Soil Chemistry, Soil Fertility & Nutrient Management

SOIL CHEMISTRY, SOIL FERTILITY & NUTRIENT
MANAGEMENT
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Soil Chemistry, Soil Fertility & Nutrient Management
1 SOIL CHEMISTRY 1-2
2 SOIL PH AND BUFFER PH 3-6
3 SOIL PH AND PERCENT BASE SATURATION 7-9
4 SOIL AS A SOURCE OF PLANT NUTRIENTS - ESSENTIAL 10-16

AND BENEFICIAL ELEMENTS, CRITERIA OF
ESSENTIALITY
5 FORMS OF NUTRIENTS IN SOIL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS 17-25
IN PLANTS
6 MECHANISM OF NUTRIENT TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 26-29
7 NITROGEN – TRANSFORMATION, FACTORS AFFECTING 30-39

NITROGEN AVAILABILITY ,DEFICIENCY AND TOXICITY
SYMPTOMS
8 PHOSPHORUS – TRANSFORMATION, FACTORS 40-48
AFFECTING PHOSPHORUS AVAILABILITY, DEFICIENCY
AND TOXICITY SYMPTOMS
9 POTASSIUM – TRANSFORMATION, FACTORS 49-52
AFFECTING POTASSIUM AVAILABILITY, DEFICIENCY
10 SECONDARY NUTRIENTS – TRANSFORMATION, 53-59
FACTORS AFFECTING NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY,
DEFICIENCY AND TOXICITY SYMPTOMS
11 MICRO NUTRIENTS – TRANSFORMATION, FACTORS 60-76
AFFECTING NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY, DEFICIENCY
12 NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY AND TOXICITY 77-83
13 SOIL FERTILITY EVALUATION 84-89
14 PREDICTING YIELDS USING NUTRIENT FUNCTIONS 90-95
15 FERTILITY EVALUATION BY PLANT ANALYSIS 96-102
16 SOIL TESTING AND CORRELATION 103-105

17 SOIL TESTING 106-111
18 FERTILITY SURVEY AND MAPPING 112-114
19 PERMANENT MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS 115-117
20 FERTILIZERS - USE AND LEGISLATION 118-124
21 PROSPECTS OF FERTILIZER USE 125-128
22 TOLERANCE LIMIT IN PLANT NUTRIENT FOR VARIOUS 129-134

FERTILIZERS
23 GENESIS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND RECLAMATION OF 135-142
ACID SOILS
SALINE SOILS
SODIC SOILS
26 CHARACTERISTICS AND REMEDIATION OF HEAVY 154-156
METAL CONTAMINATED SOILS
27 ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY 157-166
LECTURE 1 Soil Chemistry
Until the late 1960s, soil chemistry focused primarily on chemical reactions in the
soil that contribute to pedogenesis or that affect plant growth. Since then
concerns have grown about environmental pollution, organic and inorganic soil
contamination and potential ecological health and environmental health risks.
Consequently, the emphasis in soil chemistry has shifted from pedology and
agricultural soil science to an emphasis on environmental soil science.
A knowledge of environmental soil chemistry is paramount to predicting the fate,

mobility and potential toxicity of contaminants in the environment. The vast
majority of environmental contaminants are initially released to the soil. Once a
chemical is exposed to the soil environment a myriad of chemical reactions can
occur that may increase/decrease contaminant toxicity. These reactions include
adsorption/desorption, precipitation, polymerization, dissolution, complexation,
and oxidation/reduction. These reactions are often disregarded by scientists and
engineers involved with environmental remediation. Understanding these
processes enable us to better predict the fate and toxicity of contaminants and
provide the knowledge to develop scientifically correct, and cost-effective
remediation strategies.
Reduction potential (also known as redox potential) is the tendency of a

chemical species to acquire electrons and thereby be reduced. Each species has
its own intrinsic reduction potential; the more positive the potential, the greater
the species' affinity for electrons and tendency to be reduced.
A reduction potential is measured in volts (V). Because the true or absolute

potentials are difficult to accurately measure, reduction potentials are defined
relative to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) which is arbitrarily given a
potential of 0.00 volts. Standard reduction potential (E0), is measured under
standard conditions: 25°C, a 1M concentration for each ion participating in the
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reaction, a partial pressure of 1 atm for each gas that is part of the reaction, and
metals in their pure state. Historically, many countries, including the United
States, used standard oxidation potentials rather than reduction potentials in
their calculations. These are simply the negative of standard reduction potentials,
so it is not a major problem in practice. However, because these can also be
referred to as "redox potentials", the terms "reduction potentials" and "oxidation
potentials" are preferred by the IUPAC. The two may be explicitly distinguished in
symbols as Er0 and Eo0.
The relative reactivities of different half-cells can be compared to predict the

direction of electron flow. A higher E0 means there is a greater tendency for
reduction to occur, while a lower one means there is a greater tendency for
oxidation to occur.
Any system or environment that accepts electrons from a normal hydrogen

electrode is a half cell that is defined as having a positive redox potential; any
system donating electrons to the hydrogen electrode is defined as having a
negative redox potential. Eh is measured in millivolts (mV). A high positive Eh
indicates an environment that favors oxidation reaction such as free oxygen. A
low negative Eh indicates a strong reducing environment, such as free metals.
Sometimes when electrolysis is carried out in an aqueous solution, water, rather

than the solute, is oxidized or reduced. For example, if an aqueous solution of
NaCl is electrolyzed, water may be reduced at the cathode to produce H2(g) and
OH- ions, instead of Na+ being reduced to Na(s), as occurs in the absence of
water. It is the reduction potential of each species present that will determine
which species will be oxidized or reduced.
Absolute reduction potentials can be determined if we find the actual potential

between electrode and electrolyte for any one reaction. Surface polarization
interferes with measurements, but various sources give an estimated potential for
the standard hydrogen electrode of 4.4V to 4.6V (the electrolyte being positive.).
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LECTURE 2 Soil pH and Buffer pH
Soil pH This is a measure of the soil acidity or alkalinity and is sometimes called
the soil "water" pH. This is because it is a measure of the pH of the soil solution,
which is considered the active pH that affects plant growth. Soil pH is the
foundation of essentially all soil chemistry and nutrient reaction and should be the
first consideration when evaluating a soil test. The total range of the pH scale is
from 0 to 14. Values below the mid-point (pH 7.0) are acidic and those above pH
7.0 are alkaline. A soil pH of 7.0 is considered to be neutral. Most plants perform
best in a soil that is slightly acid to neutral (pH 6.0 to 7.0). Some plants like
blueberries require the soil to be more acid (pH 4.5 to 5.5), and others, like alfalfa
will tolerate a slightly alkaline soil (pH 7.0-7.5).
The soil pH scale is logarithmic, meaning that each whole number is a factor of
10 larger or smaller than the ones next to it. For example if a soil has a pH of 6.5
and this pH is lowered to pH 5.5, the acid content of that soil is increased 10-fold.
If the pH is lowered further to pH 4.5, the acid content becomes 100 times
greater than at pH 6.5. The logarithmic nature of the pH scale means that small
changes in a soil pH can have large effects on nutrient availability and plant
growth.
Buffer pH (BpH) This is a value that is generated in the laboratory, it is not an

existing feature of the soil. Laboratories perform this test in order to develop lime
recommendations, and it actually has no other practical value.
In basic terms, the BpH is the resulting sample pH after the laboratory has added
a liming material. In this test, the laboratory adds a chemical mixture called a
buffering solution. This solution functions like extremely fast-acting lime. Each
soil sample receives the same amount of buffering solution; therefore the
resulting pH is different for each sample. To determine a lime recommendation,
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the laboratory looks at the difference between the original soil pH and the ending
pH after the buffering solution has reacted with the soil. If the difference between
the two pH measurements is large, it means that the soil pH is easily changed,
and a low rate of lime will suffice. If the soil pH changes only a little after the
buffering solution has reacted, it means that the soil pH is difficult to change and
a larger lime addition is needed to reach the desired pH for the crop.
The reasons that a soil may require differing amounts of lime to change the soil
pH relates to the soil CEC and the "reserve" acidity that is contained by the soil.
Soil acidity is controlled by the amount of hydrogen (H+) and aluminum (Al+++)
that is either contained in, or generated by the soil and soil components. Soils
with a high CEC have a greater capacity to contain or generate these sources of
acidity. Therefore, at a given soil pH, a soil with a higher CEC (thus a lower
buffer pH) will normally require more lime to reach a given target pH than a soil
with a lower CEC.
Soil Colloids
During physical and chemical weathering processes in which rocks, minerals,

and organic matter decompose to form soil, some extremely small particles are
formed. Colloidal-sized particles are so minuscule that they do not settle out
when in suspension. These particles generally possess a negative charge, which
allows them to attract positively charged ions known as cations. Much like a
magnet, in which opposite poles attract one another, soil colloids attract and
retain many plant nutrients in an exchangeable form. This ability, known as
cation exchange capacity, enables a soil to attract and retain positively charged
nutrients (cations) such as potassium (K+), ammonium (NH4+), hydrogen (H+),
calcium (Ca++), and magnesium (Mg++). Also, because similar charges repel
one another, some of the soluble negatively charged ions (anions), such as
nitrate (NO3-) and sulfate (SO4=), are not bonded to soil colloids and are more
easily leached than their positively charged counterparts.
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Organic colloids contribute a relatively large number of negative charges per unit
weight compared with the various types of clay colloids. The magnitude of the
soil's electrical charge contributed by colloids is an important component of a
soil's ability to retain cationic nutrients in a form available to plants.
Cation Exchange Capacity
The ability of a soil to retain cations (positively charged ions) in a form that is
available to plants is known as cation exchange capacity (CEC). A soil's CEC
depends on the amount and kind(s) of colloid(s) present. Although type of clay is
important, in general, the more clay or organic matter present, the higher the
CEC.
The CEC of a soil might be compared to the size of a fuel tank on a gasoline
engine. The larger the fuel tank, the longer the engine can operate and the more
work it can do before a refill is necessary. For soils, the larger the CEC, the more
nutrients the soil can supply. Although CEC is only one component of soil fertility,
all other factors being equal, the higher the CEC, the higher the potential yield of
that soil before nutrients must be replenished with fertilizers or manures.
When a soil is tested for CEC, the results are expressed in milliequivalents per
100 grams (meq/100 g) of air-dried soil. For practical purposes, the relative
numerical size of the CEC is more important than trying to understand the
technical meaning of the units. In general, soils in the southern United States,
where physical and chemical weathering have been more intense, have lower
CEC's (1-3 meq/100 g) than soils in the northern United States, where higher
CEC's are common (15-25 meq/100 g) because weathering has not been as
intense. Soils in warmer climates also tend to have lower organic matter levels,
and thus lower CEC's than their northern counterparts.
Soils high in clay content, and especially those high in organic matter, tend to
have higher CEC's than those low in clay and organic matter. The CEC of soils in
Maryland generally ranges from 1-2 meq/100 g for coarse-textured Coastal Plain
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soils to as high as 12-15 meq/100 g for certain Piedmont and Mountain soils. The
CEC of most medium-textured soils of the Piedmont region ranges about 8-12
meq/100 g.
There are many practical differences between soils having widely different
CEC's. It has already been mentioned that the inherent fertility (exchangeable
nutrient content) of soils varies in direct relationship to the magnitude of the CEC.
Another important CEC-related property is soil buffering capacity, that is, the
resistance of a soil to changes in pH. The higher the CEC, the more resistance
soil has to changes in pH. The CEC and buffering capacity are directly related to
the amount of liming material required to produce a desired change in pH. Higher
CEC soils require more lime than those with low CEC's to achieve the same pH
change.
If CEC is analogous to the fuel tank on an engine, soil pH is analogous to the fuel
gauge. The gauges on both a large and a small tank might read three fourths full;
but, obviously, the larger tank will contain more fuel than the smaller tank. If a soil
test indicates that two soils, one with a low CEC and the other with a high CEC,
have the same low pH, indicating that they both need lime, the one with the
higher CEC will require more liming material to bring about the desired pH
change than will the one with the lower CEC. The reason for this difference is
that there will be more exchangeable acidity (hydrogen and aluminum) to
neutralize in the high CEC soil than in the lower CEC soil. Thus, a soil high in
clay or organic matter will require more liming material to reduce soil acidity (and
raise the pH) than a low organic matter sandy soil will.
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3 Soil pH and Percent Base Saturation
Soil pH is one of the most important characteristics of soil fertility because it has
a direct impact on nutrient availability and plant growth.
The pH scale is a logarithmic expression of hydrogen ion [H+] concentration in

