Eur. Phys. J.

C (2023) 83:1144
https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-023-12321-0

Regular Article - Theoretical Physics

Cosmological constraints on (t)CDM models

H. A. P. Macedo1,a , L. S. Brito1,b , J. F. Jesus1,2,c , M. E. S. Alves1,3,d
1 Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Faculdade de Engenharia e Ciências, Departamento de Física, Av. Dr. Ariberto Pereira da Cunha 333,
Guaratinguetá, SP 12516-410, Brazil
2 Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Instituto de Ciências e Engenharia, Departamento de Ciências e Tecnologia, R. Geraldo Alckmin, 519,

Itapeva, SP 18409-010, Brazil

3 Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia, São José dos Campos, SP 12247-004, Brazil

Received: 27 June 2023 / Accepted: 1 December 2023

© The Author(s) 2023

Abstract Problems with the concordance cosmology C In the last decades, we have seen an increasing number
DM as the cosmological constant problem, coincidence prob- of alternatives to the CDM model aiming to alleviate such
lems and Hubble tension has led to many proposed alterna- difficulties. These alternatives range from the quest for dark
tives, as the (t)CDM, where the now called  cosmological energy models to extended theories of gravity. In this context,
term is allowed to vary due to an interaction with pressure- it is natural to investigate if  is a function of the cosmic
less matter. Here, we analyze one class of these proposals, time t.
namely,  = α  a −2 + β H 2 + λ∗ , based on dimensional Models with a time-varying  or Vacuum-decay models
arguments. Using SNe Ia, cosmic chronometers data plus have been conceived in different contexts. In several models,
constraints on H0 from SH0ES and Planck satellite, we con- some ad hoc time dependence for (t) is assumed. Some
strain the free parameters of this class of models. By using of the most common examples were addressed in Refs. [2,3]
the Planck prior over H0 , we conclude that the λ∗ term can (see [4] and references therein for a list of phenomenological
not be discarded by this analysis, thereby disfavouring mod- decay laws of (t)). The functional form of (t) can also
els only with the time-variable terms. The SH0ES prior over be derived, for instance, by geometrical motivations [5,6] or
H0 has an weak evidence in this direction. The subclasses of from Quantum Mechanical arguments [7]. The interaction
models with α  = 0 and with β = 0 can not be discarded of vacuum with matter has also been considered in different
by this analysis. Finally, by using distance priors from CMB, approaches and confronted with recent cosmological data
the  time-dependence was quite restricted. (see, e.g., [8–11]).
A promising approach to overcome the puzzles of the
CDM model is known as the ‘running vacuum model’
1 Introduction (RVM). It emerges when one uses the renormalization group
approach of quantum field theory in curved spaces to renor-
The concordance cosmological model CDM ( plus Cold malize the vacuum energy density. It is possible to show that
Dark Matter) is very successful in explaining a variety of vacuum energy density evolves as a series of powers of the
cosmological observations as, for instance, the accelerating Hubble function H and its derivatives with respect to cosmic
expansion of the Universe and the power spectrum of the time: ρvac (H, Ḣ , . . .). The leading term of the expansion is
cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB). However, constant, but the next-to-leading one evolves as H 2 . There
the model suffers several theoretical and observational dif- are other terms in the expansion that can be relevant for the
ficulties. Some remarkable examples are the cosmological early Universe cosmology, but the term H 2 can affect the
constant problem, the coincidence problem, and the Hubble current evolution of the scale factor. Initially, the RVM was
tension (see, e.g., [1] for a review). introduced in a semi-qualitative way through the renormal-
ization group approach. Some of the first motivations of this
a e-mail: [email protected] (corresponding author) model can be found, e.g., in the Refs. [12–15] (see also [16]
b e-mail: [email protected] for an old review on the subject). However, in recent years,
c e-mail: [email protected] the RVM was derived from a rigorous analysis within the
d e-mail: [email protected] Quantum Field Theory in curved spacetime. The derivation

