in agriculture. Heat
is one element of climate that man has failed to control for commercial purposes. The
extension officers admitted that temperature determines the growth of vegetation
naturally. They emphasised that farming is characterized by conditions such as fair
radiation/sunlight and rainfall availability. About 73 farmers or 70% of the sample agreed
that climatic conditions were prominent in destabilising agricultural production in the area.

All seven extension officers corroboratively stated that the lack of rainfall and the current
drought are some of the prominent factors that influence farm abandonment. The
consequence is the nonexistent water storage facilities in the area. These factors are
observed to be negatively affecting practicing farmers as of now. If this persists, it is
doubtful that many farmers would be in practice in the next few years.

46
Plate 5: Abandoned farm
Source: field work.

All 64 active farmers affirmed that rich soil is the chief requirement for a successful
agricultural venture. They stated that rich soils are essential for the growth of plants, in
addition to their being the medium through which water and all plant foods, except for
carbon dioxide, are absorbed by the roots. However, the extension officers pointed out
that soils that are poor, either chemically or in texture, have low productivity, both in
amount and variety. This fact supports the view raised by 91% ex-farmers who indicated
that the scheme is characterised by sandy soils. Such poor soils require fertilisers for
decent production. The sandy soils are, therefore, an obvious factor that influences farm
abandonment in the scheme. The extension officers elaborated that the soil quality
determines the type of crops farmers could grow in a specific area. Since the scheme is
composed of sandy soils, it forces farmers to produce a certain variety of crops as
mentioned earlier. Those crops do not require much of the farm inputs such as fertilizers
and pesticides, which these farmers cannot afford.

47
 II. The study area’s topography

The study area’s topography affects agriculture as it relates to soil erosion, difficulty in
cultivation and poor transportation system. All extension officers pointed out that the
mechanisation of agriculture depends entirely on the land’s topography. They indicated
that Tshiombo irrigation scheme is situated in a flat land where the use of agricultural
machinery is possible. They added that the location of the area makes it difficult to have
soil erosion as the area is flat, hence little if no water-surface run-off. As such, the study
area’s topography favours agricultural practices. Providing uncorroborated information,
the respondents argued that the low lying area of the scheme is sandy due to sand
dumping. According them, more sand is being deposited into the area and this makes it
difficult for agricultural activities to be done effectively. The soil erosion was raised as a
serious factor, because in some farms, especially the ones in low lying areas, sand is all
over. This is particularly so during the rainy season where sand is deposited in the area,
making it difficult to conduct an agricultural business. Plate 6 below shows an abandoned
farm due to sand deposits.

Plate 6: Abandoned farm due to sand deposit

Source: field work.

48
4.4.2 None physical factors

I. Lack of maintenance

About 91% of the sampled farmers who abandoned farming, raised their concern about
the absence of water bailiffs and the unmaintained irrigation canals. The lack of canal
maintenance led to the drying up water in the storage dam. Water could no longer reach
the storage dam due to broken canals that supply water to it. The dam has since been
turned into a soccer field as plate 7 illustrates below.

Plate 7: The storage dam that has now turned into a soccer field.
Source: field work.

The additional plate below represents the dysfunctional canals and irrigation system due
to lack of maintenance.

49
Plate 8: Dysfunctional Canals

Source: field work.

II. Education and capacity

85% of the former farmers in Tshiombo irrigation scheme are old people with only primary
education. These farmers relied on indigenous knowledge and advice from extension
officers to run agricultural ventures during their farming years. The lack of qualified
farmers led to lesser production. As such, this affected their agricultural practice. About
3% of these former farmers, however, did secondary education. Thus, according to
information, seemed to be have been doing better compared to the ones with primary
education only and those with no education at all. These ex-farmers, at later stages of
their practice, once adopted the modern farming techniques before they abandoned
farming as a business venture.

100% of the extension officers are adequately qualified, hence are the resource personnel
and act as consultants for the farmers. The active farmers rely on these officers to provide
them with new methods, skills and advice in terms of how they could improve their
production. In contrast, out of all active and none active farmers, only 2% have tertiary
qualifications. About 98% of the active farmers have no qualifications at all. They are an
old aged group of people who use traditional subsistence farming methods. In turn, this
negatively affects their production because they cannot adopt new scientific methods that
could potentially double their agricultural production.

50
4.4.3 Economic factors influencing farm abandonment

The economic factors identified as responsible for the failure of the farm projects here
were the market, transport facilities and labour. These are discussed in detail below.