the soil solution. Mathematically, pH equals -log [H+] (the negative logarithm of
the hydrogen ion concentration). The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A soil pH
value of 7.0 is neutral. At pH 7.0, the hydroxyl ion [OH-] and the hydrogen ion
[H+] concentrations exactly balance one another. At pH values below 7.0, soils
are acidic because the [H+] ion concentration is greater than the [OH-] ion
concentration. At pH values above 7.0, soils are basic because there are more
[OH-] than [H+] ions. Most agricultural soils in Maryland have a pH range
between 4.5 and 7.5. Although there are some exceptions, the preferred pH
range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.0. Legumes prefer higher pH's (pH
values of 6.2-7.0) than do grasses (pH values of 5.8-6.5).
Because the pH scale is logarithmic rather than linear, the difference in acidity
between each pH value varies by a factor of 10, not 1. Therefore, a soil with a pH
of 5.0 is 10 times more acid than a soil with a pH of 6.0. A soil with a pH of 4.0
will be 100 times more acid than a soil with a pH of 6.0 and 1,000 times more
acid than a soil at pH 7.0. This is an extremely important factor to consider when
developing liming recommendations to correct acid soils.
Soil pH also reflects percent base saturation (% BS) of the CEC. This term refers
to the relative number (percentage) of the CEC sites on the soil colloids that are
occupied by bases such as calcium (Ca++), magnesium (Mg++), and potassium
(K+). In general, at pH 7.0 the base saturation is 100 percent. By rule of thumb,
for every one-half unit drop in soil pH, the % BS declines by about 15 percent
(pH 6.5 = 85 percent BS, pH 6.0 = 70 percent BS, pH 5.5 = 55 percent BS, and
so forth). This information can be useful to calculate the approximate amounts of
available nutrients present in a soil at a given pH. Ag-Lime Recommendations
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To predict how much liming material (calcium and/or magnesium carbonate) will
be necessary to change the pH of a soil from one level to another, other
information is needed in addition to the soil's pH. It is also necessary to estimate
the soil's buffering capacity, that is, the soil's ability to resist a change in pH.
There are several ways to estimate a soil's buffering capacity so that a liming
recommendation can be developed. One of the simplest techniques for Maryland
soils is to determine soil texture. Research has shown that, with just a few
exceptions, for soils within a particular physiographic region, a positive direct
relationship exists between soil texture and the CEC. Thus, as soil texture varies
from coarse to fine on the Coastal Plain (for example, from sand to silt loam to
loam to clay loam), CEC and buffering capacity increase. Simplified tables and
equations have been developed to estimate the amount of liming material
needed to achieve a desired pH goal when the current soil pH and texture are
known.
Another technique that some soil-testing laboratories use to develop an ag-lime

recommendation is known as the lime requirement test. With this procedure, in
addition to determining the normal water pH, a second pH measurement, known
as the buffer pH, is required. For a normal water pH reading, the soil is allowed to
equilibrate in distilled water. A pH meter is used to measure how much the soil
changed the pH of the unbuffered distilled water. The buffer pH differs in that the
soil is allowed to equilibrate in a specially prepared solution that has previously
been buffered to a known pH. The buffer solution, as well as the soil, resists
changes in pH. A pH meter is used to determine how much the soil was able to
overcome the resistance of the buffer solution to a change in pH.
The buffer pH technique directly reflects the soil's buffering capacity and the
result can be used in a formula to calculate the amount of ag-lime required to
achieve the desired change in pH.
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Nutrient Availability and Soil pH
Nutrient availability is influenced strongly by soil pH. This is especially true for
phosphorus, which is most available between pH 6.0 and 7.5. Elements such as
iron, aluminum, and manganese are especially soluble in acid soils. Above pH
7.0, calcium, magnesium, and sodium are increasingly soluble.
Phosphorus is particularly reactive with aluminum, iron, and calcium. Thus, in

acid soils, insoluble phosphorus compounds are formed with iron, aluminum, and
manganese. At pH levels above 7.0, the reactivity of iron, aluminum, and
manganese is reduced, but insoluble phosphorus compounds containing calcium
and magnesium can become a problem. To maximize phosphorus solubility and
hence availability to plants, it is best to maintain soil pH within the range of 6.0 to
7.5. Over liming can result in reduced phosphorus availability just as quickly as
under liming.
In general, the availability of nitrogen, potassium, calcium, and magnesium

decreases rapidly below pH 6.0 and above pH 8.0. Aluminum is only slightly
available between pH 5.5 and pH 8.0. This is fortunate because, although plants
require relatively large quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium,
aluminum in appreciable quantities can become toxic to plants. If managed
properly, soil pH is a powerful regulator of nutrient availability. Manganese, zinc,
and iron are most available when soil pH is in the acid range. As the pH of acid
soil approaches 7.0, manganese, zinc, and iron availability decreases and
deficiencies can become a problem, especially on those soils that do not contain
appreciable amounts of these elements. These micronutrients frequently must be
supplemented with fertilizers when soil levels are low, when over liming has
occurred, or when soil tests indicate a deficiency. There is a delicate balance
between soil pH and nutrient availability. It is important that soils be tested
regularly and that the pH be maintained in the recommended range to achieve
maximum efficiency of soil and fertilizer nutrients.
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01 Soil as a source of plant nutrients - Essential and beneficial elements, criteria
of essentiality

Learning objective :
To understand the importance of soil fertility
To study the essential nutrients in plant growth
Crops depend on extrinsic and intrinsic factors for their growth and environment to provide them
with basic necessities for photosynthesis. These essential plant growth factors include:
• light
• heat
• air
• water
• nutrients
• physical support
If any one factor, or combination of factors, is in limited supply, plant growth will be
adversely affected. The importance of each of the plant growth factors and the proper
combination of these factors for normal plant
growth is best described by the principle of
limiting factors. This principle states: "The
level of crop production can be no greater
than that allowed by the most limiting of the
essential plant growth factors." The principle
of limiting factors can be compared to that of
a barrel having staves of different lengths with
each stave representing a plant growth factor.
Crop yield and quality depends upon the

essential growth factors and the many
interrelated soil, plant, environmental and
agronomic factors or variables. Within this
system, some of these factors cannot be
controlled; others can be controlled and are
manageable.
Soil is one of the key factors affecting

plant growth as observed in the figure. The
major functions of the soil are to provide
plants with nutrients, water and oxygen.
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Crop Production Factors
FAO has listed seven important soil qualities which affect crop growth as given below.
Soil Qualities Soil Characteristics

SQ1 Nutrient availability Soil texture, soil organic carbon, soil pH, total exchangeable
bases
SQ2 Nutrient retention Soil Organic carbon, Soil texture, base saturation, cation
capacity exchange capacity of soil and of clay fraction
SQ3 Rooting conditions Soil textures, bulk density, coarse fragments, vertic soil
properties and soil phases affecting root penetration and soil
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depth and soil volume
SQ4 Oxygen availability Soil drainage and soil phases affecting soil drainage
to roots
SQ5 Excess salts. Soil salinity, soil sodicity and soil phases influencing salt
conditions
SQ6 Toxicity Calcium carbonate and gypsum
SQ7 Workability Soil texture, effective soil depth/volume, and soil phases
(constraining field constraining soil management (soil depth, rock outcrop,
management) stoniness, gravel/concretions and hardpans)
Soil fertility is the key to sustainable agriculture. Soil fertility is defined in several ways.
Soil fertility
“Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to supply essential plant nutrients during growth period of
the plants, without toxic concentration of any nutrients”. i.e “the capacity of soil to supply
nutrient in available to crop”.
Soil productivity
“Soil productivity is ability of soil to produce a particular crop or sequence of crops under
a specified mgt system” i.e the crop producing capacity of soil”.
All the productive soils are fertile but all the fertile soils may not be productive
Sometimes even if the soil is fertile, they are subjected to drought or other unsatisfactory growth
factors or management practices.
History of development of soil fertility
Francis Bacon (1591- 1624) suggested that the principle nourishment of plants was
water and the main purpose of the soil was to keep plants erect and to protect from heat and
cold.
Jan Baptiste Van Helmont (1577 – 1644) was reported that water was sole nutrient of
plants.
Robert Boyle (1627 – 1691) an England scientist confirmed the findings of Van Helmont
and proved that plant synthesis salts, spirits and oil etc from H2O.
Anthur Young (1741 – 1820) an English agriculturist conducted pot experiment using
Barley as a test crop under sand culture condition. He added charcoal, train oil, poultry dung,
spirits of wine, oster shells and numerous other materials and he conduced that some of the
materials were produced higher plant growth.
Priestly (1800) established the essentiality of O2 for the plant growth.
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J.B. Boussingault (1802-1882) French chemist conducted field experiment and
maintained balance sheet. He was first scientist to conduct field experiment. He is considered
as father of field experiments.
Justus Von Liebig (1835) suggested that
a. Most of the carbon in plants comes from the CO2 of the atmosphere.
b. Hydrogen and O2 comes from H2O.
c. Alkaline metals are needed for neutralization of acids formed by plants as a result of
their metabolic activities.
d. Phosphorus is necessary for seed formation.
e. Plant absorb every thing from the soil but excrete from their roots those materials
that are not essential.
The field may contain some nutrient in excess, some in optimum and some in least, but
the limiting factor for growth is the least available nutrient. The law of Mn, stated by Liebig in
1862, is a simple but logical guide for predicting crop response to fertilization. This law states
that, “the level of plant production cannot be grater than that allowed by the most limiting of the
essential plant growth factors”. The contributions made by Liebig to the advancement of
agriculture were monumental and he is recognized as the father of Agricultural chemistry.
J.B. Lawes and J. H. Gilbert (1843) established permanent manurial experiment at

Rothemsted Agricultural experiment station at England. They conducted field experiments for
twelve years and their findings were
a. Crop requires both P and K, but the composition of the plant ash is no measure of
the amounts of these constituents required by the plant.
b. No legume crop require N. without this element, no growth will be obtained
regardless of the quantities of P and K present. The amount of ammonium
contributed by the atmosphere is insufficient for the needs of the crop.
c. Soil fertility can be maintained for some years by chemical fertilizers.
d. The beneficial effect of fallow lies in the increases in the available N compounds in
the soil.
Robert Warrington England showed that the nitrification could be supported by carbon
disulphide and chloroform and that it would be stopped by adding a small amount of
unsterilized soil. He demonstrated that the reaction was two step phenomenon. First
NH3 being converted to nitrites and the nitrites to nitrites.
Essential and Beneficial elements
“A mineral element is considered to be essential for plant growth and
development if the element is involved in plant metabolic functions and the plant
cannot complete its life cycle without the element”.
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There are seventeen essential elements required for plant growth viz., C, H, O, N, P, K,
Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl, Ni,
The following is the essentiality criteria described by Arnon and Stout (1939)
1. A plant must be unable to complete its life cycle in the absence of the mineral element.
2. The function of the element must not be replaceable by another mineral element.
3. The element must be directly involved in plant metabolism.
Beneficial Nutrients/Elements: Beneficial elements are the mineral elements that stimulate
the growth and exhibit beneficial effects at very low concentration or which are essential
only for certain plant species or under specific conditions are called as “beneficial
elements”.Eg.Na,Va,Co,Si
D.J.Nicholas coined the term “functional or metabolic nutrient”
Any mineral element that functions in plant metabolism, whether or not its action is
specific. (Cl, Si, Na, Va, Co, Se)
The following table gives the essentiality of elements established by different scientists
Essentiality of the elements established by
Carbon : Priestly (1800)

Nitrogen : Theodore De saussure (1804)
Ca, Mg, K, S : Carl sprengel (1839)
Phosphorus : Von Liebig (1844)
Iron (Fe) : E. Greiss (1844)
Manganese (Mn) : J.S. Hargue (1922)
Zinc(Zn) : Sommer and Lipman (1926)
Copper (Cu) : Sommer, Lipman and Mc Kenny
(1931)
Molybdenum (Mo) : Arnon and Stout (1939)
Sodium (Na) : Brownell and wood (1957)
Cobalt(Co) : Ahamed and Evans (1959)
Boron(B) : Warring ton (1923)
Chlorine (Cl ) : Broyer (1954)
Nickel : Brown et.al.(1987)
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Classification of Essential Elements
1) Based on the amount required by the plant

i) Major nutrients – required in large quantities eg. N,P,K
ii) Secondary nutrients – required in lesser quantities compared to Major nutrients eg.
Ca,Mg,S
iii) Micronutrients- required in trace quantities eg. Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo
Classification based on the role of element in plant system
(According to TRUOG, 1954)
Structural Elements : C, H, O
ii). Accessory structural elements : N. P. S
iii). Regulator & Carriers : K, Ca, Mg
iv). Catalyst & Activators : Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, Cl, B
References
Nyle C. Brady (1996).The Nature and Properties of soils. Tenth edition. Prentice hall of India
Pvt.Ltd,New Delhi.
Tisdale,S.L.,Nelson,W.L.,Beaton,J.D.,Havlin,J.L.1997.Soil fertility and Fertilizers.Fifth edition,

Prentice hall of India Pvt.Ltd,New Delhi.
http://www.fao.org/nr/land/soils/harmonized-world-soil-database/soil-quality-for-crop-
production/en/
https://athene.umb.no/emner/pub/EDS215/LectureSoil.htm
http://www.canolacouncil.org/crop-production/canola-grower's-manual-contents/chapter-1-the-
basis-of-canola-yields/the-basis-of-canola-yields
Fischer, G., F. Nachtergaele, S. Prieler, H.T. van Velthuizen, L. Verelst, D. Wiberg, 2008. Global
Agro-ecological Zones Assessment for Agriculture (GAEZ 2008). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria and
FAO, Rome, Italy.
http://www3.ag.purdue.edu/counties/vanderburgh/SiteCollectionDocuments/MG2011%20Lectur
es/Plant%20Nutrition%20Quiz%20KEY.pdf
Questions to ponder
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1) How are the essential elements essential to crops?
2) Which elements are considered to be essential for crop growth?