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1144 Page 2 of 13 Eur. Phys. J. C (2023) 83:1144

of the final form of RVM can be found in the Refs. [17–20] obtain analytical solutions for H (z) in the class of models
(see [21] for a review on recent theoretical developments). given by Eq. (1) in Sects. 2.1 and 3.1. In Sect. 4, we con-
Moreover, such a class of models can be more favored than strain the parameters of the models using SNe Ia data, cos-
the CDM model when a fit with the cosmological observ- mic chronometers data and CMB. In the analysis, we consider
ables is performed [22–28]. separately the constraints on H0 from Planck (Sect. 4.1) and
To answer the conundrum of why the cosmological con- from SH0ES (Sect. 4.2). Finally, we present our conclusions
stant is so small today, one could also propose models with and final remarks in Sect. 5.
 ∝ a −m , where a is the scale factor and m is a positive
constant to be determined. From dimensional arguments by
quantum cosmology, it is natural to choose m = 2 [29,30]. 2 Cosmological equations for a varying L term,
Therefore, in this perspective,  has the same decay behav- neglecting radiation
ior as the curvature term. Such an evolution of  was first
proposed by özer and Taha [31,32] as a way to solve the From the Cosmological Principle and the Einstein Field
cosmological problems of the eighties decade. Equations, we have the so-called Friedmann equations, given
On the other hand, following similar phenomenological by
arguments, in Ref. [33], the authors parametrized the time
evolution of  as the sum of a term proportional to a −2 to 8π GρT k
a term proportional to H 2 , i.e., the same term that emerges H2 = − 2, (2)
3 a
from the RVM. In the present article, we follow this approach, ä 4π G
but we add a “bare” cosmological term λ∗ . Specifically, we =− (ρT + 3 pT ), (3)
a 3
consider four models of a time-varying (t) in the class
where ρT is the total density of the Universe matter-energy
α content, pT is total pressure and k is the curvature scalar. As
 g = 2 + β H 2 + λ∗ , (1)
a we are mainly interested in the late-time Universe, we shall
neglect the radiation contribution, in such a way that ρT is
with α  , β and λ∗ constants. Three models are chosen by given by
selecting one of these constants to vanish identically (these
three models are depicted in Table 1) and the fourth model is ρT = ρ M + ρ , (4)
the complete one for which the three constants are non-null.
The phenomenological model described by the complete where ρ M corresponds to the total pressureless matter (dark
model presents a smooth transition from the early de Sitter matter+baryons) and ρ corresponds to the time-varying
stage to the radiation phase. Such a transition is independent (t)-term. In the present article we assume the equation of
of the curvature parameter and solves naturally the horizon state (EoS) of vacuum to be exactly wvac = −1 such that
and the graceful exit problem [34]. p = −ρ . However, a recent result for the RVM is that the
To put constraints on the free parameters of the models, EoS of vacuum evolves with the cosmic history [19]. This
we use the SNe Ia sample consisting of 1048 SNe Ia apparent would change our results and may be considered in future
magnitude measurements from the Pantheon sample [35] and works. From the continuity equation, we have
a compilation of 32 cosmic chronometers data of the Hubble
parameter, H (z) [36]. We have also considered the most up- ρ̇ M + 3H ρ M = Q, (5)
to-date constraints on H0 , namely, the ones from SH0ES [37]
ρ̇ = −Q, (6)
and Planck [38].
We organized the article as follows. We describe the Fried-
where Q is the interaction term between pressureless matter
mann equations with a time-dependent (t)-term in Sect. 2
and vacuum. With these components, the Friedmann equa-
(neglecting radiation) and Sect. 3 (including radiation). We
tions (3) now read

8π G(ρ M + ρ ) k
Table 1 Here we summarise the three models considered in the article H2 = − 2, (7)
3 a
Model  Fixed parameter ä 4π G
=− (ρ M − 2ρ ). (8)
a 3
α
1 a2
+ β H2 λ∗ = 0
α By multiplying the Eq. (8) by 2, we have
2 a2
+ λ∗ β=0
3 β H 2 + λ∗ α = 0 ä 8π G 8π G 16π G
2 =− (ρ M − 2ρ ) = − ρM + ρ , (9)
a 3 3 3

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and summing the Eq. (7) with the Eq. (9), we have So, the models we study here are derived from the following
2ä k  dependence
H2 + = 8π Gρ − 2 . (10)
a a α
g = + β H 2 + λ∗ . (19)
Since  = 8π Gρ , Eq. (10) reads a2
We shall not consider this general g as a model to be con-
2ä k
H2 = − +− 2. (11) strained by observations, as it has too many free parameters,
a a and it may be penalized in a Bayesian criterion. Actually, we
By replacing ä
a = Ḣ + H 2 , we find choose to work with particular cases of this g dependence,
where, in each case, one parameter contribution is neglected,
k
3H 2 = −2 Ḣ +  − . (12) as summarised in Table 1.
a2 Let us now obtain the evolution of this class of models.
In order to perform cosmological constraints, let us now From Eq. (19), we have the values today
change to derivatives with respect to the redshift
0 = α  + β H02 + λ∗ . (20)
d d
= −H (1 + z) . (13) As  ≡ 0
, we may also write
dt dz 3H02

