CAR AUTOMATIC DOOR OPEN CLOSE BY

USING OXYGEN SENSOR

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

DIPLOMA
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
BY

Under the guidance of----------------------------

2006-2007
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 CERTIFICATE
Register number: _________________________

This is to certify that the project report car automatic door open close by
using oxygen sensord “CAR AUTOMATIC DOOR OPEN CLOSE BY USING
OXYGEN SENSOR” submitted by the following students for the award of the
degree of bachelor of engineering is record of bonafide work carried out by them.

Done by

Mr. /Ms._______________________________

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree in

Diploma in Mechanical Engineering

During the Year – (2004-2005)

_________________ _______________
Head of Department Guide

Coimbatore –641651.
Date:

Submitted for the university examination held on ___________

_________________ ________________
Internal Examiner External Examiner
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At this pleasing moment of having successfully completed our

project, we wish to convey our sincere thanks and gratitude to the
management of our college and our beloved chairman
…………………………………………………, who provided all the
facilities to us.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to our principal
………………………………………, for forwarding us to do our
project and offering adequate duration in completing our project.
We are also grateful to the Head of Department Prof.
…………………………………….., for her constructive suggestions &
encouragement during our project.

With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest & sincere

thanks to our guide ……………………………………………………..,
Department of Mechanical for her kind guidance & encouragement
during this project.
We also express our indebt thanks to our TEACHING and NON
TEACHING staffs of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT,……………………….(COLLEGE NAME).
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CAR AUTOMATIC DOOR OPEN

CLOSE BY USING OXYGEN SENSOR
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CONTENTS
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 CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO PARTICULAS PAGE NO.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

1. SYNOPSIS

2. INTRODUCTION

3. COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

4. WORKING PRINCIPLE

5. DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

6. LIST OF MATERIAL

7. COST ESTIMATION

8. APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGED AND

DISADVANTAGES

9. CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY
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Chapter-1
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SYNOPSIS
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 CHAPTER-1

SYNOPSIS

In most of the cases car inside the gas level is varying depends upon surrounded air

system. Some cases the refrigerant gas in side of the vehicle is more when compare to

oxygen level. In this project oxygen and sound sensor is used to senses the oxygen level

and vibration to automatically open the car window by using rack and pinion

arrangement.
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Chapter-2
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INTRODUCTION
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CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION
This is an era of automation where it is broadly defined as replacement of manual effort

by mechanical power in all degrees of automation. The operation remains an essential

part of the system although with changing demands on physical input as the degree of

mechanization is increased.

Degrees of automation are of two types, viz.

Full automation.

Semi automation.

In semi automation a combination of manual effort and mechanical power is

required whereas in full automation human participation is very negligible.

Need For Automation

 Automation can be achieved through computers, hydraulics, pneumatics, robotics,

etc., of these sources, pneumatics form an attractive medium for low cost automation.

The main advantages of all pneumatic systems are economy and simplicity. Automation

plays an important role in mass production.

Automation plays a vital role in mass production .for mass production of a product,

the machining operations decides the sequence of machining .the machines designed for

producing a particular product are called transfer machines.

Material handling is a specialized activity for a modern manufacturing concern. It

has been estimated that about 60-70% of the cost production is spent in material handling

activities.

 Reduction of lab our and material cost

 Reduction of overall cost

 Increased production

 Increased storage capacity

 Increased safety

 Reduction in fatigue
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Chapter-3
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COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

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CHAPTER-3

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

The components used in this project are:

1. Gas sensor
2. Electronic circuit
3. Dc motor
4. Battery

Gas sensor:

A gas detector is a device that detects the presence of gases in an area, often as part of a safety

system. This type of equipment is used to detect a gas leak and interface with a control system so

a process can be automatically shut down. A gas detector can sound an alarm to operators in the

area where the leak is occurring, giving them the opportunity to leave. This type of device is

important because there are many gases that can be harmful to organic life, such as humans or

animals.

Gas detectors can be used to detect combustible, flammable and toxic gases,

and oxygen depletion. This type of device is used widely in industry and can be found in

locations, such as on oil rigs, to monitor manufacture processes and emerging technologies such

as photovoltaic. They may be used in firefighting.

Gas leak detection is the process of identifying potentially hazardous gas leaks by sensors. These

sensors usually employ an audible alarm to alert people when a dangerous gas has been detected.