3) Why is some nutrient deficiencies exhibited in older leaves, while other nutrient deficiencies
show up first on newer leaves?
4) What are beneficial elements?
5) What is the difference between major and micronutrient?
AgriExam.Com 16
05.
Forms of nutrients in soil and their functions in plants
Learning objective :
To know the functions of each nutrient in plant
Primary or major nutrients: are those nutrients required relatively in large quantities by the plants for
its growth and development. Ex: N, P and K.
Secondary nutrients: are those nutrients which are required by plants in moderate amounts and
given secondary importance in its supply and management.
Ex: Ca, Mg and S.
Micronutrients: The nutrients which are utilized by plants in relatively smaller quantities for their
growth and development, but these are equally important & essential to plants as macronutrients.
Ex: Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl and Ni.
Plant Nutrients
Sixteen elements are considered essential for plants. They are grouped based on their
relative abundance in plants.
Many non-essential elements are also found in plants that account for over 60
elements. Al is absorbed when soil solution is rich in Al ions. When plant materials is
burned, the remaining plant ash contains all the essential and non-essential elements
except C, H, O, N, S. Macro nutrients are absorbed in 30-100 times in proportion to that of
micronutrients.
1 (3/4)
Essential Nutrients
Macronutrients Micronutrients
Non-
mineral
Primar
Nutrients Secondary By all plants Some
y
AgriExam.Com 17
C N Ca Fe B Na
H P Mg Mn Cl Co
O K S Zn Mo Va
Cu Ni
Si
Chemical nature
Metals K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu,
Non-metals C, H, O, N, P, S, Cl
The plant content of mineral elements is affected by many factors and their
concentration in crops varies considerably.
Relative Concentration
Nutrient concentration
(%)
(Times)
Primary N, K 400-1000 1-1.5
P 30 0.1-0.3
Secondar Ca, Mg 0.2-0.5

100-200
y
S 30 0.1
Micro Fe, Mn, B 1-2 0.002-0.01
Others <1 <0.002
AgriExam.Com 18
2
Plant Nutrients
Concentration, Mobility, forms, functions
A mineral element is considered essential to plant growth and development if the element
is involved in plant metabolic functions and the plant cannot complete its life cycle without the
element. Terms commonly used to describe level of nutrients in plants are
Deficient
When the concentration of an essential element is low enough to limit yield severely and distinct
deficiency symptoms are visible then that element is said to be deficient. Extreme deficiencies
can result in plant death. With moderate or slight deficiencies, symptoms may not be visible, but
yields will still be reduced.
Critical range
The nutrient concentration in the plant below which a yield response to added nutrient occurs.
Critical level or ranges vary among plants and nutrients but occur somewhere in the transition
between nutrient deficiency and sufficiency.
1 (4/4)
Critical range

Sufficient
Transition
PLANT YIELD
Excessive
Deficient or toxic
Steenberg effect
NUTRIENT CONCENTRATION IN TISSUE
AgriExam.Com 19
Sufficient
Concentration range in which added nutrients will not increase yield but can increase nutrient
concentration. The term luxury consumption is used to describe nutrient absorption by the plant
that does not influence yield.
Excessive or toxic
When the concentration of essential or other elements is high enough to reduce plant growth and
yield then it is said to be toxic. Excessive nutrient concentration can cause an imbalance in other
essential nutrients, which also can reduce yield
Forms of nutrients for
Plant absorption
Concentration and plants yield
+ -
N NH4 , NO3 , organic N
H2PO4- (Primary) and HPO42-

P Yield is severely affected when a nutrient
(Secondary) Orthophosphates
is deficient. When deficiency is corrected, growth
+
K K increases more rapidly. Under severe deficiency,
Ca Ca++ rapid increase in growth with added nutrient can

cause a small decrease in nutrient concentration
Mg Mg++
due to dilution effect. This is called the
- -
S SO3 (Sulphite) and SO4 Steenberg effect
Fe Fe++ (Ferrous), Fe+++ (Ferric)
Mn++ (Manganous) and Mn+++

Mn
(Manganic)
1 (2/8)
++ Luxury consumption
Zn Zn

+ ++
Cu (Cuprous) and Cu
Cu
(Cupric)
Nutrient sufficiency occurs over a wide
-
B BO3 and other forms concentration range, wherein yield is unaffected.
Mo MoO4-- (Molybdate) Increase in nutrient concentration above the

critical range indicates that the plant is absorbing
Cl Cl-
nutrient above that needed for maximum yield.
This luxury consumption is common in most plants. Elements absorbed in excessive quantities
AgriExam.Com 20
can reduce plant yield directly through toxicity or indirectly by reducing concentration of other
nutrient below critical ranges.
Functions of nutrients in plants:

Nutrient Functions
Major nutrients
Nitrogen Basic component of proteins and chlorophyll (the
pigment that gives plants their green colour). Plays
an essential role in plant growth. Also feeds
microorganisms in the soil
Phosphorus Plays an important role in root growth and promotes
the establishment of young plants, flowering, fruiting
and ripening, photosynthesis, respiration and overall
plant growth.
Potassium Moves through the plant. Promotes the movement
of sugars, turgor and stem rigidity. Also increases
the plant’s overall resistance to cold, diseases,
insect pests, etc. Promotes the formation of flower
buds, the hardening-off of woody plants and fruiting.
Secondary nutrients
Calcium Plays a vital role in plant structure, because it is part
of cell walls and holds them together. Promotes the
development of the root system and the ripening of
fruit and seeds. Found in the growing parts of plants
(apex and buds).
Magnesium An important part of chlorophyll. Helps fruit ripen

and seeds germinate. Reinforces cell walls and
promotes the absorption of phosphorous, nitrogen
and sulphur by plants
Sulphur A component of several proteins, enzymes and

vitamins. Contributes to chlorophyll production.
Helps plants absorb potassium, calcium and
magnesium.
Micronutrients
AgriExam.Com 21
Iron Essential to chlorophyll production. Also
contributes to the formation of some enzymes and
amino acids.
Boron Essential to overall plant health and tissue growth.

Promotes the formation of fruit and the absorption
of water.
Manganese Promotes seed germination and speeds plant

maturity. Plays an important role in photosynthesis
by contributing to chlorophyll production. Essential
for nitrogen assimilation and protein formation.
Molybdenum Essential for nitrogen assimilation by plants and

nitrogen fixation by bacteria. This means that it is
needed for the production of nitrogen-based
proteins.
Chlorine Stimulates photosynthesis.
Copper Activates various enzymes. Also plays a role in

chlorophyll production
Zinc Plays an important role in the synthesis of proteins,
enzymes and growth hormones.
Nickel Key component of selected enzymes involved in N

metabolism and biological N fixation.
Beneficial elements
Silicon Strengthens cell walls, energy transfer & drought
resistance Reduces water loss &
prevents fungal infection.
Cobalt Essential in N fixation
Sodium Na replaces K in certain functions in halophytes
plants
For C4 plants having dicarboxylic photosynthetic

pathway
Vanadium Essential for green algae
AgriExam.Com 22
Forms of elements in Mineral soil
Macro elements are available in (1) Solid (2) Cations (3) Cations in soil solution
Nutrients Mineral / solid Cations Soil solution as ions
N Organic compounds and Amino acids NH4+ NH4+, NO2-, NO3-
P Organic compounds, nucleic acid and - H2PO4-, HPO4-

inorganic compounds. Ca, Fe, Al, PO4’s
K Feldspar, mica, silicate clays K+ K+
Ca Feldspar, hornblende, lime stone Ca2+ Ca2+
Mg Mica, Hornblende, lime stone Mg2+ Mg2+
S Organic sources – protein, amino acids - HSO4-, SO32-
inorganic sources – Gypsum, pyrites . - SO42-
Forms of nutrient element absorbed by plants
Nutrient element Forms absorbed
C Mainly through leaves - CO2
H HOH (Hydrogen from H2O) – H+
O CO2 mainly through leaves – O42-, ,OH-, CO32-
N NH4+, NO3
K K+
Ca Ca2+
Mg Mg2+
S SO42-
Fe Fe2+ (Ferrous), Fe3+ (ferric)
Mn Mn2+ (Manganous), Mn4+ (Manganic)
AgriExam.Com 23
Zn Zn2+
Cu Cu+ (cuprous), Cu2+ (Cupric)
Co CO2+
Na Na+
Si Si (OH)4
Cl Cl-
B H3BO3 (Boric acid) H2 BO3- (Borate)
Mo Mo O42-
AgriExam.Com 24
References:
http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/pnm3. From:J. A. Silva and R. Uchida, eds. College of

Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa, ©2000
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/hs1191
Questions to ponder
1)How will you differentiate between N and K deficiencies of corn visually?

2) What is luxury consumption?
3)Which element is absorbed both in anionic and cationic forms?
4) Which element is specifically involved in nitrate reduction in plants?
5)Name the nutrients whos deficiencies are first exhibited in the apical region of the growing plant?
AgriExam.Com 25
06.
Mechanism of nutrient transport in plants
Learning objectives
a. Understand ways in which nutrients in the soil reach plant roots

b. To know how plant roots absorb nutrients and move inside plants
Nutrients must reach the surface of a root for plant uptake of essential elements to occur
There are three major mechanism of movement of ions from soil to roots. They are
Root interception
Root interception occurs when a nutrient comes into physical contact with the root surface. As a
general rule, the occurrence of root interception increases as the root surface area and mass
increases, thus enabling the plant to explore a greater amount of soil. Root interception may be
enhanced by mycorrhizal fungi, which colonize roots and increases root exploration into the soil.
Root interception is responsible for an appreciable amount of calcium uptake, and some amounts
of magnesium, zinc and manganese. The CEC of roots for monocots is 10 - 30 meq/100 g and
takes up monovalent cations more readily and that of Dicots is 40 - 100 meq/100 g and takes up
divalent cations more readily. The quantity of nutrients intercepted by roots depends on the soil
concentration of nutrients and volume of soil displaced by root system
Factors affecting root interception
a. Anything that restricts root growth

i. Dry soil
ii. Compaction
iii. Low soil pH
iv. Poor aeration
v. Root disease, insects, nematodes
vi. High or low soil temperature
b. Root growth is necessary for all three mechanisms of nutrient supply, but absolutely essential
for root interception to occur
Mass flow:
Mass flow occurs when nutrients are transported to the surface of roots by the movement of water
in the soil (i.e. percolation, transpiration, or evaporation). The rate of water flow governs the amount
of nutrients that are transported to the root surface. Therefore, mass flow decreases are soil water
decreases. Most of the nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, copper, boron, manganese and
molybdenum move to the root by mass flow. Quantity of nutrients transported is proportional to:
i. Rate of flow (volume of water transpired)

ii. Solution concentration of nutrient
AgriExam.Com 26
Nutrients supplied primarily by mass flow are considered mobile nutrients. e.g. N, S, B
Factors affecting mass flow
a. Soil water content

i. Dry soil where there is no nutrient movement
b. Temperature
i. Low temperature reduces transpiration and evaporation
c. Size of root system
i. Affects water uptake and therefore movement
ii. Root density much less critical for nutrient supply by mass flow than for root
interception and diffusion
Diffusion:
Diffusion is the movement of a particular nutrient along a concentration gradient. When there is a
difference in concentration of a particular nutrient within the soil solution, the nutrient will move from
an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. This phenomenon is observed
when adding sugar to water. As the sugar dissolves, it moves through parts of the water with lower
sugar concentration until it is evenly distributed, or uniformly concentrated. Diffusion delivers
appreciable amounts of phosphorus, potassium, zinc, and iron to the root surface. Diffusion is a
relatively slow process compared to the mass flow of nutrients with water movement toward the
root. Nutrients supplied primarily by diffusion are considered immobile nutrients e.g. P, K
Factors affecting diffusion
a. Fick’s law is given as dC/dt = De * A * dC/dX
dC/dt = diffusion rate (change in concentration over time)