Thus, the equation α β λ∗ α β

 = + + 2
= + + λ∗ , (21)
k 3 3 3H0 3 3
2 Ḣ = −3H +  − 2 ,
2
(14)
a λ∗
where we have defined λ∗ ≡ 3H02
and the dimensionless
now reads α
α≡ H02
, for mathematical convenience. From this, we may
dH k
− 2H (1 + z) = −3H 2 +  − 2 , (15) write for α
dz a  
β
and by replacing k = −k0 H02 we have α = 3  − − λ∗ . (22)
3
dH 3H k0 H02 (1 + z)  As already mentioned, we choose to work with a spatially
= − − . (16)
dz 2(1 + z) 2H 2H (1 + z) flat Universe, such that from Eq. (7), we have the normaliza-
tion condition
If we further use the definition E ≡ H
H0 the above equation
reads  = 1 − m . (23)
dE 3E k0 (1 + z)  Now, with these dimensionless parameters (m , β, λ∗ ),
= − − . (17)
dz 2(1 + z) 2E 2E H0 (1 + z)
2 an analytical solution for the Eq. (18) can be obtained. The
general solution is given by
From now on, we shall assume that the Universe is spa-
tially flat (k = 0), as indicated by inflation and CMB. There-  
6λ∗ + (3 − β)(1 − 3 )
fore, we finally obtain the equation E 2 (z) = (1 + z)3−β
(1 − β)(3 − β)
 
dE 3E  3λ∗ −3λ∗ + 3 − β
= − . (18) + + (1 + z)2 . (24)
dz 2(1 + z) 2E H02 (1 + z) 3−β 1−β
For a given (a, H ) (or (z, H )), Eq. (18) can be solved The solutions for each one of the three models depicted
in order to obtain the universe evolution E(z). In the next sub- in the Table 1 are particular cases of this solution obtined by
section, we shall assume a fair general (a, H ) dependence the appropriate choice of parameters. They are given by
in order to solve this equation and compare the assumed mod-
els with cosmological observations. α
• Model 1 = a2
+ β H 2 , (λ∗ = 0)

2.1  = α  a−2 + β H 2 + λ∗ class of models, neglecting 

1 − 3 3 − β
radiation E(z) = (1 + z)(3−β) + (1 + z)2 ; (25)
1−β 1−β

Dimensional arguments have led to the proposals of  ∝

α
a −2 ,  ∝ H 2 models in the literature. Here we test a com- • Model 2 = a2
+ λ∗ , (β = 0)
bination of these proposals together with a constant term, in 
E(z) = (1 + 2λ∗ − 3 )(1 + z)3 + λ∗ + 3(−λ∗ +  )(1 + z)2 ;
order to find which of these terms may contribute the most
to the evolution of the universe as indicated by observations. (26)

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• Model 3 = β H 2 + λ∗ , (α  = 0) It can be shown, that following the same steps as in Sect.

2, we may arrive at the general result, with spatial curvature:
 
6λ∗ + (3 − β)(1 − 3 ) 3λ∗
E(z) = (1 + z)3−β + . (27) dE 3E k0 (1 + z) r 0 (1 + z)3 
(1 − β)(3 − β) 3−β = − + − .
dz 2(1 + z) 2E 2E 2E H02 (1 + z)

It is worth noticing that, for the 2 model, the E(z) given (38)
by Eq. (26) is similar to the CDM model with spatial cur-
And, by assuming that the Universe is spatially flat (k =
vature. This is due to the fact that the term ∝ a −2 mimics a
0), as indicated by inflation and CMB, we obtain the equation:
curvature term in this case.
The functions E(z) we have obtained are all we need in dE 3E r 0 (1 + z)3 
= + − . (39)
order to constrain the three models with observational data dz 2(1 + z) 2E 2E H0 (1 + z)
2
in the next section. We can also obtain the interaction term
for each model, in order to analyze its behavior later. For the For a given (a, H ) (or (z, H )), Eq. (39) can be solved
general case (19), we have the following interaction term in order to obtain the universe evolution E(z). In the next sub-
section, we assume the same (a, H ) dependence as before
8π G (19) in order to solve this equation and compare the assumed
Q(z) ≡ Q(z) = 2α(1 + z)2 E(z)
H03 models with cosmological observations.
d E 2 (z)
+β E(z)(1 + z) . (28)
dz 3.1  = α  a−2 + β H 2 + λ∗ class of models, including
radiation