I. Market failure

Extension officers pointed out that agriculture’s relation to market generally determines
the character of farming. The cost of transport to the market would generally affect the
competitive power of the agricultural output. They also indicated that farms that are far
away from the market would naturally grow crops in the context of the transport cost to
the market. Those that are near large population centres produce perishable goods,
which could be quickly transported to the market in short distances without much damage
to the financial resources. Of the active farmers, 78% identified the lack of market as a
factor that has greatly contributed to farm abandonment. The transport costs of
agricultural produce to the Levubu marketplace (60Km away from the scheme), for
example, are more expensive compared to the costs of selling to the local market. For
this reason, the majority of the farmers opt to produce little for the local market. This has
contributed to the lack of stability and growth of the scheme. Farmers who are further off
the main road said that the issue of accessibility to markets is a contributory factor to their
abandoning farming. They admitted that they do not have access to their farms because
the government has not constructed proper roads to their farms. As such, the farms which
are far from the main road are inaccessible, hence limit their production as well as market
accessibility. This makes their ventures unviable in the long run, hence farm neglect.

II. Transport facilities

Extension officers admitted that in commercial type farming, the transport network is
significant as it determines its genus. For farms far flung from the markets, and with poor
road network, the success of commercial farming is a remote possibility. One extension
officer indicated that the term ‘truck farming’ bears the unmistakable influence of transport
on agriculture. The transport mode in farms affects production and the economic viability
51
of the concerned farms. Active farmers highlighted the poor access to their farms as a
matter of concern. They lamented the limited and constrained access to their farms as
problematic to their businesses. These farmers have to travel long distances to their
farms. Consequently, potential clients are also affected as there are no proper roads.
“This would be customers who buy in bulk”, decried one of the active farmers, suggesting
that the lack of roads tends to discourage potential bulk buyers.

III. Labour

According to extension officers’, the labour supply determines the character of agriculture.
For example, intensive agriculture is essentially labour-intensive. This indicates that
agriculture requires skilled labour that can appreciate the subtle relations of seasons and
soils with crops, and then adopt the necessary practices. Skilled labour, for example,
determines the timely sowing, harvesting and other cultural practices, hence good
returns. The 64 active farmers cultivate, harvest and sell their produce as they are self-
employed. The extension officers revealed that these farmers do not have enough skills
to practice agriculture for commercial purposes. They only produce for subsistence
purposes. This has resulted in limited production.

Iv. Capital

Modern mechanised farming has become capital-intensive. A commercial farmer has to

invest large amounts of money in agricultural machinery and other inputs. All the
informants agreed that the lack of capital hinders agricultural production in the scheme.
Farmers who are unemployed and old aged do not have enough start-up capital for
commercial agricultural practice. Most of them rely on government grant(s) for survival.

4.4.4. Social factors influencing farm abandonment

Extension officers said that social factors affect farming in a number of ways. These
factors also affect the type of crops that are grown. Social factors could affect agriculture

52
in the context of land ownership and inheritance. In the case of the Tshiombo irrigation
scheme, farmers own the land. Some of them inherited it from their parents. From the
seven extension officers’ point of view, land inheritance has its own advantages and
disadvantages. It is not in the best interest of this section to elaborate on either of these.
The point is, families are guaranteed the ownership of their family land from generation
to generation through this system. The following part presents the respondents’ profiles.
This determines the impact of abandoned agricultural land in Tshiombo irrigation scheme.

I. Age and interest

The data collected through focus group discussions show that youthful farmers inherited
their plots from their parents upon their death. This practice has led to the lack of skilled
farm owners, and this has negatively affected production. These unskilled farm owners
rely on outsourcing. They hire unskilled people to do most of their work.

Plate 9: The majority female farmers

Source: field work.

53
The extension officers observed that the majority of the farmers are old, frail women who
cannot do agriculture effectively. It is also difficult for them to read instructions on the
equipment to be used. Plate 9 above is that of the said aged female farmers. A total of
54 old aged farmers (between 56 and 65 years) farm for survival, and they sell extra
produce to obtain cash for other needs. This study revealed that age is a contributory
factor in farm abandonment.

II. Ownership / inheritance

The data collected from the study showed that the majority of the farmers do not have
the total control or final say over their farms. The land belongs to the tribal authority. As
a result, these farmers cannot sell their space if they are no longer interested in
agriculture. Farmers indicated that if there is no other family member who wishes to
continue farming, they are not allowed to sell their plots, a situation that leads to farm
abandonment.