De = effective diffusion coefficient
A = cross sectional area for diffusion
dC/dX = concentration gradient (change in concentration over distance)
Diffusion rate is directly proportional to concentration gradient, diffusion coefficient, and the area
available for diffusion to occur
b. Effective diffusion coefficient
Effective diffusion coefficient De = Dw * q * (1/T) * (1/b) where
Dw = diffusion coefficient in water

q = volumetric soil water content
T = tortuosity factor
b = soil buffering capacity
a. Diffusion coefficient in water (Dw)

i. Includes a temperature factor
AgriExam.Com 27
ii. Colder = slower diffusion
b. Soil water content
i. Drier soil = slower diffusion
ii. Less water = less area to diffuse through
c. Tortuosity
i. Pathways through soil are not direct
ii. Around soil particles, through thin water films
iii. Affected by texture and water content
1. More clay = longer diffusion pathway
2. Thinner water films = longer path
d. Buffering capacity
i. Nutrients can be removed by adsorption as they move through soil, reducing
diffusion rate
c. How far can nutrients diffuse in a growing season?
a. Diffusion distances are very short
i. K ~ 0.2 cm
ii. P ~ 0.02 cm
b. Size and density of plant root systems is very important for nutrients supplied by
diffusion
c. Has implications for fertilizer placement
Ion traffic into the root

Mineral nutrients absorbed from the root has to be carried to the xylem. This transport follows two
pathways namely apoplastic pathway and symplastic pathway.
In apoplastic pathway, mineral nutrients along with water moves from cell to cell through spaces
between cell wall by diffusion. The ions, which enter the cell wall of the epidermis move across cell
wall of cortex, cytoplasm of endodermis, cell walls of pericycle and finally reach the xylem.
In symplastic pathway, mineral nutrients entering the cytoplasm of the epidermis move across the
cytoplasm of the cortex, endodermis of pericycle through plasmodesmata and finally reach the xylem.
AgriExam.Com 28
Translocation of solutes
P.R. Stout and Dr. Hoagland have proved that mineral nutrients absorbed by the roots are translocated
through the xylem vessel. Mineral salts dissolved in water moves up along the xylem vessel to be
transported to all the parts of the plant body. Translocation is aided, by transpiration. As water is
continuously lost by transpiration on the upper surfaces of the plant, it creates a transpirational pull, by
which water along with mineral salts is pulled up along the xylem vessel.
Active absorption of energy can be achieved only by an input of energy. Following evidences show
the involvement of metabolic energy in the absorption of mineral salts.
• Higher rate of respiration increases the salt accumulation inside the cell.
• Respiratory inhibitors check the process of salt uptake.
• By decreasing oxygen content in the medium, the salt absorption is also decreased.
These evidences indicate that salt absorption is directly connected with respiratory rate and energy
level in the plant body, as active absorption requires utilization of energy.
References:
http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/mauisoil/c_relationship.aspx
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/plant-nutrition/active-absorption.php

Questions to ponder
1) What is contact exchange?

2) What soil factors influence diffusion of nutrients to roots?
3) What is diffusion?
4) Why is anion adsorption little important in agricultural soils?
5) What is the mechanism of active absorption of iron by roots?
AgriExam.Com 29
7
Nitrogen – Transformation, factors affecting nitrogen availability ,deficiency and toxicity
symptoms

Learning objectives
a. To understand the transformation of nitrogen

b. To know the factors affecting the availability of nitrogen
c. To understand the deficiency symptoms of Nitrogen and corrective measures
Nitrogen
The cheap source of N is the crop residues in temperate region. In tropical soils, the total N
content is 0.03 - 0.1 %. Rainfall is also source of N at 4.6 kg of N / ha is received ha-1 yr -1. It is
converted to NO3 during lighting addition of organic matter and fertilizer is other major sources.
Nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein and also other non protein compounds of great
physiological importance in plant metabolism. It is an integral part of chlorophyll, which is primary
observer of light energy needed for photosynthesis. Nitrogen also imparts vigorous vegetative
growth and governs the utilization of P,K and other elements
Forms of soil nitrogen
Inorganic forms N Organic forms of soil
1. Ammonium NH4+ Amide form (NH2)
2. Nitrite NO2- Plant absorbs N as both
3. Nitrate NO3- NH4-, NO3-.
4. Elemental N (No)
Losses of Nitrogen
1. Crop removal
2. Leaching (or) drainage (11-18% loss)
3. Gaseous losses as NH4 or elemental N2
4. Volatilization.
5. Erosion (8 – 15 kg ha-1yr-1).
6. Ammonia fixation by clays
7. Immobilization in organic materials.
N transformations in soils
a. N - Mineralisation
b. Aminisation
c. Conversation of urea
AgriExam.Com 30
d. N Immobilization.
e. N factor
f. Ammonification.
g. Nitrification
h. Denitrification
i. Organic fixation
j. Elemental N loss.
k.Nitrogen cycle.
N transformations in soils
Nitrogen mineralization
Mineralization is the conversation of organic N to NH4+ as a result of microbial

decomposition. Mineralization increases with a rise in temperature and is enhanced by adequate,
although not excessive, soil moisture and a good supply of O2. Mineralization of organic N involves
in two reactions.
i.e 1) Aminization 2) Ammonification.
Aminisation
Aminisation is the decomposition of proteins and the release of amines, amino acids and
urea is called aminisation.
Bacteria NH2 NH2
Proteins R – C – COOH + R NH2 + C = O + CO2 + Energy
Fungi H2O
H amines NH2
Amino acid Urea.
The initial step in the decomposition of organic matter by the enzymatic digestion of proteins
into amino acids like, peptones and amino acid. Under aerobic protolysis the major end products
are CO2 (NH4)2 SO4 and H2O. Under anaerobic conditions the end products are ammonia, amides,
CO2 and H2S.
The organic compounds and proteins are mainly decomposed by various species of
Pseudomonas,
Bacilli, clostridium, serrotia, Micrococcus
AgriExam.Com 31
Generally in the neutral and sodic soils, bacteria are active and in acidic soils fungi are
active.
Conversion of urea
Urea is a product of ammonization. The hydrolysis of urea by the action of increases

enzyme is effected by Bacilli micrococcus, Pseudomonas, clostridium, Aeromobactor and coryne
bactor.
Co (NH2) + H+ + 2H2O 2NH4+ + HCO3-
NH4+ NH3 + H+
2NH3 + H2 CO3 (NH4)2 CO3 NH4+ + CO32-.
The optimum H2O holding capacity for these reactions is 50 – 75 and optimum temperature is 30 –
50°C.
The NH4 can be utilized by microorganisams and root of higher plants. Some of the
released NH3 is fixed by clay especially illite. A major portion is oxidized to nitrate form. In the
second reaction NO2- is further oxidized to NO3- by nitrobactor
2 NO2- + O2 2 NO3-.
Nitrogen immobilization
“Immobilisation is the process of conversion of inorganic N (NH4+ or NO3-) to organic N and it

is basically the reverse of N mineralization”.
The Microorganisms accumulate NH4 N and NO3 – N in the form of protein, nucleic acid and
other complexes. If C:N ratio is wider than 30, it favours immobilization and lesser C:N ratio
encourage mineralization.
N factor
N factor is the No of units of in organic nitrogen immobilized for each 100 units of materials
under going decomposition”. The average values for the nitrogen factor vary from 0.1 or < to 1.3.
Ammonification
“Amines and Aminoacids produced during aminisation of organic N are decomposed by

other heterotrophs with release of NH4+ is termed Ammonifcation
AgriExam.Com 32
R – NH2 + H2O NH3 + R – OH + energy
H 2O NH4+ + OH –
Nitrification
Nitrification is the process of biological oxidation by which the NH4- Cal form of N converts to
nitrate form of N. There are two steps. (a) NH4 is converted first to NO2- and then to NO3-.
Nitrosomonas
2NH4 + 3O2 2 NO2- + 2 H2O + 4 H+
Nitrosomonas are obligate autotropic bacteria that obtain their energy from the
oxidations of N and their C from CO2.
Others autotrophic bacteria Nitrosolobus, Nitrospira and nitroso vibrio and to some extend
heterotrophic bacteria also can oxidize NH4+ and other N reduces, compounds to NO3-.
Losses of Nitrogen
The major losses of N from the soil are due to (1) crop removal and leaching, however
under certain conditions inorganic N ions can be converted to gases and lost to the atmosphere.
The primary pathway of gaseous N losses are
1. Denitrification
2. NH3 volatilization.
Denitrification
Denitrification is the biochemical reduction of NO3N or NO2N to gaseous N, either as

molecular Nitrogen or an oxide of Nitrogen. The most probable bio chemical pathway is
NO3 NO2 NO N 2O N2
Nitrate Nitrite Nitric Nitrous Nitrogen
oxide oxide
Nitrogen fixation
The conversation of elemental nitrogen to organic forms readily use able in biological
process. Vermicullite and illite are capable of fixing NH4+ by a replacement of K- or Na+ for interlayer
cations in the expended lattice of clay minerals. The radius of NH4 ion 0.143° A. K+ ion 0.133°A.
AgriExam.Com 33
Because of NH4 and K have more or less same charge, they easily replace each other in the
exchange sites.
Organic fixation
It the soil has more organic matter the NH4 will lockup as a complex. There complex are
called Chelates. It release the nutrients only after its molecular break down. The facultative
aerobic bacteria tiles pseudomonas, bacillus, porococcus are responsible for denitrification. It also
depends upon the texture of soil. In heavy clay soils loss is upto 50% of added fertilizer.
Elemental N loss
It is due to chemical reduction. If chemical fertilizer containing amide (or) NH4 form of N, it
may be oxidized to elemental N and lost.
2NHO2 + CO(NH2)2 CO2 + 3H2O +2 NH2
Sources of N leading to N and NO2 gaseous loss
1. Denitrification
NO3- NO2- NO N 2O N2
2. Nitrification
NH4- NH2OH NO2 NO3-
3. Nitrates and Ammonium

NH4+ + NO2- N2 + 2H2O
4. Nitriates and aminoacids.

HNO2 + RNH2 N2 + ROH + H2O
5. Lignin : HNO2 + lignin N2 + N2O + CH3O NO
6. Phenols : Phenol N2 + N2O + Organic residue
7.Decomposition of nitrous acid / reaction with metal cations.
3 HNO2 2NO + 2 HNO3 + H2O
Mn2+ + HNO2 + H+ Mn3+ + NO + H2O
Fe2+ + HNO2 + H Fe 3+ + NO + H2O
8. NH3 Gas
9. Urea : (NH4)2CO + H2O 2NH3 + CO2
AgriExam.Com 34
10. NH4 Salts : NH4 + OH NH3 + H2O
11. Decomposition of residues and manures
Release and volatilization of NH3
Nitrogen cycle
The cycling of N in the soil – plant – atmosphere system involves many transformations of
N between inorganic and organic forms.
The N cycle can be divided into
1. N inputs or gains.
2. N outputs of losses
3. N cycling with in the soil.
1. N in plant and animal residues and N derived from the atmosphere through electrical,
combustion, biological and industrial process is added to the soil.
2. N in the residues is mobilized as NH4 by soil organisms as an end product of residue
decomposition, plant roots absorb a portion of the NH4.
3. Much of the NH4 is converted to No3- by nitrifying bacteria in a process called
nitrifications.
4. NO3 is taken up by the plant roots and is used to produce the protein in crops that are
eaten by humans or fed to live stocks.
5. Some NO3 is lost to ground H2O or drainage systems as a results of downward
movement through the soil in perculating H2O.
6. Some NO3 is consorted by denitrifying bacteria in to N2 and N2O that escape into the
atmosphere, completely the cycle.
The nitrogen cycle

Source: http://www.physicalgeography.net
AgriExam.Com 35
Important microorganisms in BNF
Organism
Properties Active location
s
Azotobac Aerobic, Soil, water,

ter free living rhizosphere, leaf
surface
Azospirill Micro Free living in

um aerobic Rhizosphere;
rhizobacteri Colonize roots of
a; free cereals and also gives
fixers phytotonic effect
Rhizobiu Symbiotic Root nodules of

m legumes
Actinomy Symbiotic Non leguminous

cetes, forest tree roots, leaf
Frankia, surfaces
Beijerinck
ia
Cyanoba Photo In wetland flood

cteria autotrophic water; Anabaena
Anabaena - associate with Azolla
symbiotic
Symbiotic N fixation
The symbiosis is the mutually beneficial relationship between host plant and
bacteria. The location of association is in root or stem nodules, inside cavities, or by
colonizing and penetrating plant tissue.
AgriExam.Com 36
Legume (nodule forming)
Legumes and bacteria of the genera Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium provide
the major biological source of fixed N (40-60%) in agricultural soils. These organisms
infect the root hairs and the cortical cells, ultimately inducing the formation root nodules
that serve as the site of N fixation. The host plant supplies the bacteria with
carbohydrates for energy and the bacteria reciprocate by supplying the plant with fixed N
compound.
Effective nodules cluster on primary roots and have pink to red centers. The red colour of
the nodule is attributed to the occurrence of leghemoglobin. The quantity of N fixed by properly
nodulated legume averages about 75% of the total N used for the plant growth. The amount of
BNF varies with Rhizobium strain, host plant, and environment.
Yield of non-legume crops often increase when they are grown following legumes
(e.g. maize after soybean). Maximum N fixation occurs only when available soil N is at a
minimum. When optimum conditions for N fixation is not prevailing, a legume crop can
deplete soil N greatly, more than a cereal, if the legume grown is not incorporated into
the same soil.
Fixer Host plant
Rhizobium Alfalfa, clover, peas, bean, soybean
Gliricidia, Leuceana, Sesbania, Mimosa, Acacia