3 Cosmological equations for a varying  term, For this class, including radiation, the normalization condi-
including radiation tion now reads:

Taking radiation into account, the Friedmann equations (3)  = 1 − m − r . (40)

are the same, but now we have ρT and pT given by: Now, with the dimensionless parameters (m , r , α, β,
λ∗ ), an analytical solution for the Eq. (18) can be obtained.
ρT = ρ M + ρr + ρ (29) The general solution is given by
ρr
pT = pr + p = − ρ (30)  
3 (1 + z)3−β 2α 4βr 0
E (z) =
2
+ 3m0 +
where ρr is radiation density and ρ M = ρd + ρb (dark matter 3−β β −1 1+β
(d)+baryons (b)). The continuity equations now read r 0 (1 + z)4 α(1 + z)2 3λ∗
+ + + (41)
(1 + β) (1 − β) 3−β
ρ̇b + 3H ρb = 0, (31)
which is a general solution in the cases that β ∈
/ {−1, 1, 3}.
ρ̇r + 4H ρr = 0, (32)
ρ̇d + 3H ρd = Q, (33)
ρ̇ = −Q, (34) 4 Analysis and results

where Q is the interaction term between dark matter and For this analysis, we use 3 variations of the general equation,
vacuum. It is interesting to note that Eqs. (31) and (33) can be being first with λ∗ = 0, second with β = 0, and last we take
combined to write a continuity equation for total pressureless α = 0, as described in Table 1.
matter: In order to constrain the models in the present work, we
have used as observational data, the SNe Ia sample consisting
ρ̇ M + 3H ρ M = Q (35)
of 1048 SNe Ia apparent magnitude measurements from the
With these components, the Friedmann equations (3) now Pantheon sample [35] and a compilation of 32 Hubble param-
read eter data, H (z) [36], obtained by estimating the differential
ages of galaxies, called Cosmic Chronometers (CCs).
8π G(ρ M + ρr + ρ ) k The 32 H (z) CCs data is a sample compiled by [36], con-
H2 = − 2, (36)
3 a sisting of H (z) data within the range 0.07 < z < 1.965. In
ä 4π G the Ref. [36], the authors have estimated systematic errors for
=− (ρ M + 2ρr − 2ρ ). (37)
a 3 these data, by running simulations and considering effects

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Fig. 1 SNe Ia, H (z) and Planck H0 constraints for λ∗ = 0 (1 model), at 1 and 2σ c.l., H0 units are km/s/Mpc. Left: SNe Ia, H (z)+Planck H0
and SNe Ia+H (z)+Planck H0 constraints. Right: joint constraints from SNe Ia+H (z)+Planck H0