4.4.5. Political factors

Political factors play a role in the agricultural development of Tshiombo irrigation

schemes. The extension officers agreed that the government policies on land, irrigation,
marketing and trade have a direct impact on agriculture. Similarly, subsidies, loans,
marketing and international trade, and the tax policy have a direct impact on agricultural
production and its development. The lack of support from both government and private
sectors was touted as prominent factors that lead to farm abandonment. Both active and
former farmers were of the consensus that the lack of resource provision and assistance
with farm implements negatively affect their production.

I. Lack of material support and equipment

The information from all the informants reveal that farmers abandoned their land due to
the lack of government support. The respondents pointed out that farming involves the
use of expensive inputs such as fertilisers, seeds, tractors, the proper water supply and

54
a ready market. Farmers indicated that their families are dependent on their production.
They said that when production was good, the scheme used to supply nearby markets,
in addition to Gauteng ones. On the other hand, extension officers acknowledged that
ever since the irrigation scheme was abandoned, the local economy has been negatively
affected.

4.6. The Social and Economic Impact of the Irrigation Scheme

The respondents confirmed that the scheme improved local people’s lives. The data
collected through focus group discussions revealed that farmers rely on the scheme for
their children’s education. During its highs, the scheme contributed a lot in alleviating
poverty and reducing unemployment in Tshiombo. It can be concluded that due to the
exports done, then, foreign currency was realised, and this led to the growth of the area’s
gross domestic product (GDP). Negatively, the scheme’s collapse led to the suffering of
people in Tshiombo.

4.7. Possible Strategies for preventing further Farm Abandonment

All active and inactive farmers provided possible strategies for the reduction of farm
abandonment in their area. First, they advocated for the employment of water bailiffs by
the government. Second, they raised the issue of the re-supply of inputs such as fertilisers
and pesticides by the government to boost their farm productions. Most active farmers
said that the supply of seeds and pesticides could boost their agricultural production.
Third, the provision of low-cost government tractors and the availability of nearby markets
would enable them to make enough profits for survival. The 40 ex-farmers indicated that
if such issues could be sorted, many of them would return to farming. Meanwhile,
extension officers indicated that providing economic and financial management education
to the farmers could assist them in becoming independent commercial farmers.

55
4.8. Summary

The data discussed in this Chapter show that there are multi-problems that lead to the
abandonment of farms in the Tshiombo Village. As much as these are many, the issue of
the government’s failure to assist farmers seemed to be the focal one. By virtue of being
small-scale-farmers, these people do not have the capacity to sustain their farming
ventures without any governmental support. This is compounded by the fact the financial
institutions cannot lend them money as they do not have collateral. In addition, their lack
of education seems to be problematic as well. Those who are not educated are also old,
exacerbating their farming dilemma.

It cannot be overemphasised that extension officers have played a crucial role in keeping
farming activities afloat in this community through their informed assistance on farm
management and marketing strategies. Those who have managed to hang in there have
reaped the fruits of their patience as some of them produce enough to survive without
begging. On top of that, they are able to send their children to institutions of higher
learning without much of a problem financially. The opposite is true of those who threw in
the towel. Their lives have been turned upside-down by poverty. The following Chapter
presents the study findings in addition to concluding this study.

56
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF THE STUDY FINDIDNGS AND
RECCOMENDATIONS

5.1. Introduction

This Chapter presents a summary of the study and that of its findings as analysed in
Chapter Four. The Chapter also provides a number of recommendations to tackle the
identified challenges. Thereafter, possible solutions are provided.

5.2. Summary of the Research Findings

This summary is based on the research objectives as outlined in Chapter One. The
study’s findings are discussed according to the research questions, starting with the first
one below.

5.2.1. What are the causes of the abandonment of the agricultural activities?

The study found out that the lack of government support to small scale farmers is the root
cause of farm abandonment in the area. That is, the suspension of government
assistance to farmers collapsed their farming ventures as they could not afford to buy
most of the farm implements necessary for productive farming. The result was that such
farmers ceased operations, hence farms became idle.

The lack of education was also put forward as another contributory factor to the farm
abandonment in the scheme. Here, extension officers alleged that farmers cannot grow
and become independent commercial farmers without a proper educational background.