3 (3/4)
Bradyrhizobium Cowpea, groundnut, red gram

Non-legume (nodule forming)

Roots of many species of angiosperm trees like casuarina in forests and wetlands
form distinct nodules when infected with Actinomycetes of the genus Frankia.
Non-legume (non-nodule forming)
AgriExam.Com 37
Azospirillum, Azotobacter, and Azorhizobium, dominant N fixers in cereals like rice,
wheat, corn, sorghum, millets can grow on root surfaces and penetrate root tissues. The
organisms use carbohydrates of root exudates as source of energy. They also induce crop
growth by hormonal action. The organism Beijerinckia fixes N on leaf surfaces of tropical plants.
The Anabaena blue green algae (Cyanobacteria) inhabit cavities in the leaves of the
floating water fern Azolla and fix quantities of N comparable to those of the better Rhizobium-
legume complex. It could fix about 30-105 kg N/ season taking care of 75% N requirement of
rice.
Nonsymbiotic N fixation
In wetland floodwater photoautotrophic Cyanobacteria independently do
photosynthesis and fix N up to 20–30 kg N/ ha/ year. The excess ammonia is excreted in
floodwater, which is beneficially absorbed by rice plants.
Free-living heterotroph bacteria like Azotobacter and Beijerinckia in aerobic upland

soils and Clostridium in anaerobic wetland soils effectively fix N in pockets where O2 supply is
limited. Fixation depends upon the pH, soil N level, and source of organic matter.
Industrial fixation of N
Commercially produced N is the most important source of plant nutrient in
agriculture. Industrial N fixation is by Haber-Bosch process, in which H2 and N2 gases
react to form NH3 under high temperature (1200O C) and pressure (500 atm). Anhydrous
NH3 can directly be used as fertilizer or combined to other ions as solid forms.
N additions from atmosphere

Ammonia escapes in to atmosphere from soils, manures, and industries because of
volatilization. Organic N compounds remain in fine dust of air lifted from earth surface.
Rainfall brings down to soil NH3, NO3-, NO2-, N2O, and organic N. About 10 to 20% of the
NO3- in the rainfall is due to fixation of N2 by energy of lightning.
AgriExam.Com 38
Deficiency and toxicity symptoms of Nitrogen in plants
Deficiency of N:
1. Plants are stunted and yellow in appearance.

2. The loss of protein N from chloroplasts. In older leaves produces the yellowing or chlorosis.
It appears first on the lower leaves, the upper leaves remain green, while under severe N
deficiency lower leaves will turn brown and die.
3. The necrosis begins at the leaf tip and progress along the midrib until the leaf is dead.
In cauliflower - young leaves turn pale yellow and old leaves become orange.
In coffee - Veins becomes yellow and new leaves are very small.
Tomato - Stem become purple and hard. Flower buds become yellow and flower dropping
rate also increases
Excess of Nitrogen (Toxicity of nitrogen)
a. Causes excess vegetative growth, dark green leaves, lodging, maturity is delayed with
increases susceptibility to pest and disease.
b. In cotton, weak fibre are resulted. In rice, lodging is common.
c. Lengthening of crop duration and narrow leaf.
d. Slender shoot, profuse vegetation, thick peel and skin will be rough and leathery in the
case of citrus.
e. Excess N in coffee plant, interferes the K uptake causing imbalance between N and K.
References

Singh, S.S.1995.Soil fertility and Nutrient Management. Kalyani Publishers,Ludhiana.
Maliwal,G.L. and Somani,L.L. 2011.Soil Technology.Agrotech Publishing academy, Udaipur.
Questions to ponder
1) How does the soil pH affect the nitrogen availability?

2) What climatic factors influence nitrogen availability to crops?
3) What is nitrogen fixation?
4) What is C: N ratio?
5) How does salinity affect nitrogen availability?
AgriExam.Com 39
8
Phosphorus – Transformation, factors affecting Phosphorus availability, deficiency and
toxicity symptoms

Learning objectives
a. To understand the transformation of phosphorus

b. To know the factors affecting the fixation of phosphorus
c. To understand the deficiency symptoms of Phosphorus
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is taken up by the plant in the form of H2PO4- HPO4= PO4-= through diffusion
and mass flow action.
The P availability mainly depends on pH. In acid soils (Al & Fe) the presence of Al, Fe, Mn,
P gets fixed as AlPO4, FePO4 and not available to the plants. Some times as CaPO4. these are
insoluble in H2O.
Under hilly areas (or) high rainfall areas, all the cations will be leached leaving Fe, Al and
Mn. The P availability will be reduced.
Ideal pH for available P = 6.5 - 7.5. If pH > 8.5 the fixation will be more. < 6.5 the fixation
will be more.
Forms of P
Organic P : Nucleic acid and Phospho lipids
Rock Phosphate - acid soluble. If the organic matter content is high the availability of P is
more since it is soluble in acid. It is highly suited to plantation crops. Rock Phosphates is black in
colour. Roots also exudates acids, which will solublises the P.
Fixation is high so the P2O5 deficiency is 15 – 35%.
P is present as Apatities
1. Chlor - Ca10 (PO4)6 Cl2.
2. Fluor - Ca10(PO4)6 F2.
3. Carbonate - Ca10(PO4)6 Co3.
4. Hydroxy - Ca10(PO4)6 (OH)2.
AgriExam.Com 40
Based on solubility the P fertilizers can be grouped into 4 groups.
1. H2O soluble : (i) SSP 16% P as H2O soluble
P : (ii)TSP 45% P as H2O soluble
2. Citrate soluble : Dicalcium PO4 34% P2O5.

P : Tricalcium PO4 24%
3. Acid soluble P : Anhydrious Rock phosphate 16 - 18 %
4. Both H2O and citrate soluble P: Kotka PO4 25% P2O5.
Rock phosphate is obtained in Bihar: Singlahe
Rajaithan: Udaipur
Uttar Pradesh: Mussoorri
Andhra Pradesh: Kasi pattinam
Phosphorus occurs in most plants in concentrations between 0.1 and 0.4%. Plants absorb
either H2Po4- or H + PO42- ortho PO4 ions Absorption of H2PO4- is greatest at low pH values, where
as uptake of HPO42- is greater at higher values of soil pH, plant uptake of HPO4- is much slower
than H2PO4-.
Functions of P
1. It has a greater role in energy storage and transfer.

2. It is a constituent of nucleic acid, phytin and phospholipids
3. It is essential for cell division and development
4. P compounds act as energy currency within plants. The most common P energy
currency is that found in ADP and ATP. Transfer of the energy rich PO4 molecules from
ATP to energy requiring substances in the plant is known as “Phosphorylation”
5. It stimulates early root development and growth and there by helps to establish
seedlings quickly.
6. It gives rapid and vigorous start to plants strengthen’s straw and decreasess lodging
tendency.
7. It is essential for seed formation because larger quantities of P is found in seed and fruit-
phytic acid is the principle storage from of phosphorus in seeds.
8. It increases the activity of Rhizobia and increases the formation of root nodules.
Soil P its origin and Nature
Soil P exists in many primary and secondary compounds. The apatite group of primary
mineral is the original source i.e. 55% of soil P.
AgriExam.Com 41
a) Aluminium and Iron Phosphates
In the initial stages of acid weathering Po4 becomes increasingly bound to Fe3+ and Al3+ ions
released from silicate minerals by replacing OH- from hydroxyl minerals or oxygen from oxide
minerals. FePO4 and ZnPO4 has been found in H2O logged or poorly drained soils, sand and silt
fraction of some soils.
Calcium phosphates
The group of compounds form an important category in the young soils and the matured
soils of neutral to alkaline pH ranges. The CaPO4 found either in stable or metastable state in
the soil fertilizer reaction zones.
Eg. Fluorapatite - Ca10(PO4)3 Fe
Carbonate apatite - Ca10(PO4)3 Co3
Dlcalcium Po4 - Ca HPO4 2H2O
Monocalcium Po4 - CaH2PO4 H2O.
Organic phosphates
It is derived secondarily by the addition of organic matter to the soil through the growth of
plants and the deposition of plant residues. The soil micro organic synthesize organic PO4
compounds and accumulate in the soil mixed with derived from plant tissues. It constitute 20 – 30%
of total soil P. The major classes of organic compounds in soils are
a. Phospholipids (0.6 – 0.9%)

b. Phospho proteins of nucleic acid ( 0.6 – 2.4%)
c. Phosphorylated sugar
d. Phytin and Inositol PO4
The ideal C : N : P : S ratio in soils are
a. Calcarious 113 : 10 : 1.3 : 1.3
b. Non calcarious 147 : 10 : 2.5 : 1.4
c. Indian soils 144 : 10 : 1.4 : 1.8
AgriExam.Com 42
Chemistry of solid phosphorus compounds and their equilibrium
The PO4 concentration in soil solution is governed by the heterogenous equilibrium.
P adsorbed in soil Po4 P in soil solution ‘ P’ precipitated in soil solution.
The reactions involved in soil Po4 equilibrium are dissolution, precipitation, solubility
product principle.
By using radio active p32 Larsen (1952) characterized the total soil PO4 into Labile and
Non labile fractions and found the size of the labile pool primarily depended on soil properties and
not a function of the total content of inorganic P. he correlated and equilibrium of
Non labile soil P Labile soil P P in soil solution.
Fixation of phosphorus in soil
“It is the way of removal of PO4 from solution by soil which reduces the amount that plant
roots can absorb”.
The factors affecting P fixation are.
1. clay minerals
The PO4 is fixed by clay minerals by reacting with soluble aluminum which originates from
the exchanges sites or from lattice dissociation to from a highly insoluble AlPo4.
2. Iron and Aluminum (fixation in acid soils)
The formation of Iron and aluminium PO4 in the soil results from the combination of P with
these metals in solution and their oxides hydroxides in acid soil.
2Al + 3 H2Po4 → Al2 (PO4)3 + 2 H2O + 2H+
3. Exchange cations and calcium carbonate (Fixation alkaline soils)
In calcareous soils, free Ca CO3 is a potent sources for ‘P’ fixation. P fixation in calcareous
soil involved a rapid monolayer sorption of P in dilute concentration In CaCo3 surfaces and form
less soluble compounds of di and tricalcium PO4.
Ca(H2 Po4)2 + 2 CaCo3 Ca3(Po4)2 + 2Co2 + 2 H2O
AgriExam.Com 43
4. Organic matter
Organic Po4 can be fixed by soil organic matter also influences in Organic Po4 fixation. The
acids produced during the transformations of Organic matter could decreases the pH and increases
fixation by the solubilization of Fe and Al.
P Fixation in soil in affected by
1. Nature and Amount of soil minerals
Soils have high amount of Fe and Al oxides, crystalline hydrous metal oxides are usually
capable of retaining more P than amorphous forms. P adsorbed to a greater extend by 1 : 1 than 2:
1 clays. The greater amounts P fixed by 1 : 1 clays is probably due to the higher amounts of Fe
and Al oxides, associated with kaolinite clays that are predominate in highly weathered soils. Soils
containing large quantities of clay will fix more P than soils with low clay content.
2. Soil pH
a. Fixation of P by Fe and Al oxides decreases with increasing

pH.
b. P availability is more in soils at a max in the pH range of 5.5

to 6.5
c. At low pH values, Fe and Al ions reacts with to from al Po4

and FePo4 oxides.
d. As the pH increases, the activity of Fe and Al decreases and

the results of higher amount of P librates into soil solution.
Above pH 7.0, Ca2+ can precipitate with P as Ca –PO4
mineral and P availability again decreases.
3. Cation effects
Divalent cations enhance the P fixation than monovalent cations.
4. Anion effects
Both organic and Inorganic anions can compete with P for adsorption sites, resulting in
decreases the fixation of P.
AgriExam.Com 44
5. Organic matter
Addition of organic matter to soils increased P availability by
a. Formation of organoPo4 complexes that are more easily assimilate by plants.

b. Anion replacement of H2Po4- on adsorption sites.
c. Coating of Fe and Al particles by humus to form a productive cover and thus reduce the
P fixation.
6. Temperature
The rate of most chemical and biological reactions increases with increasing temperature.
Mineralization of P from soil organic matter is dependent on soil biological activity an increases in
temperature.
7. Flooding
In most soils there is an increases in available P after flooding largely due to conversion of
Fe3+ PO4 to soluble Fe2+ PO4 and hydrolysis of Al PO4 and thereby prevent the fixation of P in soils.
8. R2O3 : P2O5 (Ratio)
“R2O3 : P2O5 (Ratio) is a measure of amount of P present in the soil”. A wide ratio indicates
a small P fixation and vice versa. When the ratio is narrow P fixation is more.
9. Addition of Zn So4
It may also cause P deficiency since it forms insoluble complex with P. This can be averted
by addition of ZnSo4 more and more.
P Cycle
“Process by which P moves form solid and liquid phase and transformation is called P
cycle”. P is taken mostly by diffusion in plants.
I. The decreases in soil solution P concentration with absorption by plants roots is buffered by both
inorganic and organic fractions in soils.
Primary and secondary P minerals dissolve to re supply H2PO4- / HPO4= in soluble.
Inorganic P adsorbed on mineral and clay surfaces as H2PO4- or HPO4= (liable inorganic P)
also can desorbs to buffer decreases in soil solution P. Numerous soil micro organic digest plant
residues containing P and produce many organic plant compounds in soil and it can be mineralized
through microbial activity to supply solution P.
H2O soluble fertilizer P applied to soil readily dissolves and increases the concentration of
soil solution.
AgriExam.Com 45
II. In addition to uptake of P by roots, solution P can be adsorbed on minerals surfaces and
precipitated as organic P and these organic P compounds are more resistant to microbial
degradation.
Soil solution P is called Intensity factor, while organic and inorganic labile P fractions are
collectively Quantity factor.
Maintenance of solution P concentration for adequate P nutrition in the plant depends on the
ability of labile P to replace soil solution P. “The ratio of quantity to intensity factor in called the
capacity factor, “which express the relative ability of the soil to buffer changes in soil
solution”.
P cycle can be simplified to Soil solution labile P Non labile P
(Inorganic) (Organic)
Plant resides
P fertilizer Puptake
Primary Solution Bacteria, fungi actinomycetes
Sec.min. P Microbial P protozoa nematodes Chemically and
Physically protected
organic P, non labile P
Labile Inorganic P Labile Organic P
AgriExam.Com 46
Source: http://phsgirard.org/Biology/Ecology/PhosphorusCycle.jpg
Y value / L value (Larsens Value)
Larsen measured the quantity of soil P involved in the isotopic dilution of applied radio active
P during a growing season. It is used to calculate P supply of the soil.
L (or) Y = Kx (Co - C)
Where, L = Avail P in soil
Co = K x total P in the Plant
C = K x P taken by the plant
K = Proportionality constant.
Deficiency symptoms
P is mobile in plants and when a deficiency occurs it is translocated from older tissues to the
active meristematic regions.
1. It arrests metabolism resulting in reduction of total N of

Plants.
AgriExam.Com 47
2. Reduced sugar content.
3. Premature leaf fall.
4. Develops necrotic area on the leaf petiole and in the fruit
5. Leaves will show characteristic bluish green colour.
Toxicity of phosphorus
a. Profuse root growth i.e. lateral and fibrous root lets.

b. It develops normal growth having green leaf colour.
c. It may cause in some cases trace elements deficiencies i.e. Zinc and Iron.
References

http://phsgirard.org/Biology/Ecology/PhosphorusCycle.jpg
Questions to ponder
1) What is the role of soil pH in P availability?

2) P fixation is a blessing in disguise.How?
3) What are the natural sources of P?
4) What is C: P ratio?
5) How does calcareousness affect P availability?
AgriExam.Com 48
9.
Potassium – Transformation, factors affecting Potassium availability, deficiency and
toxicity symptoms

Learning objectives
a. To understand the transformation of Potassium

b. To study the forms of K and factors affecting K availability
c. To understand the deficiency symptoms of Potassium
Potassium
The potassium ion (K+) is actively taken up soil solution by plant roots. The concentration of
K+ in vegetative tissue ranges from 1 to 4% on dry matter basis.
Functions of potassium
1.
Essential for photosynthesis, development of chlorophyll.
2.
It improves vigour of the plants to enable to with stand adverse climatic conditions.
3.
Reduces lodging in cereal crops.
4.
It regulates stomata opening and closing.
5.
It regulates the movement of ions with in the plants and hence it is called traffic policeman of
the plant.
6. Activation of enzymes, enzyme synthesis, peptide bonds synthesis.
7. Regulates H2O imbalance within the plant.
Sources of K
The micas and fieldspars constitute the major K bearing minerals which on weathering slowly
release K to the soil.
(Muscovite and biotite) (Orthoclase and microcline)
K-Feldspar: KAlSi3O10.
Courtesy: http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/12/12.108/f04/imagegallery/lab3/lab3-32.html
AgriExam.Com 49
Forms of potassium in soils
a. Water soluble K.
b. Exchangeable K.
c. Fixed or Non exchangeable K.
d. Lattice or Mineral K.
The different forms are in dynamic equilibrium with one another and represented as follows.
Slow fast
Fixed K Exchangeable K H2O soluble K
Lattice Reserve K
Water soluble K
The Concentration of H2O soluble K in soil depends on (a) type of day (b) H2O content (c)
Intensity of leaching (d) Amount of exchange K (e) Kind and concentration of other ions.
The dilution of the soil, increases the concentration of H2O soluble K and drying decreases it.
The uptake of K is influenced by the presence of other cations, ie Ca2+ and Mg2+, Al3+ (acidic soils)
and Na+ in salt affected soils.
The activity ratio (AReK ) = Activity of K+
√ activity of Ca2+ and Mg2+
(or)
= ak
√aCa- Mg
2. Exchangeable K
The K adsorbed on soil clay complex and replaceable with neutral salts in relatively short time.
The Cl reacts with soil Ca and form Ca Cl2 which is leached by high rainfall. Hence K is called as
Decalcifier
3. Non exchangeable or Fixed K
Added K which is firmly bound by the soil and not immediately replaceable with neutral salts.
4. Lattice K or Mineral K
Muscovite, biotite and K feldspar. The capacity of soils to release lattice K by weathering
depends on the content of K minerals and soil texture.
AgriExam.Com 50
Potassium fixation
The important of K fixation is to regulate the supply of the soil a for the plants and protects it
against loss through leaching.
In the dynamics of soil Potassium, the phenomenon of fixation of exchange K and the
liberation of non-exchange K play an important role. K ions are relatively small to enter the silica
sheets where they are held firmly by electrostatic forces. The presence of K+ ions can block the
release of fixed NH4+ and vice visa.
Factors affecting K fixation.
1. Soil texture : Increases the texture grater will be fixation and vice visa.
2. Wetting and drying: Fixation is more under dry condition than wet condition.
3. Type of day min: Fixation is more in 2:1 type than 1: 1 type
4. Freezing and thawing : Enhances the fixation of K depends their clay mineralogy and
degree of weathering
5. Soil pH : A decreases in pH reduces the K fixation either as result of competition of H3O+
for the inter layer exchange position. Liming also favors for the fixation of K.
Factors affecting K availability in plants
a. Kind of clay minerals: Soils containing vermiculite or montmorilonite will have more K than
kaolinite clay soils.
b. Cation exchange capacity: Increases texture soils having higher CEC and can hold more
exchange K.
c. Amount of exchangeable K: More K in soil solution leads to
Higher fixation.
d. Subsoil K and rooting depth: Low soil temperature may exhibit K release and diffusion, thus
increasing crop response to K
e.Soil moisture: fertilization increasing K levels or moisture contain will accelerate K diffusion.
6. Soil temperature : The reduced temperature slow down plant process plant growth and
rate of K uptake.
7. Soil aeration : Under high moisture levels or incompact soils root growth is restricted, O2
supply is lowered and absorptions of K is slowed.
8. Soil pH : In very acid soils, toxic amount of exchange Al3+ and Mn2+ create unfavorable root
environment for uptake of K and other nutrients.
9. Ca and Mg : K uptake would be reduced as Ca2+ and Mg2+ are increased or uptake of these
two cations would be reduced as the available supply of K is increased.
10.Tillage: Tillage is increased that K availability is reduced because of increases compaction,
less aeration and lower temperature.
AgriExam.Com 51
Plant factors affecting K availability
1. CEC of Roots :Important for determining the ability of plants to absorb like more slowly
available forms of soil K.
2. Root system and crop :Higher root density, higher the removal of exchange K and soil solution
K. Fibrous root system absorbs more K than tap root system.
3. Variety or Hybrid :Hybrid absorbs more K than variety.
4. Plant population :Higher plant population and closer spacing increased the K removal.
Deficiency symptoms
1. Plant becomes stunted in growth with shortening of internodes and busy in appearance.
2. K deficiency in plants show reduced rate of photosynthesis.
3. Chlorosis, yellowing of leafs and leaf scarch in case of fruits trees.
Rice : The leave tips will dark brown in colour and blades will blueish green, chlorotic and
necrotic are seen.
Banana : Deficiency is seen in the margin and bottom of leaves.
Grapes : Leaves are yellow with brown spots which are necrotic, brittle with uneven ripening.
References

http://ocw.mit.edu
Questions to ponder
1) What is luxury consumption?

2) What is activity ratio and what does it measure?
3) How does CEC affect the amount of K in solution?
4) What is the effect of K: Ca ratio in K availabity?
5) Does fixed K tend to become available to plants?
AgriExam.Com 52
10.
Secondary nutrients – Transformation, factors affecting nutrient availability, deficiency
and toxicity symptoms

Learning objectives
a. To understand the transformation of secondary elements

b. To study the forms of secondary nutrients and factors affecting the availability
c. To understand the deficiency symptoms of secondary nutrients
Calcium
Calcium is absorbed by plants as Ca2+ and its concentration ranges from 0.2 to 1.0% and it is
supplied through mass flow method.
Functions of calcium
1. It is immobile in plants and hence the deficiency is observed in younger leaves.

2. It is a constituent of cell wall and increases in stiffness of plants.
3. Promotes root development and growth of plants, root elongation and cell division.
4. Helps to translocate the sugar in the plants.
5. It involves chromosome stability and that it is a constituent of chromosome structure.
6. Affects translocation of CHO in plants.
7. Encourages seed production.
8. Activates enzyme phosphate and kinease.
9. Accumulated protein during respiration by mitochondria and it increases their protein content.
10. It binds DNA to protein molecules.
Deficiency of calcium
a. Young leaves of terminal buds dieback at the tip and margins.

b. Normal growth in affected.
c. Root may become short, stubby and brown.
d. Causes acidity of soil.
e. Cell may become rigid and brittle.
f. Young leaves of cereals remain folded.
AgriExam.Com 53
Sources of soil calcium
Earth crust contains about 3.64%. The important source of calcium is anorthite (Ca Al2,
Si2O3). Generally arid region soils contain high amount of Ca regard less of texture, low rainfall and
little leaching.
In arid and semiarid regions Calcite (CaCo3)
Dolomite (Ca, Mg, (Co3)2)
Gypsum (CaSo4, 2H2O)
In humid regions, even the soils formed from limestone are frequently acid in the surface
layers because of the removal of Ca and other cations by leaching.
Calcium transformations in soils
In acid and humid region soils ca occurs largely in exchange form and as primary minerals. In
most of these soils Ca2+, Al 3+ and H+ dominates the exchange complex.
The forms of Ca are
1)Solution Ca2+ / Mg2+
2)Exchangeable Ca/Mg
3)Mineral Ca/Mg.
The activity of solution Ca is decreased by leaching or plant removal. If solution Ca is

increased, the equilibrium shifts in the opposite direction with subsequent desorption of some of the
Ca2++ by the exchange complex. The rate of solution Ca is less complex than of K+. It may be (a)
Lost in drainage H2O’s. (b) absorbed by organisms (c) adsorbed on the CEC (d) Repricipitated as
secondary calcium compound.
Factors affecting Ca2+ availability
1. Total Ca supply :Sandy acidic soils with low CEC having less Ca.
2. Soil pH:In acid soils Ca is not readily available to plants at low concentration.
3. CEC:Soils having low CEC might will supply more Ca2+.
4. % Ca saturation:High Ca2+ saturation indicates favourable pH for plant growth and microbial
activity.
5. Type of soil colloid: 2 : 1 type require higher Ca saturation than 1: 1 type.
6. Ratio of Ca2+ to other cations : Increasing the Al3+ conc. in soil solution reduces Ca uptake in
plant.
AgriExam.Com 54
Magnesium
Magnesium is absorbed as Mg2+ and the concentration in crop varies between 0.1 and 0.6%.
It was taken by plant by Mass flow and diffusion.
Functions of Mg in plants
1. Primary constituent of chlorophyll

2. Imports dark green Colour in leaves.
3. Serves as a structural components in ribosomes and stabilizing the ribosome configuration for
protein synthesis.
4. Involves numbers of physiological and biochemical function.
5. Activates phosphorylating enzymes in CHO metabolism.
6. Act as a cofactor for certain enzymes other than Po4 transfer enzyme.
7. Increases in the oil content of oil seed crops.
8. Regulates the uptake of other nutrients.
Deficiency of Magnesium
1. Interveinal chlorosis of the leaf in which only the leave veins remain green.
2. Stiff brittle, twisted leaves, wrinkled and distortion of leaves.
3. cotton –lower leaves may develop a reddish purple finally nicrotic (Redding of leaves)
4. In brassica, Chlorosis with interveinal mottling uniformly distributed in older leaves while the
other vascular tissues remain green. This condition is called “Puckering”.
Sources of soil Magnesium
It constitutes 1.93% of earth crust
Primarily minerals (a) Biotite (b) Dolomite (c) Hornblende (d) olivine (e) serpentine.
Secondary minerals (a) Chlorite (b) Illite (c) Montmorillonite.
In arid region substantial amount of Mg present as Epsomite (Mg So4 7H2O)
Forms of Mg in the soil
1. It occurs predominately as exchange and solution mg.

2. Coarse text soil exhibits the greatest potential for Mg deficiencies.
3. Competition bet NH4+ and Mg2+ also lower the Mg2+ availability to crops.
Losses of Mg
It is leached by soils and it depends on the Mg content, rate of weathering, intensity of

weathering and uptake of plants.
Sulphur
Sulphur is absorbed by plant roots as So42- ions. Concentration of S in plants range between 0.1 and
0.4%.
Functions of sulphur
1. Essential for synthesis of sulphur containing amino acids cystine, cysteine and methionine.
AgriExam.Com 55
2. Essential for synthesis of other metabolites including Co-enzyme A., Biotin, Thiamin of vitamin
B and Glutothione.
3. Synthesis of chlorophyll.
4. It is a vital part of ferredoxins i.e Fe – S – protein occurring in the chloroplasts.
5. Responsible for the characteristic smell or odor and taste of mustard, onion and Garlic.
(Puncy smell)
6. Enhances the oil formation in crops (Soya bean)
7. Increasing root growth.
8. Stimulate seed formation.
9. Promote nodule formation – Leguminous species.
Deficiency of sulphur
a. Stunted growth pale green to yellow colour.

b. Immobile in plants and plants symptoms start first at younger leaves.
c. Poor seed set in rapeseed.
d. Tea –Tea yellows.
Sources of sulphur
1. Amount has <0.05 ppm in the form of So2.

2. Earth crust contains 0.06 to 0.10%.
3. Sulphur bearing minerals Gypsum - CaSo4 2 H2O.
Epsomite - MgSo4, 7H2O
Mirabilite - Na2So4, 10 H2O.
Pyrite - FeS2.
4. Silicate min contains <0.01 % S.

5. Igneous rocks 0.02 to 0.07%
Sedimentary rocks 0.02 to 0.22%
Forms of sulphur in soil
Present both organic (90%) and Inorganic forms.
The inorganic forms are
1. Solution So42-.
2. Adsorbed So4= Readily available fraction.
3. Insoluble So4=
4. Reduced inorganic compounds.
Factors affecting S oxidation in soils
a. Microbial population in soil.

b. Characteristics of the ‘S’ source
c. Soil environmental condition.
d. Soil micro flora Chemolithotropic S bacteria Thiobacilli utilized energy from oxide of
Inorganic S for the fixation of Co2 in Organic matter.
e. Soil temperature
An increase in temperature increases the S oxidation rate in soil. Ideal temperature 25 –

40°C.
AgriExam.Com 56
f. Soil moisture and aeration
S oxidizing bacteria are mostly aerobic and their activity will decline if O2 is lacking due to H2O
logging. Favourable moisture is field capacity moisture.
g. Soil pH: Optimum pH 4.0 or lower.
S transformation in soils
Numerous transformations of S in soil occur from inorganic to organic forms due to the
presence of hetero tropic micro organic viz.,. Thiobacillus, chlorabium, Desulfotomaculam and
Desulfovibrio.
When plant and animal residues are returned to the soil they are digested by microorganism
releasing of the S as So4=. Most of the S remains in organic form and becomes part of soil humus.
The S supply to plants in largely depend on the So4= released from the organic soil fractions and from
the plant and animal residues.
S Mineralization and immobilization
Mineralization of “S” is the conversion of organic S to inorganic So4=.
Immobilisation is the conversion of So4= to organic S.
Sulphur cycle
http://www.agweb.com/assets/1/9/NewsMainImage/sulfur_cycle2.jpg
Factors affecting S mineralization and Immobilization.
1. S content of organic matter
Mineralization of S depends on the S content of he decomposing material, smaller amounts of

=
So4 are liberated from low S containing residue.
2. Source of mineralizable sulphur :
Most of the available S removed by plants from the So4= fraction of labile S in soil Organic
matter.
AgriExam.Com 57
3. Soil Temperature
Mineralization of S is impeded @ 10°C increases with increasing temperature from 20°C to

40°C and decreases of temperature >40°C.
4. Soil moisture
Mineralization occurs in optimum moisture conditions.
5. Soil pH
S released is directly proportional to pH up to pH 7.5. Above 7.5 mineralization increases

more rapidly.
6. Absence or presence of plants.
Soils mineralization more S in the presence of growing plants than in their absence.
7. Time and cultivation
8. S Volatilization
Volatile S compounds are produced through microbial transformations under both aerobic and
anaerobic conditions. The volatile compounds are dimethyl sulfide (CH3 SCH3) (CS2) Carbandi
sulphide and mercaptons (CH3SH).
In low organic matter soils, S volatilization is negligible and increases with increasing organic
matter content.
Practical aspects of S transformations.
1. Crops grown on coarse texture soils are generally more susceptible to S deficiency because
these soils having low organic matter content and So4= leaching.
2. Leaching losses of So4= can occur highly on coarse texture soils under high rainfall. Under
such conditions, So4= containing fertilizers maybe applied more frequently
3. Immobilization of added S can occur in soils having a high. C/S or N/S ratio. S
mineralisation is favored in soils with a low C/S or N/S ratio. S availability generally increases
with organic matter content.
4. Actual amount of S needed will depend on the balance between all soil additions of S by
precipitation, air, irrigation H2O, crop residues fertilizers, Agriculture Chemicals and all losses
through crop removal. Leaching and erosion.
References

http://agropedialabs.iitk.ac.in/agrilore
http://technology.infomine.com/enviromine/ard/microorganisms/roleof.htm
http://www.agweb.com/article/the_secrets_of_sulfur/
AgriExam.Com 58
Questions to ponder
1) What is the importance of C:N:P:S ratio to the availability of soil sulphur?

2) Is Magnesium fixed in soils?
3) How is a low calcium soil condition usually corrected?
4) Which crops have high calcium requirement?
5) Can climate influence the availability and uptake of Calcium and Magnesium?
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11.
Micro nutrients – Transformation, factors affecting nutrient availability, deficiency and
toxicity symptoms

Learning objectives
a. To understand the transformation of micronutrients

b. To study the forms of micronutrients and factors affecting the availability
c. To understand the deficiency symptoms of micro nutrients
Iron
Fe is absorbed by plants roots as Fe2+, Fe3+ and chelected irons. Sufficiency range of Fe
in plant tissue is 50-250 ppm.
Functions of Iron
1. It helps in the synthesis of chlorophyll.
2. Structural component of porphyrin molecules like cytochromes, hematin, hemes, ferrichrome

and hemoglobin. These substance are involved in oxidation-reduction reactors in respiration
and photosynthesis.
3. Structural component of non hemine compounds like ferredoxins.
4. Constituent of enzyme systems Egl cytochrome oxidase, catalase, nitrogenase reaction in

plants.
5. Component of flavoprotein like
FMN = Flavin mono nucleotides
FAD = Flavin Adinosine Dinudeotide.
Deficiency symptoms
1. Deficiency symptoms occurs in younger leaves since Fe is immobile element within plant.
2. It occurs in soils of calcareous or alkaline soils and poorly drained H2O logged soils.
3. Younger leaves develop interveinal chlorosis with progresses rapidly over the entire leaf.
Severe cases entire leaf turns yellow colour.
Sources of iron
Earth crust contains about 5%
Primary and secondary minerals such as
1.Olivene,2.Pyrite3.Hematite,4.Goethite,5.Magrulite 6.limestone
Forms of iron
Fe occurs in Four major forms in soil.
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1. Primary and secondary minerals Fe
2. Adsorbed Fe
3. Organic Fe and
4. Solution Fe.
Soil solution Fe
It occurs primarily as Fe(OH)+2, Fe3+ concentration In solution is very low. In well-drained,

oxidized soils, the solution Fe2+ concentration is less than that of the dominant Fe3+ in solution. The
pH dependent relationship for Fe3+ is described as
Fe (OH)3 (Soil) + 3H+ Fe3+ + 3H2O
For every increases in pH, Fe3+ concentration decreases 1000 fold. Oxidation - redn
reactions, the result of change in O2 partial pressure, exert considerable influence on the amount of
soluble Fe in the soil solution. The insoluble Fe3+ form predominates in well drained soils, while
levels of soluble Fe2+ increases significantly when soils become H2O logged. In general, lowering
Redox increases Fe2+ solubility, 10 fold for each unit decreases. in pH.
Over the normal pH range in soils, total solution Fe is not sufficient to meet plant
requirements for Fe even in acid soils, where Fe deficiency Occur less frequently than in high pH
and caleanous soils.
Schematic representation of Fe, Zn, Cu and Mn cycle
Mulch (straw)
Nutrient uptake by plants
Organic matter and Exchange and surface