such as metallicity, rejuvenation effect, star formation his- Table 2 SNe Ia+H (z)+Planck H0 constraints for λ∗ = 0 (1 model)
tory, initial mass function, choice of stellar library etc.1 Parameter 95% limits
The Pantheon compilation consists of 1048 data from SNe
Ia, within the redshift range 0.01 < z < 2.3, contain- H0 (km/s/Mpc) 67.4 ± 1.1
ing measurements of SDSS, Pan-STARRS1 (PS1), SDSS, m 0.15+0.16
−0.15
SNLS, and various HST and low-z datasets. β 7.5+3.2
−3.1
In order to better constrain the models, besides SNe
Ia+H (z) data, we have also considered the most up-to-
date constraints over H0 , namely, the ones from SH0ES
data constrain {H0 , m , α, β}. However, H (z) data alone do
(73.2 ± 1.3) km/s/Mpc [37] and Planck (67.36 ± 0.54)
not provide strong constraints over the free parameters, so we
km/s/Mpc [38]. As it is well known, these constraints are
choose to work with H (z)+SNe Ia data combination. Further-
currently in conflict, generating the so-called “H0 tension”
more, we have added constraints over H0 from Planck and
[39]. It is important to mention that these constraints are
SH0ES in order to probe the H0 tension and also because
obtained from quite different methods. While the SH0ES
they consist of strong constraints over H0 .
H0 is obtained simply from local constraints, following the
distance ladder built from Cepheid distances and local SNe
Ia, the Planck H0 is obtained from high redshift constraints, 4.1 SNe Ia+H(z)+Planck H0 analysis
assuming the flat CDM model. Given this tension, we pre-
ferred to make two separate analyses, one considering the We start with the 1 model (see Table 1). As one may see
H0 from Planck and one taking into account the H0 from in Fig. 1 (left), H0 is well constrained by H (z)+Planck H0
SH0ES. data, but m and β are poorly constrained. In fact, one may
Below, we show the results of our analyses, first show- see that m is constrained by the prior in its inferior limit,
ing the constraints from SNe Ia+H (z)+H0 from Planck, and while β is constrained by the prior in its superior limit. H0
later showing the constraints from SNe Ia+H (z)+H0 from can not be constrained by SNe Ia, but β is well constrained
SH0ES. by this data. m is better constrained by SNe Ia, but also is
In all the analyses that we have made, we have assumed constrained inferiorly by the prior. In Fig. 1 (right), we can
the flat priors over the free parameters: α ∈ [−2, 2], β ∈ see the result for the joint analysis, where m and β are better
[−5, 15], m ∈ [0, 1], H0 ∈ [55, 85] km/s/Mpc. It is impor- constrained, although m yet is constrained inferiorly by the
tant to note that while SNe Ia data constrain {m , α, β}, H (z) prior. We show the best-fit values for the parameters of the
1 model in Table 2.
1 In Fig. 2 we show the analysis for the 2 model (β =
The method to obtain the full covariance matrix, together with jupyter
notebooks as examples are furnished by M. Moresco at https://gitlab. 0). As one can see in the left panel, H (z)+Planck H0 data
com/mmoresco/CCcovariance. constrains well H0 and α, but not m , which is constrained

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Fig. 2 SNe Ia, H (z) and Planck H0 constraints for β = 0 (2 model), at 1 and 2σ c.l., H0 units are km/s/Mpc. Left: SNe Ia, H (z)+Planck H0
and SNe Ia+H (z)+Planck H0 constraints. Right: joint constraints from SNe Ia+H (z)+Planck H0

Table 3 SNe Ia+H (z)+Planck H0 constraints for β = 0 (2 model) in Fig. 2 (right) and Table 3, the result for the joint analysis,
Parameter 95% limits where H0 , m and α are better constrained.
Next, we analyze the 3 model (α = 0) for which we
H0 (km/s/Mpc) 67.4 ± 1.1 also put constraints on the parameters {H0 , m , β}. In Fig. 3
m 0.278+0.088
−0.086 (left), we can see that H0 and β are well constrained by
α −0.16+0.44
−0.45
H (z)+Planck H0 data, while m is weakly constrained. m
and β are well constrained by SNe Ia, thus complementing
the H (z)+Planck H0 data constraints. In Fig. 3 (right) and
Table 5, we highlight the result for the joint analysis, where
by the prior in its inferior limit. As SNe Ia does not constrain H0 , m , and β are better constrained.
H0 , but m and α are well constrained by this data, it is From Fig. 4 (upper panel), one may notice that in the past
interesting to combine SNe Ia and H (z) data. One may see (z  0.3) the interaction term was positive, meaning a vac-

Fig. 3 SNe Ia, H (z) and Planck H0 constraints for α = 0 (3 model), at 1 and 2σ c.l., H0 units are km/s/Mpc. Left: SNe Ia, H (z)+Planck H0
and SNe Ia+H (z)+ Planck H0 constraints. Right: SNe Ia+H (z)+Planck H0 joint constraints

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Fig. 4 Interaction term Q(z) for the best fit parameters from SNe Ia+H (z)+H0 from Planck. Upper panel: λ∗ = 0 (1 model). Bottom left: β = 0
(2 model). Bottom right: α = 0 (3 model)

Fig. 5 SNe Ia+H (z)+H0 from SH0ES for λ∗ = 0 (1 model), at 1 and 2σ c.l., H0 units are km/s/Mpc. Left: SNe Ia, H (z)+SH0ES H0 and SNe
Ia+H (z)+H0 from SH0ES constraints. Right: SNe Ia+H (z)+H0 from SH0ES joint constraints

uum decaying into DM. However, it is interesting that, for leading to a change of sign of Q(z), as one may see from Eq.
this model (1 ), the interaction term changes sign at low (28). For 2 and 3 models, however, the interaction term
redshift, indicating that now we have decaying of DM into is always negative, thus indicating a decaying of DM into .
. This is due to the fact that β > 0 and α < 0 in the best fit, We may conclude that, at least for the best-fit models, that

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Table 4 SNe Ia+H (z)+SH0ES H0 constraints for λ∗ = 0 (1 model) Table 6 SNe Ia+H (z)+ SH0ES H0 constraints for β = 0 (2 model)
Parameter 95% limits Parameter 95% limits
+2.4
H0 (km/s/Mpc) 73.0−2.4 H0 (km/s/Mpc) 72.7+2.5
−2.5
m 0.16+0.16
−0.15 m 0.289+0.085
−0.084
β 7.1+3.0
−2.9 α −0.03+0.42
−0.43

Table 5 SNe Ia+H (z)+Planck H0 constraints for α = 0 (3 model)

Parameter 95% limits
(right), we can see the result for the joint analysis, where m
H0 (km/s/Mpc) 67.4 ± 1.1 and β are better constrained, although m still is constrained
m +0.076
0.290−0.067 by the prior in its inferior limit. The best-fit values for the 1
β −0.16+0.64
−0.61
model in this case are shown in Tables 4 and 5.
In Fig. 6, we may see the constraints from SNe Ia, H (z)
data and H0 from SH0ES over the model 2 (with β = 0).
In Fig. 6 (left), H (z) data constrains well H0 and α, but
1 is the only model that alleviates or solves the Cosmolog- not m , which is constrained by the prior in its inferior limit.
ical Constant Problem (CCP). However, as one can see from H0 is not constrained by SNe Ia, but m and α are well
Tables 2 and 3, α and β may have positive values within 95% constrained by this data. In Fig. 6 (right) and in Table 6, we
c.l., thus allowing also for decaying of  into DM. For 1 , can see the result for the joint analysis, where m and β are
however, there is not such a change of tendency when we better constrained. We may see that H0 , m and α are well
change the values of α and β within 95% c.l. constrained by this analysis.
Below, in Fig. 7, we may see the constraints from SNe
4.2 SNe Ia+H(z)+SH0ES H0 analysis Ia, H (z) data and H0 from SH0ES over the model 3 (with
α = 0).
In Fig. 5, we may see the constraints from SNe Ia, H (z) data We can see in Fig. 7 (left), H (z)+SH0ES H0 data con-
and H0 from SH0ES over the model 1 (with λ∗ = 0). straints well H0 and β, but not m , which is being constrained
As one may see in Fig. 5 (left), H (z)+SH0ES H0 data by the prior in its inferior limit. H0 is not constrained by SNe
constrains well H0 , but not m , as it is being constrained by Ia, but m and β are well constrained by this data. One may
the prior in its inferior limit, while β is constrained by the see in Fig. 7 (right), the result for the joint analysis, where
prior in its superior limit. H0 is not constrained by SNe Ia, H0 , m , and β are well constrained. In Table 7 we show the
but m and β are better constrained by this data. In Fig. 5 best-fit values for this model.

Fig. 6 SNe Ia+H (z)+H0 from SH0ES for β = 0 (2 model), at 1 and 2σ c.l., H0 units are km/s/Mpc. Left: SNe Ia, H (z)+SH0ES H0 and SNe
Ia+H (z)+SH0ES H0 constraints. Right: SNe Ia+H (z) joint constraints

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Fig. 7 SNe Ia+H (z)+H0 from SH0ES for α = 0 (3 model), at 1 and 2σ c.l., H0 units are km/s/Mpc. Left: SNe Ia, H (z)+SH0ES H0 and SNe
Ia+H (z)+SH0ES H0 constraints. Right: SNe Ia+H (z) joint constraints

Table 7 SNe Ia+H (z)+SH0ES H0 constraints for α = 0 (3 model) simpler models. BIC can be written as [40,41]
Parameter 95% limits
BIC = −2 ln Lmax + p ln N , (42)
H0 (km/s/Mpc) 72.7+2.5
−2.5 where N is the number of data, Lmax is the maximum of
m 0.296+0.078
−0.069 likelihood and p is the number of free parameters. In the
β 0.03+0.65
−0.61 model comparison, the model with achieves the lowest BIC
is favored. The likelihood has some normalization, such that
instead of using the absolute BIC value, what really is impor-
As one may see from Fig. 8, the interaction term has quite tant to consider is the relative BIC among models, which is
similar behavior to Fig. 4. That is, Q(z) changes sign for the given by
model 1 and it is negative for models 2 and 3 , increasing BIC = −(BICi − BIC j ). (43)
its absolute value with redshift. However, the best-fit param-
eters from the analysis with the SH0ES H0 prior indicate The level of support for each model depends on the value
less interaction in the past than in the case with the Planck of the BIC and is explained at [42]. As BIC is a model
H0 prior. comparison, in Table 8 below, we calculated BIC relative
We can see from the figures above, that the most stringent to 3 , which has the lowest BIC in the case of the Planck
constraints from the data are in the context of the model 3 , H0 prior and relative to 2 , which has the lowest BIC in the
followed by the constraints over the model 2 . While the case of the SH0ES H0 prior. The level of support can be seen
worst constraints over the parameters are in the case of the in the last column of this table.
model 1 . One reason for that is that, as one may see, the We may see that the analysis with the Planck prior over
contours from SNe Ia and H (z) + H0 are misaligned in the H0 indicates strong evidence against model 1 , while the
cases 3 and 2 while being aligned in the case of 1 . Then, SH0ES prior indicates moderate evidence against model 1 .
we may say that in the context of the models, 3 and 2 , Both priors, however, can not distinguish between models
the SNe Ia and H (z) + H0 observations nicely complement 2 and 3 . We can see that the models 2 and 3 have a
each other. better fit in the case of the Planck H0 prior than in the case
Finally, in order to make a more quantitative compari- of the SH0ES H0 prior. The situation is inverted, however, in
son among the models analyzed here, we use the Bayesian the case of model 1 because the analysis with the Planck
Information Criterion (BIC) to conclude which model bet- H0 prior discards this model, while the SH0ES H0 prior has
ter describes the analyzed data. It is important to mention only weak evidence against 1 .
that the BIC takes into account not only the goodness of fit Finally, we have analyzed the full (t)CDM model, as
but also penalizes the excess of free parameters, in agreement described by Eq. (19). In this case, as it has 1 more free
with the notion of the Ockham’s razor. Therefore, BIC favors parameter than the subclasses, SNe Ia+H (z)+H0 data were

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Fig. 8 Interaction term Q(z) for the best fit parameters from SNe Ia+H (z)+SH0ES H0 . Upper panel: λ∗ = 0 (1 model). Bottom left: β = 0 (2
model). Bottom right: α = 0 (3 model)

Table 8 BIC values for the different analysed models, with different H0 priors. BIC was calculated in comparison with model 3 for each prior,
as explained on the text
Model Data χmin
2 n par n data BIC BIC Support

g SNe Ia+H (z)+Planck H0 1043.085 4 1080 1071.027 6.984 Decisive

1 (λ∗ = 0) SNe Ia+H (z)+Planck H0 1047.614 3 1080 1068.571 4.528 Strong to very strong
2 (β = 0) SNe Ia+H (z)+Planck H0 1043.091 3 1080 1064.048 0.005 Not significant
3 (α = 0) SNe Ia+H (z)+Planck H0 1043.086 3 1080 1064.043 0.000 Not significant
g SNe Ia+H (z)+SH0ES H0 1044.451 4 1080 1072.393 7.333 Decisive
1 (λ∗ = 0) SNe Ia+H (z)+SH0ES H0 1046.570 3 1080 1067.527 2.067 Weak
2 (β = 0) SNe Ia+H (z)+SH0ES H0 1044.503 3 1080 1065.460 0.000 Not significant
3 (α = 0) SNe Ia+H (z)+SH0ES H0 1044.507 3 1080 1065.464 0.004 Not significant