Common sensors include infrared point sensors, ultrasonic sensors, electrochemical gas sensors,

and semiconductor sensors. More recently, infrared imaging sensors have come into use. All of

these sensors are used for a wide range of applications and can be found in industrial plants,

refineries, waste-water treatment facilities, vehicles, and homes.

Electrochemical gas detectors work by allowing gases to diffuse through a porous membrane to

an electrode where it is either chemically oxidized or reduced. The amount of current produced is

determined by how much of the gas is oxidized at the electrode, indicating the concentration of

the gas. Manufactures can customize electrochemical gas detectors by changing the porous

barrier to allow for the detection of a certain gas concentration range. Also, since the diffusion

barrier is a physical/mechanical barrier, the detector tended to be more stable and reliable over

the sensor's duration and thus required less maintenance than other early detector technologies.

However, the sensors are subject to corrosive elements or chemical contamination and may last

only 1–2 years before a replacement is required. Electrochemical gas detectors are used in a wide

variety of environments such as refineries, gas turbines, chemical plants, underground gas

storage facilities, and more.

Infrared point

Main article: Infrared point sensor

Infrared (IR) point sensors use radiation passing through a known volume of gas; energy from

the sensor beam is absorbed at certain wavelengths, depending on the properties of the specific

gas. For example, carbon monoxide absorbs wavelengths of about 4.2-4.5 μm. The energy in this

wavelength is compared to a wavelength outside of the absorption range; the difference in energy

between these two wavelengths is proportional to the concentration of gas present.

This type of sensor is advantageous because it does not have to be placed into the gas to detect it

and can be used for remote sensing. Infrared point sensors can be used to

detect hydrocarbons and other infrared active gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. IR

sensors are commonly found in waste-water treatment facilities, refineries, gas turbines,
chemical plants, and other facilities where flammable gases are present and the possibility of an

explosion exists. The remote sensing capability allows large volumes of space to be monitored.

Engine emissions are another area where IR sensors are being researched. The sensor would

detect high levels of carbon monoxide or other abnormal gases in vehicle exhaust and even be

integrated with vehicle electronic systems to notify drivers.

Infrared imaging

Main article: Thermographic camera

Infrared imaging sensors include active and passive systems. For active sensing, IR imaging

sensors typically scan a laser across the field of view of a scene and look for backscattered light

at the absorption line wavelength of a specific target gas. Passive IR imaging sensors

measure spectral changes at each pixel in an image and look for specific spectral signatures that

indicate the presence of target gases. The types of compounds that can be imaged are the same as

those that can be detected with infrared point detectors, but the images may be helpful in

identifying the source of a gas.

Semiconductor

Semiconductor sensors detect gases by a chemical reaction that takes place when the gas comes

in direct contact with the sensor. Tin dioxide is the most common material used in semiconductor

sensors,[8] and the electrical resistance in the sensor is decreased when it comes in contact with

the monitored gas. The resistance of the tin dioxide is typically around 50 kΩ in air but can drop

to around 3.5 kΩ in the presence of 1% methane. This change in resistance is used to calculate

the gas concentration. Semiconductor sensors are commonly used to detect hydrogen, oxygen,

alcohol vapor, and harmful gases such as carbon monoxide. One of the most common uses for

semiconductor sensors is in carbon monoxide sensors. They are also used in breathalyzers.
[9] Because the sensor must come in contact with the gas to detect it, semiconductor sensors

work over a smaller distance than infrared point or ultrasonic detectors.

Ultrasonic

Ultrasonic gas detectors use acoustic sensors to detect changes in the background noise of its

environment. Since most high-pressure gas leaks generate sound in the ultrasonic range of

25 kHz to 10 MHz, the sensors are able to easily distinguish these frequencies from background

acoustic noise which occurs in the audible range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The ultrasonic gas leak

detector then produces an alarm when there is an ultrasonic deviation from the normal condition

of background noise. Ultrasonic gas leak detectors cannot measure gas concentration, but the

device is able to determine the leak rate of an escaping gas because the ultrasonic sound level

depends on the gas pressure and size of the leak.

Ultrasonic gas detectors are mainly used for remote sensing in outdoor environments where

weather conditions can easily dissipate escaping gas before allowing it to reach leak detectors

that require contact with the gas to detect it and sound an alarm. These detectors are commonly

found on offshore and onshore oil/gas platforms, gas compressor and metering stations, gas

turbine power plants, and other facilities that house a lot of outdoor pipeline.

Holographic

Holographic gas sensors use light reflection to detect changes in a polymer film matrix

containing a hologram. Since holograms reflect light at certain wavelengths, a change in their

composition can generate a colorful reflection indicating the presence of a gas

molecule. However, holographic sensors require illumination sources such as white light

orlasers, and an observer or CCD detector.