microorganisms adsorption
Soil solution
Solid phase minerals and

precipitates
AgriExam.Com 61
Chelates
“Is a term derived from a Greek and meaning “Claw”.
Chelates are soluble organic compounds that bond with metals such as Fe, Zn, Cu and Mn
increasing their solubility and their supply to plant roots.
“Natural organic cheleates in soils are products of microbial activity and degradation of soil
organic matter and plant residues. Root exudates are capable complexing nutrients substantial
quantities of organic completed. Fe can be cycled through crop residue and compounds of citric
acid and oxalic acids have chelating properties.
Dynamics of chelation
“The dynamics of chelation increasing solubility and transport of micronutrients”.
During active plant uptake, the concentration of chelated Fe or other micronutrient is grater
in the bulk solution than at root surface the chelated Fe diffuses to the root surface in response to
concentration gradient. After Fe3+ dissociates from the chelates and diffused due to concentration
gradient. As the unchelated Fe3+ concentration decreases insolution because of chelation,
additional Fe is desorbed from minerals surfaces or Fe minerals dissolved to resupply solution Fe.
Synthetic chelates
In soils synthetic chelates behave similarly to natural organic chelates. The choice of a
chelate to use as chelate depends 1. specific micronutrient ii. Solubility of chelate in the soil. When
synthetic or natural chelates are added to soils and they are readily complex with cations in soil
solution.
Egl : Citric acid and Oxalic acids, two natural chelates complex Al3+ at low pH, but when pH
increasess above 5 or 6, Ca2+ and Mg2+ are more readily completed.
Diethylene triamine penta acetic acid (DTPA) and EDTA (Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid) readily
chelate Fe at pH < 7 and pH <6.5 respects. The chelate EDDHA (Ethylene Diamine dihydroxy
phenyl acetic acid) will strongly complex Fe and is stable over the entire pH range. As a result Fe
EDDHA is commonly used as an Fe fertilizer because it provides more plant available Fe than other
chelates.
Factors affecting Fe availability
1. Soil pH, Bicarbanate and Carbonates
Fe deficiency is most often observed in high pH and calcareous soils in arid regions, but it
may occur an acid soils that are very low in total Fe.
Irrigation waters and soil high in HCO3 may aggravate Fe deficiency Because of high pH
levels associated with HCO3- accumulation.
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In calcarious soils having pH range of 7.3 to 8.5 have Fe deficiency due to the lowest
solubility of soil Fe and the formation of bicarbonate ion.
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O -- Ca2+ + 2HCO3-
2. Excessive H2O and poor aeration
Flooding and submergence of soils can improve Fe availability by increaseeasing Fe2+ canc.
They actually buildup of toxic canc. of Fe2+ organic matter removed from the eroded portions of
semi arid region calcareous net soils lime induced Fe deficiency will occur.
3. Organic matter
Additions of organic matter to well drained soils can improve Fe avail. Due to increases the
Fe2+ solubility.
4. Interactions with other nutrients
Fe deficiency occur due to the accumulation of Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo and P. Fe availability
decreasess when the soils are having more NO3- than NH4+ deficiency of K or Zn can reduce Fe
translocation with in plants.
MANGANESE
Mn concentration in plant ranges from 20 to 500 ppm
Functions of Mn
1. Helps in chlorophyll formation
2. Involves in photosynthesis, particularly in evolution of O2.
3. Involves in oxidation - reduction - process in decarboxylation and hydrolysis reactions.
4. Involves in enzyme systems and various enzyme reactions in the citric acid cycle.
5. It is a substitute for Mg2+ in many of the phosphorylating and group transfer reactions.
Deficiency of Mn
1. Immobile in plant and def. starts in the younger leaves.
2. Interveinal chlorosis occur
Oats - Gray specks / streaks
Peas - Marsh spot
Sugarbeet - speckled yellow
Sugar cane - Pahala blight - midrib pale green and white.
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3. Deficiency increasess asparatic acid and decreases glutamine
4. Increases respiration
5. Accumulation N compounds mainly as amines.
Sources of Mn
Earth crust contains 1000 ppm. Various oxides and hydroxides.
Manganite MnO (OH)
Braunite Mn2O3
Factors affecting Mn availability
1. Soil pH and carbonates
Liming to acid soils decreases solution and exch. Mn2+ due to precipitation Mn2+ as MnO2.
2. Excessive H2O and poor aeration
H2O logging will reduce O2 and lower redox potential will increases soluble Mn2+. Poor
aeration increases Mn availability.
3. Organic matter
Increases solution and exchangeable Mn.
4. Climatic factor
Increases soil temp during the growing season improves Mn uptake, because of greater
plant growth and root activity.
5. Soil micro org
Deficiency caused by soil organisms oxidizing Mn2+ to Mn4+.
Forms of Mn
i. Solution Mn2+
ii. Exchange Mn2+
iii. Organic bound Mn
iv. Mn Mineral
ZINC
Normal concentration in plant 25 to 150 ppm
Deficiency level is < 20 ppm
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Toxic level is > 400 ppm
Zn is present in all parts of the plants. In general root contain more zinc than fruits.
Cereals : 27.8 ppm
Pulses : 34.8 ppm
Vegetables : 28.2 ppm
Fruits : 36.6 ppm
Functions of Zn
1. Essential to formation of growth harmones
2. Helps in reproduction of certain plants.
3. Stabilise rhibosomal fractions
4. Influence the activity of dehydrogenase enzymes
5. Involves in auxin metabolism like tryptophan synthetase.
Deficiency of Zn
1. Light yellow or white areas bet the veins of leaves particularly older leaves.
2. Death of tissue, discolored
3. Mal formation of fruits
4. Reduced growth hormone production.
Cotton : White bud (or) little leaf
Citrus : Mottle leaf
Potato : Fern leaf
Fruit trees : Rosette (Upnormal growth)
Paddy : Khaira
Foliar spray : 0.2 to 0.5% ZnSO4.
Sources of zinc
Soil : 10-300 ppm
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Igneous rock : >10 ppm
Sedimentary : > 95 ppm
Forms of soil Zn
1. Solution Zn2+
2. Adsorbed Zn2+
3. Organically completed Zn2+
Factors affecting Zn availability
1. Soil pH : Avail of Zn decrease with increase soil pH Zn def occur in neutral and calcareous soil.
At soil pH, Zn precipitates as insoluble amorphous soil Zn, which reduces Zn2+ in soil.
Al and Fe oxides, OM and CaCO3 increase with increasing pH.
2. Organic matter
3. Interaction with other nutrients
SO4 and N can increase the Zn uptake in plants.
Higher the soil pH, poor aeration greater the Zn deficiency
COPPER
Copper is absorbed by plants as cupric ion Cu2+
Normal concentration in plants 5-20 ppm.
Functions of copper
1. Essential for the synthesis of vitamin A
2. Act as a catalyst in respiration
3. Act as a “electron carrier” in enzyme which bring about oxidation reduction reactions in plants.
4. Constituent of chlorophyll.
Deficiency of copper
1. Chlorosis, withering and distortion of terminal buds.
2. Dead tissue appears along the tips and edges of leaves.
3. Multiple bud formation in the leaf axil and mal formation of leaves.
4. Guava - cracking of fruits and terminal bud die back
1. Heavy liming, excessive application of N and P - induces Cu deficiency.
AgriExam.Com 66
Sources of copper
1. Igneous rock 10-100 ppm of Cu.
2. Sedimentary rock 4-45 ppm
3. Primary minerals contains
1. Chalcopyrite
2. Chalcocite
3. Bornite
4. Sedimentary minerals
Oxides, Carbonates, Silicates, Sulphates and Chlorides.
Forms of soil copper
1. Soil solution - ionic and completed
2. Cation exchange sites of clay and organic matter
3. Occluded and co-precipitated in soil oxide material.
4. Specific adsorption sites
5. Inorganic matter and living organisms
Factors affecting Cu availability
1. Soil texture
2. pH
3. CEE
4. Org matter content
5. Hydrous oxides
Soil texture
Sandy soils contain lower amounts of Cu than silt and clay soils.
pH
The concentration of Cu in soil solution decreases with increase in pH.
Interaction with other nutrients
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Application of NPK fertilizer induce Cu deficiency
Increase N supply to crops reduce mobility of Cu in plants
High concentration of Zn, Fe and P in soil solution also can depress Cu absorption by plant
roots.
BORON
B concentration in mono cotyledons and dicotyledons (20-60 ppm) varies between 6 and 18
ppm.
It is absorbed by plants as undissociated boric acid (H3BO3).
Functions of boron
1. New cell development in meristematic tissue.
2. Pollination, fruit / seed set.
3. Translocation of sugars, starches, N and P
4. Synthesis of proteins and amino acids.
5. Nodule formation in legumes
6. Regulation of CHO metabolism.
Deficiencies of Boron
1. Since it is immobile, deficiency Symptoms occurs in terminal bud growth.
2. Flowering and fruit development are restricted.
3. Sterility and mal formation of reproductive organs.
4. Thickened and curled leaves.
5. Discoloration, cracking or rotting of fruit, tubers or roots
Apple - Internal cracking.
Break down of internal tissue in root crops given rise to darkened areas referred to Brown
heart / black heart : cotton - weeping disease.
Sources of boron
1. Non metal among the micronutrient
2. Low concentration in earth crust igneous rocks (<10 ppm)
3. Tourmaline and borosilicate contains B.
AgriExam.Com 68
Forms of boron (Boron cycle)
B exists in 4 forms in soil.
1. Rocks and minerals.
2. Adsorbed on clay surface, Fe and Al oxides combined with O.M.
3. Boric acid (H3BO3) and 4 B (OH)-4 in soil solution.
Boron cycling between the solid and solution phase is very important because of the narrow
range in solution concentration the separates deficiency and toxicity in crops.
Soil solution B
H3BO3 is the predominant species in soil solution at pH values ranging from 5-9. At pH >
9.2 H3BO3- can hydrolyse to H4BO4-. It was taken by Massflow and Diffusion methods in plants.
Absorbed B
B adsorption and desorption can helps to reduce B leaching losses. Main B adsorption sites
are
1. Broken Si - O and Al-O- bonds at the edge of clay min.
2. Amorphous hydroxide structure
3. Al and Fe oxides and hydroxides.
Factors affecting B availability
1. Soil texture : Fine text soils added B for longer period than coarse text soil.
Plants can take up larger quantity of B from sandy soils than fine text soil at equal concentration of
H2O soluble B.
2. Type of clay : Mica > mont > kaolinite
3. Soil pH and liming : Less avail to plants with increase pH heavy liming lead to greater adsorption
and reduced B uptake.
4. Organic matter : Avail of B in surface soil is high compared to subsurface soil.
5. Interactions with other cations
Occurrence of Ca in alkaline soil with restrict B availability. Increased K rates causes B

toxicity.
6. Soil moisture
Restricted moist supply reduce the B availability in the root zone.
AgriExam.Com 69
Boron cycle in soil
Mulch (straw)
Uptake
Residue Fertilizer /
decay manure
Solution B
Organic B
H3BO3-‐
(H4BO4-‐)
Primary and
Absorbed secondary B
B minerals
B
leaching
MOLYBDENUM
Non metal anion absorbed as molybdate (MoO4). It is weak acid and form complex poly
anions such as phosphomdybdate. Plant contains <1 ppm Mo.
Functions of Mo
1. Essential component of enzyme NO3 reductase, which catalyses NO3- to NO2-.
2. Structural component of nitrogenase enzyme - involved in N fixation.
3. Essential for absorption and translocation of Fe in plant 6.
Deficiency of Mo
1. Inhibits flower formation
2. Imbalances various Amino Acids in plants.
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3. Reduce activity of symbiotic and non symbiotic N fixation.
Cauliflower - Whip tail.
Sources of Mo
Earth crust 2 ppm : and range from 0.2 to 5 ppm.
Forms of Mo
1. Non exchangeable Mo in primary and secondary minerals.
2. Exchangeable Mo held by Fe and Al oxides.
3. Mo in soil solution
4. Organically bound Mo.
Mo in solution occurs mainly as Mo4=, HMoO4-, H2MoO4o.
Factors affecting Mo availability
1. Soil pH and liming
Mo availability increases with increasing pH. Liming to correct acidity will increase Mo avail.
Mo avail decrease with application of acid forming fertilizer (NH4)2SO4.
2. Reaction with Fe and Al
Strongly absorbed by Fe and Al oxides.
3. Interaction with other nutrients
Mg and P enhances Mo absorption by plants.
High level SO4 decrease Mo absorption by plants.
Cu and Mn decrease Mo uptake by plants.
NO3-N encourages Mo uptake
NH4-N reduces Mo uptake
The beneficial effect of NO3- nutrition is related to the release of OH ions.
CHLORINE
Normal concentration in plant is about 0.2-2.0%. Absorbed by plants as Cl- through roots
and aerial parts.
Functions of chloride
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1. Essential for biochemical reactions Osmotic cation neutralization reactors.
2. Act as a counter ion during rapid K fluxes.
3. Involves in the evaluation of O2 in photosynthesis.
4. Creates disease resistant by increase osmotic pressure in cell sap.
Deficiency of Cl
1. Partial wilting and loss of turgidity.
2. Necrosis, leaf bronzing and reduction in growth.
Sources of Cl
i. Igneous and metamorphic rocks
ii. Soluble salts such as NaCl, CaCl2 and Mgel2.
iii. Earth crust 0.02-0.05%.
It is mobile with in the plant it can be rapidly recycled through soil systems.
COBALT
Normal concentration of Co in dry matter - 0.02 - 0.5 ppm.
Functions of cobalt
1. Essential for M.O. fixing atmosphere. N. It forms vit. B12 during growth and development of
symbiotic M.O.
2. Improves growth, transpiration and photosynthesis.
3. Take parts in leg hemoglobin metabolism and Rhibonucliotide reductase.
Deficiency
1. Acidic, highly leached, sandy soils with total Co low.
2. Calcareous and peaty soils.
Factors affecting : Co availability
1. Soil pH : Avail increase with increase in soil acidity, H2O logging conditions.
2. Liming and drainage practices - reduce co availability.
3. Application CoSO4 rectify the deficiency.
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VANADIUM
Low concentration of Vanadium is beneficial for growth of Microorganisms.
Vanadium substitute for Mo in N fixation by Rhizobia.
Involves in Biological - oxidation-reduction reactions.
NICKEL
Nickel content in plant is 0.1 - 1.0 ppm dry matter basis.
Taken by plant as Ni2+
High levels of Ni may induce Zn or Fe deficiency
1. Ni - metal component of urease that catalyse reaction.
CO (NH2)2 + H2O  2NH3 + CO2.
2. Essential for N metabolism.
3. Stimulates nodule weight and yield of crops.
SODIUM
Functions
1. Essential for maintaining turgor and growth of Plants.
2. Helps oxalic acid accumulation in Plants.
3. Helps in stomatal opening and regulate NO3- reductase activity.
Sources of Na
Earth crust 2.8% soils
Minerals.
Forms of Na in soil
Solution, exchangeable Na and in silicate minerals.
In arid and semi arid soils Na exist in silicates, NaCl, Na2SO4
Na salts accumulating in poorly drained soils of arid and semi arid regions and causes soil salinity
and sodicity.
AgriExam.Com 73
Effect of Na on soil properties
Dispersing action of Na+ on clay and organic matter reduces soil aggregation, permeability
to air and H2O, germination and root growth.
Sodium fertilizers
Sodium NO3 : 25% Na
Rhenania PO4 12% NA
Abundant element. in lithosphere and absorbed as monosilicic acid.
Cereals and grass contain 0.2 - 2.0%.
Functions of silica
1. Contributes structure of cell wall.
2. Contributes drought tolerance to crops.
3. Regulates photosynthesis.
4. De activates invertase enzyme activity in sugarcane resulting grater sucrose production.
Larger amounts of Si are accumulated in intracellular deposits known as ