representative descriptive problems, like the meaning and uses of the preposition of The next two

chapters are extensive treatments of theoretical issues like the nature and implications of a usage-based
approach, and the status and characterization of constituency. The six chapters that follow offer detailed
descriptions of particular grammatical phenomena, among them the parallelism between perception
and conception, generic and habitual expressions, pronominal anaphora, grammaticization and raising
constructions. Chapter 10, on grammaticization, documents a common path of grammaticization
involving subjectification and the attenuation of an agent's control, as in constructions with be going to,
have, English modals, get-passives and Spanish estar "be". The chapter refines Langacker's earlier
characterizations of subjectification, as expounded, among other places, in his

seminal article in Cognitive Linguistics 1 [1990]. With Akio Kamio and Ken-ichi Takami, eds., Function and
Structure, we move from cognitive to functional linguistics. The volume is a collection of thirteen papers
in honour of Susumu Kuno, the founder of a specific stream of functionalism ultimately inspired by
Prague School linguists but linked, unlike some other functional schools, with the American formalist
approach of generative grammar Seven of the contributions in this collection are on functional syntax
and six on other topics, while the data discussed come from languages such as English, Italian, French,
Russian, Korean and Japanese. The papers ers on English include 'A Comparison of Postposed Subjects in
English and Italian' by Gregory Ward, who discusses the pragmatics of existential (there's a problem) and
presentational (there arrived a man) there-sentences and compares them with Italian sentences
involving existential ci (c'è un segreto istruttorio 'there's a secret inquest') and subject postposing (era
salita tua sorella sull'autobus 'your sister got on the bus'). English presentational there-sentences and
the two Italian constructions are sensitive to the discourse status of the postposed constituent, which
must be new information, whereas existential there-sentences are constrained to represent entities that
are hearer-new, ie, not already familiar to the hearer. In 'A Functional Constraint on Extraposition from
NP, Ken-ichi Takami shows that the acceptability of a wide range of sentences involving extraposition
from NP depends on the functional constraint known as the More/Less Important Information
Condition: extraposition is only possible if it crosses elements conveying unimportant information, as in
John drove a car in London with a sunroof, as opposed to the unacceptable John drove a car carefully
with a sunroof. Also concerned with English are 'A Context-Based Account of English Passives with
Indefinite Subjects" by Aiko Utsugi; "Specific NP in Scope, by Becky Kennedy, who examines sentences
like Bill didn't see a misprint, where the second NP may receive a specific interpretation (ie. "there's a
misprint that Bill didn't see, versus the non-specific "Bill saw no misprints"); and 'Some Referential
Properties of it and that' by Akio Kamio and Margaret Thomas, who account for some of the contrasts in
use between it and that by arguing that it refers broadly to information already known and already
entered into the speaker's central store of knowledge, while that points narrowly to incoming
information that may be either novel or familiar, and is in some sense more peripherally located in the

speaker's knowledge. Loraine K. Obler and Kris Gjerlow, Language and the Brain is a concise and
accessible intmduction to the linguistic and neuro-anatomical underpinnings of language. The first three
chapters discuss, respectively, the nature of
neurolinguistics, the brain structures that play a role in storing and processing language, and the
techniques (among others, the Wada test, tachistoscopic presentation, dichotic listening, cortical
stimulation and so-called imaging techniques) that are used to study brain organization for language.
Chapters 4-10 focus on the special populations from whom neurolinguists derive knowledge of language
organization, such as aphasics, right-brain-damaged patients, patients suffering from various forms of
dementia, individuals with disturbances of reading (dyslexics) and writing (dysgraphics), and bilinguals.
Obler and Gjerlow point out that while the right hemisphere, unlike the left hemisphere, does not
appear to have much responsibility in normal individuals for core linguistic processes such as phonology,
morphology, and syntax, it contributes importantly to a set of paralinguistic phenomena intonation,
some aspects of lexical selection, and a host of pragmatic abilities are impaired with right-hemisphere
damage. The last two chapters of the volume discuss language organization and the future of
neurolinguistic study. Major areas of interest for neurolinguistics are the study of the neurophysiological
aspects of brain processing for language, the investigation of the way language relates to other cognitive
abilities, and the study of specific linguistic structures peculiar to one or several but not all languages
that may break down in agrammatism ( a symptom of aphasia whereby bound and free morphemes are
omitted in speech production and writing). In connection with this, recent cross- language analyses have
demonstrated that in languages whose inflectional systems carry substantial meaning (like German,
where articles carry information about the number, gender, case and definiteness of the nouns that
follow them) these meaning- heavy functors or affixes are more likely to survive in processing if speakers
of that language suffer brain damage. A useful glossary of terms from linguistics, neurology, and other
related fields and a section with suggestions for further reading

complete this excellent introduction to neurolinguistics. Alan Davies, An Introduction to Applied

Linguistics: From Practice to Theory is the foundation volume for the new Edinburgh Textbooks series in
Applied Linguistics. Intended for first-time students of applied linguistics and for all those generally
interested in the relationship between linguistics and applied linguistics, Davies strives to demonstrate
that language teaching and learning are not, as is sometimes believed, the only proper concern of
applied linguists. The volume is organized as a collection of case studies illustrating the variety of
language problems which applied linguistics confronts. Among the aspects discussed are, apart from
language learning and teaching, language-programme evaluation, literacy acquisition in the second
language (12), the writing of pedagogical grammars, language and gender, clinical linguistics, forensic
linguistics, stylistics. lexicography and several others. Also included are a glossary and a useful exercise
section.

Simon Kirby, Function, Selection, and Innateness: The Emergence of Language Universals is an important
and highly original work that explores issues at the core of modern linguistics and cognitive science. Why
are all languages alike in some ways and different in others? Why do languages change and how does
that change give rise to language variation? How did the human capacity for language evolve and how
far is it an innate ability? Kirby looks at these problems taking as his starting point two apparently
opposed approaches-the functionalist and the innatist-to explaining universal properties of language.
The functionalist tradition
language and mind" (p. viii); in practice, the one alternative theory examined is behaviorism, as
espoused by the late American psychologist B.F. Skinner. After concluding that the behaviorist theory is
too simple to account for the complexities of linguistic knowledge, they proceed to an examination of
Chomsky's theory of UG. Parts II and III describe in some depth constituent structure and
transformational syntax, the core components of UG, and apply them to the study of child language. As
the data used in these two parts mainly come from English, part IV tries to circumvent the problem of
focusing too narrowly on just one natural language by comparing the course of acquisition by children
learning English with that taken by children learning languages quite unlike English. The language
selected for illustration is the visual-gestural language used by deaf people in the United States,
American Sign Language (ASL). This is argued to be a language with a different structure from English
and, in some respects, 'more like Chinese than like English (p. 276). Yet despite their profound
differences, which include the 'modality" or channel used to convey each of these two languages (vocal-
auditory in the case of English; manual-visual in the case of ASL), English and ASL are argued to share a
common core of principles, which are acquired in much the same way and are thus likely candidates for
linguistic universals. In passing, one may note that visual-gestural languages, including ASL. have
recently received considerable attention from members of the cognitive linguistic community, who are
aware of their importance for understanding the cognitive basis of grammatical structure. None of their
contributions to this topic, however, are mentioned by Crain and Lillo- Martin. Finally, another claim
they make is that children are biologically endowed with semantic knowledge, just as they are
biologically endowed with syntactic knowledge. Hence the last and fifth part of the volume is devoted to
semantics and the philosophy of language, including topics such as compositionality (how the meaning
of a sentence or higher-level expression is formed from the meanings of its constituent parts) and
intensional semantics. As in earlier chapters, the technical discussion of these issues is complemented
by discussion of empirical investigations into how children acquire knowledge of the principles of the
semantic component of UG. On the whole, this new title in the Blackwell Textbooks in Linguistics series
serves the introductory purposes for which it was designed and will prove useful for students
approaching the problem of language acquisition from an orthodox generative perspective. In this
reviewer's opinion, a shortcoming of this book is the simplistic outlook that pervades a number of its
statements, such as this one on p. ix: "Prior to Chomsky, linguists concentrated much of their efforts on
describing the easily observable properties of language: the sound system, the vocabulary, and how
some words are derived from others. Linguists in this tradition rarely looked at