5.2.2. What are the social and economic impacts of the abandoned agricultural
land?

The study revealed that the major challenge that farmers face here is the lack of
government support. Farmers alleged that the government used to provide them with

57
equipment such as cheap tractors for cultivation and irrigation canals, which were also
maintained by government officials known as water bailiffs.

However, the extension officers alleged that farmers lack economic background to grow
themselves and become independent commercial farmers. The extension officers said
that farmers were aided by support from the beginning as a start so that they could be
able to grow and become strong commercial farmers. They also indicated that with proper
economic background, one can grow rapidly and shift from being a subsistence farmer to
a commercial one.

The findings indicated that there are challenges that influence farm abandonment in the
area caused by both government and farmers themselves. The study noticed that the lack
of support to small scale farmers such as the supply of seeds, cheap tractors and the
maintenance of irrigation canals is one of the prominent causes of the farm abandonment.
The redeployment of water bailiffs in the area was also noted as another important factor
influencing the farm abandonment in the area. The study noted that agricultural
abandonment in Tshiombo irrigation scheme affected the farmers’ lifestyles. It found out
that farmers are now able to feed their families as well as take their children to school.
This was possible because the scheme was growing to such an extent that it now
attracted both national and international customers. On the other hand, the dysfunctional
scheme led to hunger and the escalation of poverty among villagers in the area.

The study also found out that the attraction of both national and international markets
boosted the country’s economic growth and development. Such growth was realised
through the construction of roads to access the Tshiombo Villages. This improved
people’s standard of living, particularly during the past years when the scheme was in full
operation. This also improved tertiary graduate output amongst the Tshiombo’s youth
because their parents have enough income to send them to school.

58
5.2.3. Which mitigation strategies can be implemented to re-activate the
abandoned agricultural activities?

The re-employment of water bailiffs could be suitable to monitor the equitable water
distribution to all farmers. The lack of water bailiffs led to the lack of control in terms of
the irrigation schedule amongst farmers themselves. This has divided them and led to
those owning the peripheral portions of the scheme not to receive water for irrigation
because there is no one to monitor its fair and equitable distribution.

The reinstatement of government support in the form of the provision of seeds, fertilisers
and cheap tractors for cultivation or the subsidisation of small scale farmers could help to
solve this problem. The government should redistribute such resources in order to help
these farmers to grow their industry. The cheap tractors and seed distribution, together
with subsidies would attract ex-farmers back to farming. The maintenance of irrigation
canals and dams would help to distribute water to all farms. Some of the farmers
abandoned farming due to the lack of water for irrigation, and this is because dams have
been abandoned as well. The fixing of irrigation canals would help to distribute water to
all farms and as such farmers would be encouraged to go back to farming due to its
availability.

The farmers lamented on the chronic shortage of irrigation water. Through observations
done during field trips, the researcher realised that this problem could be solved by drilling
boreholes in the area, a strategy that could see farmers guaranteed of continuous supply
of irrigation water even during droughts. This could boost the morality of these farmers,
hence continue practising agriculture. The drilled boreholes would assist in dry seasons,
providing water for irrigation in the scheme. This would erode the problem of drought that
has also played a role in the abandonment of farms in the area.

The government, through the provision of economic education to farmers, would help
them to develop from small scale farming or being subsistence farmers to become
independent commercial farmers. The economic education would help them manage their

59
finances or profits so that in future, they would not rely on the government, but run their
farming ventures from their profits.

Markets in agriculture are a necessity if small scale farmers are to survive in this business.
That is, the provision of markets nearby could boost the farmers’ businesses as they
would be in a position to sell their farm produce locally. The issue is, interviewed farmers
indicated that they had been struggling with a market to sell their products, hence attract
local customers. Many customers were unable to access their farm produce due to the
lack of a central market, therefore, market availability would promote the farmers and this
would help develop the area through the provision of employment for youth. In
combination, these would lead to the country’s economic growth.

5.3. Conclusion

This study examined the social and economic impacts of abandoned farmland in
Tshiombo irrigation scheme, in the Vhembe District, Limpopo Province. In doing so, it
investigated the factors associated with farmland abandonment. Whatever the cause,
farm abandonment is a problem to both farmers and the Department of Agriculture as it
threatens the country’s food security. Through the analysed data, both the lack of
government support and farming skills were identified as the major contributory factors to
farm abandonment in the area. An observational field assessment was conducted in order
to ascertain this assertion, and this proved to be the case. As a result, those farmers who
abandoned their farms now live miserable lives. Poverty has reduced them to beggars
who live off alms provided by the haves of Tshiombo Village. Given that these people’s
life of poverty is man-engineered, it is no surprise that their anger is directed at the
government, which they accuse of turning a blind eye to their plight and dire situation.