Calibration
All gas detectors must be calibrated on a schedule. Of the two form factors of gas detectors,

portables must be calibrated more frequently due to the regular changes in environment they

experience. A typical calibration schedule for a fixed system may be quarterly, bi-annually or

even annually with more robust units. A typical calibration schedule for a portable gas detector is

a daily "bump test" accompanied by a monthly calibration. Almost every portable gas detector

requires a specific calibration gas which is available from the manufacturer. In the US,

the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) may set minimum standards for

periodic recalibration.[citation needed]

Challenge (bump) test

Because a gas detector is used for employee/worker safety, it is very important to make sure it is

operating to manufacturer's specifications. Australian standards specify that a person operating

any gas detector is strongly advised to check the gas detector's performance each day and that it

is maintained and used in accordance with the manufacturers instructions and warnings.

A challenge test should consist of exposing the gas detector to a known concentration of gas to

ensure that the gas detector will respond and that the audible and visual alarms activate. It is also

important inspect the gas detector for any accidental or deliberate damage by checking that the

housing and screws are intact to prevent any liquid ingress and that the filter is clean, all of

which can affect the functionality of the gas detector. The basic calibration or challenge test kit

will consist of calibration gas/regulator/calibration cap and hose (generally supplied with the gas

detector) and a case for storage and transport. Because 1 in every 2,500 untested instruments will

fail to respond to a dangerous concentration of gas, many large businesses use an automated

test/calibration station for bump tests and calibrate their gas detectors daily.

Oxygen concentration
Oxygen deficiency gas monitors are used for employee and workforce

safety. Cryogenic substances such as liquid nitrogen (LN2), liquid helium (He), and

liquid argon (Ar) are inert and can displace oxygen (O2) in a confined space if a leak is present.

A rapid decrease of oxygen can provide a very dangerous environment for employees, who may

not notice this problem before they suddenly lose consciousness. With this in mind, an oxygen

gas monitor is important to have when cryogenics are present. Laboratories, MRIrooms,

pharmaceutical, semiconductor, and cryogenic suppliers are typical users of oxygen monitors.

Oxygen fraction in a breathing gas is measured by electro-galvanic fuel cell sensors. They may

be used stand-alone, for example to determine the proportion of oxygen in anitrox mixture used

in scuba diving, or as part of feedback loop which maintains a constant partial pressure of

oxygen in a rebreather.

BATTERIES

INTRODUCTION:

In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of excess

solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are isolated sunshine

load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for storage. In fact for small

units with output less than one kilowatt. Batteries seem to be the only technically and

economically available storage means. Since both the photo-voltaic system and batteries
are high in capital costs. It is necessary that the overall system be optimized with respect

to available energy and local demand pattern. To be economically attractive the storage

of solar electricity requires a battery with a particular combination of properties:

(1) Low cost

(2) Long life

(3) High reliability

(4) High overall efficiency

(5) Low discharge

(6) Minimum maintenance

(A) Ampere hour efficiency

(B) Watt hour efficiency

We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel for

lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.

2.1 LEAD-ACID WET CELL:

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the type most

commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). In the

application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile, for example, the load
current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell has a nominal output of

2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series combination of three for a 6-V battery

and six for a 12-V battery.

The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged.

The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore the output voltage,

as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat with excessive charge

and discharge currents shortends the useful life to about 3 to 5 years for an automobile

battery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the lead-acid type has the highest

output voltage, which allows fewer cells for a specified battery voltage.
2.2 CONSTRUCTION:

Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a group

of plates welded to a connecting strap. The plates are immersed in the electrolyte,

consisting of 8 parts of water to 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid. Each plate is a grid

or framework, made of a lead-antimony alloy. This construction enables the active

material, which is lead oxide, to be pasted into the grid. In manufacture of the cell, a

forming charge produces the positive and negative electrodes. In the forming process,

the active material in the positive plate is changed to lead peroxide (pbo₂). The negative

electrode is spongy lead (pb).

Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer. The

electrolyte is put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to from the

plates. With maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added in normal

service. Some types are sealed, except for a pressure vent, without provision for adding

water.

The construction parts of battery are shown in figure.

2.3 CHEMICAL ACTION:

Sulfuric acid is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions. When the cell

discharges, lead peroxide from the positive electrode combines with hydrogen ions to

form water and with sulfate ions to form lead sulfate. Combining lead on the negative

plate with sulfate ions also produces he sulfate. There fore, the net result of discharge is

to produce more water, which dilutes the electrolyte, and to form lead sulfate on the

plates.