patterns of sentence structure, which can be very abstract. María Teresa Cabré, Terminology: Theory,
Methods and Applications, is a translation and adaptation of her La terminologia: la teoria, els métodes,
les aplicacions (Barcelona: Emúries [1992]), originally published in Catalan. The book is a useful and
comprehensive treament of terminology, the discipline concerned with the study and compilation of
specialized terms. Its seven chapters deal, among other things, with the relation between terminology
and cognitive science, communication studies, documentation and computer science, lexicology and
lexicography. Also explored (chapter 6) is the important role played by terminology in the
standardization, or 'normalization', of technical vocabulary as a way to
in linguistics argues that the constraints on variation from language to language are due to the
communicative use of language. Thus, the fact that in many languages derivational affixes come before
inflectional affixes (witness the position of-ation and -s in the English plural noun computations) is
interpreted by functionalists in terms of iconicity: the formal closeness of an affix to its stem iconically
reflects its conceptual closeness-the degree to which the semantics of the affix affects solely the
meaning of the word. In its turn, the formal, or innatist, approach claims that language universals can be
explained by an innate (and therefore universally shared) language faculty in humans. An innate
language acquisition device (LAD), in combination with the primary linguistic data, is sufficient to explain
how languages are acquired, constraints on cross-linguistic variation resulting from the structure of the
LAD itself. The novelty of Kirby's book is that he tries to show that the communicative and the formal
aspects of language have crucial and complementary roles and that each must have its place in a
complete view of universals. He points out that although the innatist line of reasoning has many virtues-
for example, it is explicit about the mechanism through which universals emerge-it fails to tackle the
puzzle of 'fit" (i.e. the adaptation of universal constraints of variation to the functions of language). As a
consequence, in an extreme innatist view the order of derivational and inflectional affixes referred to
above would be seen as part of the biological endowment of the language learner, but no explanation
would be provided for the fact that this universal appears to be designed with iconicity in mind, so one
would have to assume that it was simply coincidence that the formal constraint happened to be iconic
to conceptual closeness. On the other hand, the functional approach highlights the fact that universals
fit pressures imposed by language use, but this on its own fails to make explicit the mechanisms that
bring such a state of affairs about, leaving the real puzzle, the puzzle of fit, unexplained. The issue, as
Kirby puts it, is that given a set of observed constraints on cross linguistic variation, and a corresponding
pattern of functional preference, an explanation of this fit will solve the problem: how does the latter
give rise to the former?" (p. 20), in other words, how do functional pressures grammaticalize, and
become innate properties governing human language and its acquisition? The six chapters which make
up the book constitute a brilliant and convincing attempt to answer this question. Linguists of all
theoretical persuasions will surely agree with Kirby's central claims as expounded at the end of the
volume, such as that 'functional pressures influence linguistic selection, which operates locally in the
cycle of acquisition and use, to give rise, globally, to observable language universals, over a historical
timescale' (p. 141) and that adaptation by linguistic selection operates within constraints imposed by
Universal Grammar (p. 142). Το sum up, this book is essential reading for anyone interested in language
universals. linguistic typology and grammatical theory in general.

Also concerned with the eternally fascinating problem of how children ecquire their first language, but
otherwise very different from Kirby's book, is Stephen Crain and Diane Lillo-Martin, An Introduction to
Linguistic Theory and Language Acquisition. The volume is written within the framework of Chomsky's
version of Universal Grammar (UG) and is directed towards general introductory linguistics courses, as
well as courses in language acquisition and the psychology of language. In the introductory part I the
authors present several basic facts about language acquisition that serve as a database 'to test the
adequacy of alternative theories of
combat the diversity of names and thus ensure communicative precision among specialists. Terminology
is also crucial for language services and language planning in general (chapter 73. In societies with
standardization plans for their native language, language services directed at changing the status of a
language are indispensable, and this involves a growing demand for professionals devoted to dealing
with issues such as the adaptation of the language's resources to technological innovations.

Faber et al., eds., English Teacher Education in Europe: New Trends and Developments is the first title of
a new series on Foreign Language Teaching in Europe. Pamela Faber, Wolf Gewehr, Manuel Jiménez
Raya and Antony J. Peck are the editors of the series as well as of its initial volume, which has been
produced with the financial assistance of the European Socrates and Youth Bureau and is intended for
teacher trainers, student teachers, researchers, or anyone involved in foreign/second language
education (p. 9). The book is divided into five parts and fourteen chapters, concerned (rather loosely)
with new education demands in FL teacher training, issues in language teacher education, current
research into teacher education, the role of reflection in language teacher education, and the teaching
English in European primary schools. The problems discussed are therefore representative of those that
the educational authorities of most European countries are currently facing and will continue to face in
the future. Unfortunately, the quality of the individual contributions varies, and the book is very poorly
edited, to the point that the reader is at a loss to know which is its right title: whether that used on the
front cover (English Teacher Education in Europe: New Trends and Developments) or the one employed
in the introduction (p.9), namely European Perspectives for Language Teacher Education. The latter is
probably the correct one as the volume is not exclusively concerned with the teaching of English.

We close this section with a study dealing with English Literature and the Other Languages. The editors.
Ton Hoenselaars and Marius Buning have brought to gether thirty contributions, especially
commissioned for the volume, exploring the phenomenon of English literature and multilingualism from
the Reformation to the present day. Among the aspects examined are the complex role of Latin in
sixteenth- and seventeenth-century literature; the interaction between English and a range of British
language varieties including Welsh, Irish, Scots and the Lancashire and Dorset dialects; English-language
literature in post-colonial countries; Chicano literature, with its popular blend of Spanish and English,
the phenomenon of self- translation, as illustrated by writers like Nabokov, who wrote in Russian and
English, and Samuel Beckett, who wrote in both French and English, the use of foreign language in the
Eumaeus episode in Joyce's Ulysses, and various others. Also included is a very useful and
comprehensive bibliography compiled by Ton Hoenselaars containing items that directly address the
theme of the volume and an afterword by N.F. Blake. With this compilation Hoenselaars and Buning
"hope to extend and pursue the issues raised by Blake' (p. xvi) in his now classic Non- Standard Language
in English Literature [1981]. Blake's work, however, is clearly moce linguistically oriented, while it seems
to me that quite a few of the essays in the volume under review are likely to prove of interest primarily
to the literary critic. Even with this qualification, English Literature and the Other Languages is a
welcome addition to the existing studies on the language of literature.
analysis proposed has the central claim that the constructions under discussion contain a 'O-role by
recognition, or appositive nouns, so that the wh-word becomes optional. The final conclusion is that
English be tends to be used as a focus marker in spoken language.

The area of complement clauses is explored in Claudia Felser, Verbal Complement Clauses: A Minimalist
Study of Direct Perception Constructions, which investigates the relation between the semantic
properties of different complement types to perception verbs-a direct and indirect perception reading-
and their syntactic realizations. She focuses on bare infinitival and participial complements to non-
agentive perception verbs, such as see or hear. Both complement types are associated with a direct
perception reading. It is argued, within a minimalist framework, that 'the semantic properties of
perceptual reports can largely be derived from their syntactic structure and from lexical properties of
perception verbs (p. 5). Most analyses are based on English-language facts, but chapter 5 takes a cross-
linguistic (Le. West Germanic and Romance) perspective. Chapter 2 provides an overview of the
syntactic and semantic properties of non- finite complements to perception verbs in English, and
concludes that the only difference between hare infinitival and participial complements is aspectual, not
structural. It is argued that participial constructions are ambiguous between a reduced relative clause, a
controlled adjunct clause, and a "true", ie. clausal, perception complement (p. 248). Chapter 3 contains
a critical evaluation of previous analyses of verbal small clauses, leading to an alternative proposal. It is
argued that both complement types should be analysed as maximal projections of Aspect Phrases,
differing only with respect to the feature [progressive). In chapter 4 the Event Control Hypothesis is
introduced. According to this hypothesis, 'perception verbs are lexically specified as event control verbs
(p. 6). These event control verbs are compared to subject and object control verbs, such as promise and
persuade. It is shown that direct perception complements involve stage-level predicates, and it is argued
that only stage-level predicates contain an event position.. The event position of non-finite
complements to perception verbs is an empty position (E-PRO) in SpecAspP, controlled by the event
argument of the higher clause. Event Control accounts for temporal simultaneity of matrix and
embedded event. It also accounts for the constraint against passivization of bare infinitival complements
to perception verbs, because by passivization the appropriate controller for E-PRO is lost. Chapter 6
summarizes the central ideas and conclusions of the book. We feel that this study is very accessible and
comes to original applications of earlier ideas, by combining them in a creative way.

Some further issues in clausal complementation are also addressed this year. Hidekazu Tanaka argues
for raising to object in 'Raised Objects and Superiority' (Lingl 30[1999] 317-25), citing extraction
asymmetries as evidence and suggesting that raising takes place to SpecAspP. The question whether
PRO exists or not is addressed in Walter Petrovitz's "The Syntactic Representation of Understood
Subjects' (Word 50[1999] 47-56). On the basis of facts involving modal dare and for to, his conclusion is
that PRO has no formal status. English exceptional case- marking (ECM) constructions are compared
with Korean inalienable possession constructions (IPCs) in Sungeun Cho's 'A New Analysis of Korean
Inalienable Possession Constructions (NELS 28[1999] 79-93). The paper shows that IPCs in Korean allow
a recursion of accusative-case NPs, and it concludes that IPCs and
perspective. Wales discusses various types of grammatical model and their use for language education.
It is argued that the structural analysis of the clause is invaluable for language education, while at the
same time one cannot do without discourse analysis. Therefore, it is concluded that language education
should involve a fusion of functional and structural approaches to clause analysis.

The topic of coordination is more popular than usual this year. In "Determiner Sharing (MITWPL
33[1999] 241-77), Vivian Lin concentrates on sentences involving determiner sharing in conjunction
structures. She shows that this phenomenon is always accompanied by gapping of the verb, and
provides a unified analysis for these sentences and sentences with binding constructions, wide-scopo
modal constructions and conjunctive or-sentences. She argues that all involve coordination below T. i.e.
below Tense. Miklós Gáspár writes about 'Coordination in Optimality Theory (NJL 22[1999] 157-81), and
uses violable ranked constraints to analyse coordination in Norwegian. English and Hungarian; some
cases of unbalanced coordination (of the he-and-me type) are also explored. Another type of
unbalanced coordination is investigated in Taylor Roberts's 'Unbalanced Coordination and Resumptive
Pronouns (MITWPI, 33[1999] 323-41), which analyses example sentences from Jonathan Swift's
Gulliver's Travels. Roberts shows that in this older stage of English, the resumptive pronoun was used
much more frequently than in PDE, where the resumptive pronoun bas become an empty category.
Roberts notes that Swift's grammar shows unbalanced coordination with respect to wh-movement and
resumptive pronouns. He concludes that the Unbalanced Coordination Theory-which was originally
proposed for partial agreement phenomena is better suited than the Minimal Linking Condition or
Optimality Theory to account for the phenomena under discussion. In NLLT 17[1999] 339-70, Bernard
Schwarz writes 'On the Syntax of either... or. He argues for the left-bracket thesis of either... or
constructions, which holds that 'either overtly marks the left edge of the disjunction whose coordinator
is or'. Schwarz shows that unbalanced disjunctions can be analysed with the reduction theory as hosting
silent material at the left edges of their second disjunctors, e. John either (ypate rice) or (ypate beans]
and John either [pate rice] or [pJohn ate beans). In Syntax 2[1999] 141-59, Ljiljana Progovac discusses
Events and Economy of Coordination. She argues that "the multiplicity of events is encoded
syntactically... by an increased number of conjunction markers. She shows that the conjunction and is
reinforced by the correlative both and that this has a semantic effect on the event structure. The
analysis is extended to VP-modification, and it is argued that these constructions contain an empty
conjunction head. Data are taken from English, French, Italian and Serbo-Croatian.

In 'On Apposition" (ELL 3(1999) 59-81), Juan Carlos Acuña-Fariña focuses on paradigmatic appositions
and argues (as Burton Roberts does for parentheticals, see above) that these should be analysed as
examples of non-restrictive modification, making use of the notion of Local Domain in relation to scope
features of the nominal apposition. Acuña-Fariña notes that intonation boundaries are crucial for
nominal apposition in Local Dumains in order to establish a predicative relationship between the head
noun and the apposition. An interesting comparison is made in Diane Massam's "Thing is Constructions:
The Thing Is, is What's the Right Analysis?" (ELL 3[1999] 335-52). The paper examines thing is-
constructions and compares them to pseudo-clefts, discussing similarities and differences. The
projection from lexical categories. He provides counter-examples for either a preposition or an adverb
analysis for words like aboard, abroad, away, downstairs. here, there, when, and where. Instead, he
proposes a schematic model with a category dimension [Verb + PP], a functional dimension [Predicate +
Complement] and a semantic dimension [Process Locative). Lee concludes that the 'X-words' lack the
category dimension, but can be characterized by the other two dimensions, In 'Sentences, Clauses,
Statements and Propositions', John Lyons explains his view that clauses rather than sentences are the
basic units of syntax. He discusses the various illocutionary functions a (simple) sentence can have. He
claims that the expressive power of one language may be greater than that of another, i.e. he does not
believe in universal intertranslatability of natural languages, James McCawley discusses the effect of
sentential adverbs on the positions of tensed auxiliaries and negation in the chapter 'Some Interactions
between Tense and Negation in English. He shows that adverbs like actually, really, and still force
stranding of not while the auxiliary undergoes inversion in interrogative constructions. In the absence of
such an adverb, the complex of auxiliary and n't is inverted. He relates this behaviour to the scope
properties of the adverb, which can have scope either over the entire S or over V (ie, leaving Tense
outside its scope). In "The English Accusative-and- Infinitive Construction: A Categorial Analysis, John
Payne proposes a new solution to the problems raised by constructions of the type NPacc-to-VP as
complements to verbs like believe or prove. Syntactically, the sentences are represented by forward and
backward functional composition, involving the notions of rightward and leftward 'wrap' and 'infixation'.
Payne explores a non-standard analysis, namely infixing the object as functor into its transitive verb-
phrase argument. He discusses the consequences for heavy NP shift, coordination, extraction, and
passivization. The chapter following this is 'On the Boundaries of Syntax: Non-Syntagmatic Relations by
Peter Peterson. He distinguishes syntagmatic relations from non- syntagmatic ones. Whereas the former
refer to familiar structural relations between constituents, the latter refer to juxtaposed parts of a
sentence that are not hierarchically related. Examples of these are parentheticals and peripherals.
Peterson proposes to represent the juxtaposed phrase at a lower level in a bracketing structure, or by a
dotted line in a tree diagram. He investigates the constraints on the position of parentheticals, and
extends his analysis to include juxtaposed clauses, Right Node Raising constructions, and apposition as
juxtaposed to their host. In "Gerund Participles and Head-Complement Inflection Conditions, Geoffrey
Pullum and Arnold Zwicky discuss R. Ross's [1972] and J. Milsark's [1988] Double-ing Constraint, which
basically reflects the general rule that two occurrences of V + ing may not be contiguous in a surface
string. They show that there are many exceptions to this generalization, and revise the original
constraint, restricting it to apply only to gerund participles in a head-complement relationship. Lesley
Stirting looks at "Isolated if-Clauses in Australian English', showing that although if-clauses are usually
conditionals accompanied by a main clause, there are various instances of if- clauses functioning
independently as directives or optatives. Two corpora of Australian English were analysed for this type
of sentence. It is concluded that isolated if-clauses are on their way to become independent main
clauses and should be reanalysed as such. The final chapter of the book is by Lynn Wales. 'Functional
and Structural: The Practicalities of Clause Knowledge in Language Education reviews the role of
structural knowledge in language processing from a functionalist