Data was obtained through focus group discussions involving both active and inactive
farmers. A sample size of 104 informants that included 40 ex-farmers and 64 active ones
was used. In addition, seven extension officers were interviewed for their informed views
on matters agricultural. The collected data was analysed using graphs and charts.

60
Conducting this study in this way made it possible for the researcher to immerse himself
in the Tshiombo Community where he discovered for himself the dichotomous situation
that now prevails there due to farm abandonment. There now prevails a two in one
community, where on the one hand, there are active farmers who exhibit an affluent
lifestyle, and on the other, there are poor miserable ex-farmers who live a lifestyle that
reflect the full characteristics of a refugee camp. The irony here is that these two sets of
sub-communities were once partners in agricultural production. What this means is that
in spite of the challenges these ex-farmers encountered in their farming ventures,
abandoning their farms was not a wise decision to make. Perseverance and hard work,
despite the odds, have paid for those farmers who remained active. Based on these facts,
the study concludes that farm abandonment leaves a trail of poverty, suffering and
animosity among failed farmers, hence should be discouraged in every way possible.
Instead, farmers should be encouraged to persevere for the sake of their families.

5.4. Recommendations

This study’s findings were used to formulate recommendations. If followed, these

recommendations would contribute towards reducing the abandonment of farms in
Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme, hence promote farming here. There are a variety of issues
related to farm abandonment at the Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme as noted when the study
was conducted. The following constitute this study’s recommendations.

5.4.1. Measures to influence farming and limit farm abandonment

 Re-employment water bailiffs to oversee equitable distribution of water to all farmers.

This would ensure that all farmers, particularly those in the peripheral areas of the
irrigation scheme, are adequately served with water for their crops.
 The government should reinstate its support of the small scale farmers in the
Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme. This would ensure that these farmers have access to
all the necessary farm implements and inputs for the successful agricultural ventures.
The government should redistribute such resources in order to help small farmers to
grow their industry.
61
 The government should reconstruct and undertake to maintain irrigation canals and
dams so that farmers have easy access to irrigation water. This would encourage
those who had abandoned farming to reconsider their decisions, hence come back.
 The government should drill boreholes in the area to help and support farmers with
water during winter or drought. This would solve the problem of chronic water
shortages often experienced by farmers in winter or during droughts.
 The government should educate farmers on how to run their business ventures
profitable, through workshops, field trips or such informal gatherings. This would help
these farmers to sustain their farming ventures. The economic education would help
them manage their finances or profits properly for future use.
 The government should build a central market to cater for all farmers in the area. This
would boost these farmers’ customer base as many people would be able to access
it. The markets’ availability would promote these farmers, hence lead to the
development of the area through employment provision.

62
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APPENDIX A
INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRES FOR ACTIVE FARMERS’ FOCUS GROUPS AT
TSHIOMBO IRRIGATION SCHEME

INTRODUCTION

Good morning/ afternoon/ evening, I am Mudau Mafulo Stenley a student at the University
of Venda conducting a study about the impacts of abandonment agricultural activities of
Tshiombo irrigation scheme for my master’s degree. I would like to hear from farmers
about their knowledge, experiences and constraints in leading to farm abandonment as
well as how to improve the present situation.

Your answers are very important to both of us because they will help us to identify areas
of intervention. This interview is confidential, nobody will be able to recognize you from
your response and I am not going to take your name or anything that can identify you.

Your responses are extremely important in this study, but you are not compelled to
respond if you chose not to.

Do you agree to be interviewed today?

1. Yes
2. No

Place_______________________ on____________________________2016

If no, appointment ______________________date

Key questions directed to Active farmers

73
1. What are you cultivating?
2. Where are you selling your crops?
3. How are you selling the crops?
4. Some farmers are abandoning their plots, why are you still continuing?
5. What are the problems affecting your farming enterprises
6. How are you coping currently?
10. How are you benefiting from your farming?
11. Who is buying your products?
12. How are you coping with current farming system?
13. What assistance were you getting from government?
14. Are you still getting the same assistance?
15. What are the changes in your way of living due to current farming?
17. How are you dealing with the changes?
18. What are your dreams as a farmer?
19. How would you like to achieve them (wish)?
Thank you!

74
APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRES FOR NON-ACTIVE FARMERS’ FOCUS GROUPS AT
TSHIOMBO IRRIGATION SCHEME

INTRODUCTION

Good morning/ afternoon/ evening, I am Mudau Mafulo Stenley a student at the University
of Venda conducting a study about the impacts of abandonment agricultural activities of
Tshiombo irrigation scheme for my master’s degree. I would like to hear from farmers
about their knowledge, experiences and constraints in leading to farm abandonment as
well as how to improve the present situation.

Your answers are very important to both of us because they will help us to identify areas
of intervention. This interview is confidential, nobody will be able to recognize you from
your response and I am not going to take your name or anything that can identify you.

Your responses are extremely important in this study, but you are not compelled to
respond if you chose not to.

Do you agree to be interviewed today?

1. Yes
2. No

Place_______________________ on____________________________2016

If no, appointment ______________________date

75
Key questions directed to none- active farmers

1. For how long have you been farming (years?)

2. Which crops were you cultivating?
3. Why are you no longer cultivating
4. Where were you selling your crops?
5. How were you selling the crops?
6. What are the causes of farm abandonment?
7. When did you start facing these problems?
8. How did the problem started?
9. How where you benefiting from your farming?
10. How does farm abandonment affect your daily livelihood?
11. How are you surviving after you have abandoned farming?
12. Which kind of support where you getting from the government?
13. What should be done to make sure that you farm again?

Thank you!

76
APPENDIX B
QUESTIONNAIRES DIRECTED TO EXTENSION OFFICERS AT TSHIOMBO
IRRIGATION SCHEME

INTRODUCTION

Good morning/ afternoon/ evening, I am Mudau Mafulo Stenley a student at the University
of Venda conducting a study about the impacts of abandonment agricultural activities of
Tshiombo irrigation scheme for my master’s degree. I would like to hear from extension
officers about their knowledge, experiences and constraints in assisting farmers at
Tshiombo irrigation scheme.

Your answers are very important to both of us because they will help us to identify areas
of intervention. This interview is confidential, nobody will be able to recognize you from
your response and I am not going to take your name or anything that can identify you.

Your responses are extremely important in this study, but you are not compelled to
respond if you chose not to.

Do you agree to be interviewed today?

1. Yes
2. No

Place_______________________ on____________________________2016

If no, appointment ______________________date

77
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS 001

(TICK ONE or FILL IN)

1. Age
<45 1
45-55 2

55-65 3

>65 4

2. Educational level
Never 1
Primary 2
Secondary 3
Tertiary 4

3. Numbers of years as an extension officer at Tshiombo irrigation scheme

1
2
3
4
5

FARMING SYSTEM AND AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE 002

(CROSS OR FILL IN)

4. What are the main agricultural products produced by the farmers?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

78
5. Rank them in order according the most planted
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6. What are the causes of agricultural abandonment of some plots by the farmers?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

7. What kind of support do government provide to farmers?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8. What kind of support is government no longer providing to the farmers?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. What are the challenges that are hindering agricultural production in the area?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. How are you supporting existing small existing farmers?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

11. Which measures have been put in place to limit farm abandonment?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

12. Which measures have been put in place to promote farming in these areas?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you!

79
Appendix C: Feedback and Dissemination Plan

This study will be made available in the form of a bound document given to the University
of Venda. Research papers from this study will be presented in and outside South Africa
in both national and international conferences. A policy brief will be produced from the
study to give guidelines on combating the conflict of interest among community leaders
in relationship to agricultural activities. The results of the study will be shared with various
stakeholders who contributed in whichever way to this study. Results from the first phase
of the study will be shared with Tshiombo Community at Ward level. After wards, a
detailed report will have been compiled. It will then be read in an organized meeting
involving all interested groups within the Ward. A copy of the report will be given to the
community leaders as evidence of work done and for future use. During agricultural
workshops and conferences, reporters from local newspapers and radio stations will be
invited to witness the feedback session. The findings will be published in the country’s
popular journals that will be helpful for the local community. By getting information on the
implications of conflicting interests in rural development, the government could take
necessary initiatives to clarify the roles of community leaders and government.
Government organizations and different non-governmental organizations will also benefit
from the research findings. The outcomes of the proposed research can also be used to
find solutions and improve working relationship among community leaders.

80
Appendix E
Observation checklist

1. Types of crops planted

2. Active and non-active farmland
3. Irrigation system infrastructure
4. Marketing system

81
Appendix F: Permission letter

82
83