As the discharge continues, the sulfate fills the pores of the grids, retarding

circulation of acid in the active material. Lead sulfate is the powder often seen on the

outside terminals of old batteries. When the combination of weak electrolyte and

sulfating on the plate lowers the output of the battery, charging is necessary.

On charge, the external D.C. source reverses the current in the battery. The

reversed direction of ions flows in the electrolyte result in a reversal of the chemical

reactions. Now the lead sulfates on the positive plate reactive with the water and sulfate

ions to produce lead peroxide and sulfuric acid. This action re-forms the positive plates

and makes the electrolyte stronger by adding sulfuric acid.

 At the same time, charging enables the lead sulfate on the negative plate to react

with hydrogen ions; this also forms sulfuric acid while reforming lead on the negative

plate to react with hydrogen ions; this also forms currents can restore the cell to full

output, with lead peroxide on the positive plates, spongy lead on the negative plate, and

the required concentration of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte.

The chemical equation for the lead-acid cell is

Charge

Pb + pbO₂ + 2H₂SO₄ 2pbSO₄ + 2H₂O

Discharge

On discharge, the pb and pbo₂ combine with the SO₄ ions at the left side of the

equation to form lead sulfate (pbSO₄) and water (H₂O) at the right side of the equation.

One battery consists of 6 cell, each have an output voltage of 2.1V, which are

connected in series to get an voltage of 12V and the same 12V battery is connected in

series, to get an 24 V battery. They are placed in the water proof iron casing box.
2.4 CARING FOR LEAD-ACID BATTERIES:

Always use extreme caution when handling batteries and electrolyte. Wear

gloves, goggles and old clothes. “Battery acid” will burn skin and eyes and destroy

cotton and wool clothing.

The quickest way of ruin lead-acid batteries is to discharge them deeply and leave

them stand “dead” for an extended period of time. When they discharge, there is a

chemical change in the positive plates of the battery. They change from lead oxide when

charge out lead sulfate when discharged. If they remain in the lead Sulfate State for a

few days, some part of the plate dose not returns to lead oxide when the battery is

recharged. If the battery remains discharge longer, a greater amount of the positive plate

will remain lead sulfate. The parts of the plates that become “sulfate” no longer store

energy. Batteries that are deeply discharged, and then charged partially on a regular basis

can fail in less then one year.

Check your batteries on a regular basis to be sure they are getting charged. Use a

hydrometer to check the specific gravity of your lead acid batteries. If batteries are

cycled very deeply and then recharged quickly, the specific gravity reading will be lower

than it should because the electrolyte at the top of the battery may not have mixed with

the “charged” electrolyte.

 Check the electrolyte level in the wet-cell batteries at the least four times a year

and top each cell of with distilled water. Do not add water to discharged batteries.

Electrolyte is absorbed when batteries are very discharged. If you add water at this time,

and then recharge the battery, electrolyte will overflow and make a mess.

Keep the top of your batteries clean and check that cables are tight. Do not tighten

or remove cables while charging or discharging. Any spark around batteries can cause a

hydrogen explosion inside, and ruin one of the cells, and you.

On charge, with reverse current through the electrolyte, the chemical action is

reversed. Then the pb ions from the lead sulfate on the right side of the equation re-form

the lead and lead peroxide electrodes. Also the SO₄ ions combine with H₂ ions from the

water to produce more sulfuric acid at the left side of the equation.

2.5 CURRENT RATINGS:

Lead-acid batteries are generally rated in terms of how much discharge currents

they can supply for a specified period of time; the output voltage must be maintained

above a minimum level, which is 1.5 to 1.8V per cell. A common rating is ampere-hours

(A.h.) based on a specific discharge time, which is often 8h. Typical values for

automobile batteries are 100 to 300 A.h.

 As an example, a 200 A.h battery can supply a load current of 200/8 or 25A, used

on 8h discharge. The battery can supply less current for a longer time or more current for

a shorter time. Automobile batteries may be rated for “cold cranking power”, which is

related to the job of starting the engine. A typical rating is 450A for 30s at a temperature

of 0 degree F.

Note that the ampere-hour unit specifies coulombs of charge. For instance, 200

A.h. corresponds to 200A*3600s (1h=3600s). the equals 720,000 A.S, or coulombs.