not enough to constrain its free parameters. Then, we choose from Planck over models which are distinct of (t)CDM,
to work with CMB constraints, in combination with SNe Ia we choose to work with the prior that yields the weakest
Pantheon and H (z) in order to constrain its free parameters. constraints, namely, CDM+k , weakening the prior bias.
In order to include the CMB constraints we have used the so In order to speed up the convergence of chains, we have
called “distance priors” from Planck, as explained in [43]. chosen to work with baryon density ωb instead of baryon
It includes constraints from Planck over quantities like shift density parameter b . The results can be seen on Fig. 9.
parameter R, acoustic scale l A and baryon density ωb ≡ As can be seen on Fig. 9, there are strong correlations
H0
b h 2 , where h ≡ 100 . [43] present distance priors in the between the parameters α − H0 and α − β. One can also see
context of 4 models, namely, CDM, wCDM, CDM+k that α and β are strongly constrained by this analysis. More
and CDM+A L . As these priors bring strong constraints details can be seen on Table 9.

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Fig. 9 SNe Ia + H (z) + CMB Planck 2018 distance priors constraints for full g model, at 1 and 2σ c.l., H0 units are km/s/Mpc

Table 9 Constraints over g , 2 and 3 free parameters with 95% limits, from SNe Ia+H (z)+CMB
Parameter g 2 (β = 0) 3 (α = 0)

H0 (km/s/Mpc) 68.6+7.2
−7.0 68.5+3.0
−2.7 68.6+1.7
−1.5
ωb 0.02260 ± 0.00034 0.02260 ± 0.00034 0.02261+0.00033
−0.00034
m 0.303+0.039
−0.037 0.303+0.040
−0.038 0.303+0.036
−0.035
α −0.001+0.043
−0.047 −0.001+0.021
−0.022 0
β 0.001+0.036
−0.033 0 +0.017
0.000−0.016

As can be seen on Table 9, the parameters α and β, which we did not make a full CMB power spectrum analysis in
dictate the  time dependence, are strongly constrained by the context of (t)CDM. We have used, instead, distance
CMB, leaving only small windows for  variation. In fact, priors which depend on models where the DM and DE are
we may see that −0.048 < α < 0.042 and −0.032 < β < separately conserved. With that said, the results for the other
0.037 at 95% c.l. This result has to be read with care, as parameters are similar to the ones obtained from Planck [38]

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in the context of CDM, where it was found that H0 = recent result for the RVM is that the EoS of vacuum evolves
67.4 ± 0.5 km/s/Mpc, ωb = 0.0024 ± 0.0001 and m = with the cosmic history [19]. This would change our results
0.315 ± 0.007. This is expected, as the values obtained for and may be considered in future works.
α and β are compatible with the CDM model. Further analysis, considering other observational data,
In Table 9 we show, for completeness, the results for the such as BAO, growth factor and full CMB power spectrum,
subclasses of models which include a bare cosmological con- in the lines of [23], for instance, in order to better constrain
stant λ∗ term, 2 and 3 . As it can be seen, the parameters these models should be done in a forthcoming issue.
are in general more constrained in the subclasses than in
the general model, which is expected, as they have less free Acknowledgements SHP acknowledges financial support from Con-
selho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)
parameters. Again, these results shall be taken with care, as (No. 303583/2018-5 and 400924/2016-1). This study was financed in
we have used an approximated treatment of the CMB results, part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Supe-
but we may conclude that the interaction terms are quite con- rior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001.
strained in the context of this analysis.
Data Availability Statement This manuscript has no associated data
or the data will not be deposited. [Authors’ comment: All the data that
has been used in the present work is already available in the quoted
5 Conclusion literature.]

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-

We have analyzed 3 classes of (t)CDM models against bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation,
observations of SNe Ia, cosmic chronometers, and priors over distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you
the Hubble constant from Planck and SH0ES. We may con- give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, pro-
clude that 1 class of models, namely, 1 , may be discarded vide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article
by this analysis, mainly in the case of the Planck H0 prior. are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indi-
In the case of the SH0ES H0 prior, there is weak evidence cated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
against this. Models 2 and 3 can not be distinguished by included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended
this analysis. use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permit-
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At this point, it is important to mention that 1 is the only right holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecomm
considered model that does not have the standard CDM ons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
model as a particular case, once that λ∗ = 0. It seems that Funded by SCOAP3 . SCOAP3 supports the goals of the International
the data disfavor (t)CDM models with this feature, at least Year of Basic Sciences for Sustainable Development.
for the classes of models analyzed here.
However, as one may see in Tables 2, 3, 5, 4, 6, 7 and Figs. 4
and 8, the current analysis does not discard the possibility References
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