One ampere-second is equal to one coulomb. Then the charge equals 720,000 or

7.2*10^5ºC. To put this much charge back into the battery would require 20 hours with a

charging current of 10A.

The ratings for lead-acid batteries are given for a temperature range of 77 to 80ºF.

Higher temperature increase the chemical reaction, but operation above 110ºF shortens

the battery life.

Low temperatures reduce the current capacity and voltage output. The ampere-

hour capacity is reduced approximately 0.75% for each decreases of 1º F below normal

temperature rating. At 0ºF the available output is only 60 % of the ampere-hour battery

rating.
 In cold weather, therefore, it is very important to have an automobile battery unto

full charge. In addition, the electrolyte freezes more easily when diluted by water in the

discharged condition.

2.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

Measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte generally checks the state of

discharge for a lead-acid cell. Specific gravity is a ratio comparing the weight of a

substance with the weight of a substance with the weight of water. For instance,

concentrated sulfuric acid is 1.835 times as heavy as water for the same volume.

Therefore, its specific gravity equals 1.835. The specific gravity of water is 1, since it is

the reference.

In a fully charged automotive cell, mixture of sulfuric acid and water results in a

specific gravity of 1.280 at room temperatures of 70 to 80ºF. as the cell discharges, more

water is formed, lowering the specific gravity. When it is down to about 1.150, the cell is

completely discharged.

Specific-gravity readings are taken with a battery hydrometer, such as one in

figure (7). Note that the calibrated float with the specific gravity marks will rest higher in

an electrolyte of higher specific gravity.

 The decimal point is often omitted for convenience. For example, the value of

1.220 in figure (7) is simply read “twelve twenty”. A hydrometer reading of 1260 to

1280 indicates full charge, approximately 12.50 are half charge, and 1150 to 1200

indicates complete discharge.

The importance of the specific gravity can be seen from the fact that the open-

circuit voltage of the lead-acid cell is approximately equal to

V = Specific gravity + 0.84

For the specific gravity of 1.280, the voltage is 1.280 = 0.84 = 2.12V, as an

example. These values are for a fully charged battery.

2.7 CHARGING THE LEAD-ACID BATERY:

The requirements are illustrated in figure. An external D.C. voltage source is

necessary to produce current in one direction. Also, the charging voltage must be more

than the battery e.m.f. Approximately 2.5 per cell are enough to over the cell e.m.f. so

that the charging voltage can produce current opposite to the direction of discharge

current.
 Note that the reversal of current is obtained just by connecting the battery VB and

charging source VG with + to + and –to-, as shown in figure. The charging current is

reversed because the battery effectively becomes a load resistance for VG when it higher

than VB. In this example, the net voltage available to produce charging currents is 15-

12=3V.

A commercial charger for automobile batteries is essentially a D.C. power supply,

rectifying input from the AC power line to provide D.C. output for charging batteries.

Float charging refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are always

connected to each other for supplying current to the load. In figure the charger provides

current for the load and the current necessary to keep the battery fully charged. The

battery here is an auxiliary source for D.C. power.

It may be of interest to note that an automobile battery is in a floating-charge

circuit. The battery charger is an AC generator or alternator with rectifier diodes, driver

by a belt from the engine. When you start the car, the battery supplies the cranking

power. Once the engine is running, the alternator charges he battery. It is not necessary

for the car to be moving. A voltage regulator is used in this system to maintain the output

at approximately 13 to 15 V.
 The constant voltage of 24V comes from the solar panel controlled by the charge

controller so for storing this energy we need a 24V battery so two 12V battery are

connected in series.

It is a good idea to do an equalizing charge when some cells show a variation of

0.05 specific gravity from each other. This is a long steady overcharge, bringing the

battery to a gassing or bubbling state. Do not equalize sealed or gel type batteries.

With proper care, lead-acid batteries will have a long service life and work very

well in almost any power system. Unfortunately, with poor treatment lead-acid battery

life will be very short.

D.C MOTOR

DESCRIPTION OF DC MOTOR

An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.

Its action is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a magnetic force whose direction is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
 When a motor is in operation, it develops torque. This torque can produce
mechanical rotation. DC motors are also like generators classified into shunt wound or
series wound or compound wound motors.

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE:

Keep the force finger, middle finger and thumb of the left hand mutually
perpendicular to one another. If the fore finger indicates the direction of magnetic field
and middle finger indicates direction of current in the conductor, then the thumb indicates
the direction of the motion of conductor. (Ref fig H)

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC MOTOR:

Figure I show a uniform magnetic field in which a straight conductor carrying no

current is placed. The conductor is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.

In figure II the conductor is shown as carrying a current away from the viewer, but
the field due to the N and S poles has been removed. There is no movement of the
conductor during the above two conditions. In figure III the current carrying conductor is
placed in the magnetic field. The field due to the current in the conductor supports the
main field above the conductor, but opposes the main field below the conductor.

Movement of
Conductor
 N S

Magnetic flux Current carrying

Conductor

The result is to increase the flux density in to the region directly above the
conductor and to reduce the flux density in the region directly below the conductor. It is
found that a force acts on the conductor, trying to push the conductor downwards as
shown by the arrow. If the current in the conductor is reversed, the strengthening of flux
lines occurs below the conductor, and the conductor will be pushed upwards (figure-IV).

Now consider a single turn coil carrying a current as shown in figure V. in view of the
reasons given above, the coil side A will be forced to move downwards, whereas the coil side B
will be forced to move upwards. The forces acting on the coil sides A and B will be of same
magnitude. But their direction is opposite to one another. As the coil is wound on the armature
core which is supported by the bearings, the armature will now rotate. The commutator
periodically reverses the direction of current flow through the armature. Therefore the armature
will have a continuous rotation.

A simplified model of such a motor is shown in figure VI. The conductors are
wound over a soft iron core. DC supply is given to the field poles for producing flux.
The conductors are connected to the DC supply through brushes

DC Motor Theory Summary

 There are two conditions necessary to produce a force on a conductor: - The
conductor must be carrying current. - The conductor must be within a magnetic
field.
The right-hand rule for motors states that when the forefinger is pointed in the
direction of the magnetic field lines, and the center finger is pointed in the
direction of current flow, the thumb will point in the direction of motion.
The function of torque in a DC motor is to provide the mechanical output
to drive the piece of equipment that the DC motor is attached to.
Torque is developed in a DC motor by the armature (current-carrying conductor)
being present in the motor field (magnetic field). CEMF is developed in a DC
motor by the armature (conductor) rotating (relative motion) in the field of the
motor (magnetic field).
The function of the voltage that is developed in a DC motor (CEMF) opposes the
applied voltage and results in the lowering of armature current.
The speed of a DC motor may be changed by using resistors to vary the field current and,
therefore, the field strength.

DC MOTOR THEORY

Left-Hand Rule for Current-Carrying Conductors Every current-carrying

conductor has a magnetic field around it. The direction of this magnetic field may be
found by using the left-hand rule for current-carrying conductors. When the thumb
points in the direction of current flow, the fingers will point in the direction of the
magnetic field produced, as shown in Figure 1. If a current-carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, the combined fields will be similar to those shown in Figure
2. The direction of current flow through the conductor is indicated with an “x” or a “·".
The “x” indicates the current flow is away from the reader, or into the page. The "·"
indicates the current flow is towards the reader, or out of the page. Above the
conductor on the left, the field caused by the conductor is in the opposite direction.
Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field of the main field, and therefore, opposes
the main field. Below the conductor on the left, the field caused by the conductor is in
the same direction as the main field, and therefore, aids the main field. The net result is
that above the conductor the main field is weakened, or flux density is decreased; below
the conductor the field is strengthened, or flux density is increased. A force is developed
on the conductor that moves the conductor in the direction of the weakened field
(upward).

Ia Et ECEMF Ra
where Ia = armature current
Et = terminal voltage
ECEMF = counter
EMF Ra = armature resistance

DC Motor Speed The field of a DC motor is varied using external devices,

usually field resistors. For a constant applied voltage to the field (E), as the
resistance of the field (Rf) is lowered, the amount of current flow through
the field (If) increases as shown by Ohm’s law in Equation.
If E Rf

An increase in field current will cause field flux (f) to increase.

Conversely, if the resistance of the field is increased, field flux will decrease. If
the field flux of a DC motor is decreased, the motor speed will increase. The
 reduction of field strength reduces the CEMF of the motor, since fewer lines of
flux are being cut by the armature conductors, as shown in Equation
ECEMF K FF N

A reduction of counter EMF allows an increase in armature current as

shown in Equation
Ia Et ECEMF Ra

This increase in armature current causes a larger torque to be developed;

the increase in armature current more than offsets the decrease in field flux as
shown in Equation
T K FF Ia
This increased torque causes the motor to increase in speed. T N

TYPES OF DC MOTORS

DC Motors Series-Wound Motor

Torque-vs-Speed for a Series-Wound Motor Since the armature and field in a

series-wound motor are connected in series, the armature and field currents become
identical, and the torque can be expressed as shown in Equation
T KI2a

As the speed decreases, the torque for a series- wound motor increases
sharply. As load is removed from a series motor, the speed will increase sharply. For
these reasons, series-wound motors must have a load connected to prevent damage from
high speed conditions.
Series-Wound Motor Applications:

The advantage of a series-wound motor is that it develops a large torque and can
be operated at low speed. It is a motor that is well-suited for starting heavy loads; it is
often used for industrial cranes and winches where very heavy loads must be moved
slowly and lighter loads moved more rapidly.

Compounded Motor:

The compounded motor is desirable for a variety of applications because it

combines the characteristics of a series-wound motor and a shunt-wound motor. The
compounded motor has a greater torque than a shunt motor due to the series field;
however, it has a fairly constant speed due to the shunt field winding. Loads such as
presses, shears, and reciprocating machines are often driven by compounded motors.

Externally-excited DC motor:

This type of DC motor is constructed such that the field is not connected to the
armature. This type of DC motor is not normally used. Figure 7b shows a shunt DC
motor. The motor is called a "shunt" motor because the field is in parallel, or "shunts"
the armature. Figure 7c shows a series DC motor. The motor field windings for a series
motor are in series with the armature. Figures 7d and 7e show a compounded DC motor.
A compounded DC motor is constructed so that it contains both a shunt and a series field.
Figure 7d is called a "cumulatively-compounded" DC motor because the shunt and series
fields are aiding one another. Figure 7e is called a "differentially-compounded" DC
motor because the shunt and series field oppose one another.
S h u n t - W o u n d M o t o r:

Operation

The speed-torque relationship for a typical shunt-wound motor is shown in Figure

8. A shunt-wound DC motor has a decreasing torque when speed increases. The
decreasing torque- vs-speed is caused by the armature resistance voltage drop and
armature reaction. At a value of speed near 2.5 times the rated speed, armature
reaction becomes excessive, causing a rapid decrease in field flux, and a rapid decline in
torque until a stall condition is reached.

ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT

An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic components, such

as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by

conductive wiresor traces through which electric current can flow. The combination of

components and wires allows various simple and complex operations to be performed: signals

can be amplified, computations can be performed, and data can be moved from one place to

another.[1] Circuits can be constructed of discrete components connected by individual pieces of

wire, but today it is much more common to create interconnections by photolithographic

techniques on a laminated substrate (aprinted circuit board or PCB) and solder the components to

these interconnections to create a finished circuit. In an integrated circuit or IC, the components

and interconnections are formed on the same substrate, typically a semiconductor such

as silicon or (less commonly) gallium arsenide.[2]

Breadboards, perfboards, and stripboards are common for testing new designs. They allow the

designer to make quick changes to the circuit during development.

An electronic circuit can usually be categorized as an analog circuit, a digital circuit, or a mixed-

signal circuit (a combination of analog circuits and digital circuits).

Analog circuits

Main article: Analog electronics

A circuit diagram representing an analog circuit, in this case a simple amplifier

Analog electronic circuits are those in which current or voltage may vary continuously with time

to correspond to the information being represented. Analog circuitry is constructed from two

fundamental building blocks: series and parallel circuits. In a series circuit, the same current

passes through a series of components. A string of Christmas lights is a good example of a series

circuit: if one goes out, they all do. In a parallel circuit, all the components are connected to the

same voltage, and the current divides between the various components according to their

resistance.

A simple schematic showing wires, a resistor, and a battery

The basic components of analog circuits are wires, resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes,

and transistors. (In 2012 it was demonstrated that memristors can be added to the list of available

components.) Analog circuits are very commonly represented in schematic diagrams, in which

wires are shown as lines, and each component has a unique symbol. Analog circuit analysis

employs Kirchhoff's circuit laws: all the currents at a node (a place where wires meet), and the

voltage around a closed loop of wires is 0. Wires are usually treated as ideal zero-voltage

interconnections; any resistance or reactance is captured by explicitly adding a parasitic element,

such as a discrete resistor or inductor. Active components such as transistors are often treated as

controlled current or voltage sources: for example, a field-effect transistor can be modeled as a

current source from the source to the drain, with the current controlled by the gate-source

voltage.

When the circuit size is comparable to a wavelength of the relevant signal frequency, a more

sophisticated approach must be used. Wires are treated as transmission lines, with (hopefully)

constant characteristic impedance, and the impedances at the start and end determine transmitted

and reflected waves on the line. Such considerations typically become important for circuit

boards at frequencies above a GHz; integrated circuits are smaller and can be treated as lumped

elements for frequencies less than 10 10GHz or so.

An alternative model is to take independent power sources and induction as basic electronic

units; this allows modeling frequency dependent negative resistors,gyrators, negative impedance

converters, and dependent sources as secondary electronic components

Digital circuits

Main article: Digital electronics

In digital electronic circuits, electric signals take on discrete values, to represent logical and

numeric values. These values represent the information that is being processed. In the vast

majority of cases, binary encoding is used: one voltage (typically the more positive value)

represents a binary '1' and another voltage (usually a value near the ground potential, 0 V)

represents a binary '0'. Digital circuits make extensive use of transistors, interconnected to

create logic gates that provide the functions of Boolean logic: AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR

and all possible combinations thereof. Transistors interconnected so as to provide positive

feedback are used as latches and flip flops, circuits that have two or more metastable states, and

remain in one of these states until changed by an external input. Digital circuits therefore can

provide both logic and memory, enabling them to perform arbitrary computational functions.

(Memory based on flip-flops is known as static random-access memory (SRAM). Memory based

on the storage of charge in a capacitor, dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) is also widely

used.)

The design process for digital circuits is fundamentally different from the process for analog

circuits. Each logic gate regenerates the binary signal, so the designer need not account for

distortion, gain control, offset voltages, and other concerns faced in an analog design. As a

consequence, extremely complex digital circuits, with billions of logic elements integrated on a

single silicon chip, can be fabricated at low cost. Such digital integrated circuits are ubiquitous in

modern electronic devices, such as calculators, mobile phone handsets, and computers. As digital

circuits become more complex, issues of time delay, logic races, power dissipation, non-ideal

switching, on-chip and inter-chip loading, and leakage currents, become limitations to the

density, speed and performance.

Digital circuitry is used to create general purpose computing chips, such as microprocessors, and

custom-designed logic circuits, known as application-specific integrated circuit (ASICs). Field-

programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), chips with logic circuitry whose configuration can be

modified after fabrication, are also widely used in prototyping and development.

Mixed-signal circuits

Main article: mixed-signal integrated circuit

Mixed-signal or hybrid circuits contain elements of both analog and digital circuits. Examples

include comparators, timers, phase-locked loops, analog-to-digital converters, and digital-to-

analog converters. Most modern radio and communications circuitry uses mixed signal circuits.

For example, in a receiver, analog circuitry is used to amplify and frequency-convert signals so

that they reach a suitable state to be converted into digital values, after which further signal

processing can be performed in the digital domain.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-4
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 WORKING PRINCIPLE
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-4
WORKING PRINCIPLE

The oxygen sensor placed inside the car will monitor the oxygen level inside
the room. If the oxygen ratio decreases the sensor send the signals to the electronic
circuit and thus the dc motor will be operated and so the door will be get opened.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-5
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-5
DESIGN AND DRAWINGS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-6
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF MATERIALS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 CHAPTER-6

LIST OF MATERIALS

Sl.No. PARTS Qty. Material

i. Oxygen sensor 1 Electronic

ii. Electronic control unit 1 Electronic

iii. DC Motor 1 Electronic

iv. Door 1 Cast iron

v Rack and pinon 1 Cast iron

vi Frame 1 Mild Steel

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-7
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COST ESTIMATION
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-7

COST ESTIMATION
 MATERIAL COST:

Sl.No. PARTS Qty. Material Amount (Rs)

i. Oxygen sensor 1 Electronic

ii. Electronic control unit 1 Electronic

iii. DC Motor 1 Electronic

iv. Door 1 Cast iron

v Rack and pinon 1 Cast iron

vi Frame 1 Mild Steel

Total = Rs.

2. LABOUR COST

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:

Cost = 1500/-

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

 Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost
= +1500
=

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

=
TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

=
= Rs

Total cost for this project = Rs.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-8
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGES
AND DISADVANTAGES
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-8
 APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

Stay safe in your car

Automatically closes when the oxygen level is reached
Safe and easy do-it-yourself installation — no professional electrician required
Add-on accessories allow you to customize a system for you

DISADVANTAGES

Additional Cost is required to install this system.

APPLICATION

It is very useful in car owners.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-9
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCLUSION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-9
CONCLUSION

Thus from this project we conclude that we can avoid the accidents due to
inadequate oxygen level inside the car.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BIBLIOGRAPHY
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PHOTOGRAPHY
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PHOTOGRAPHY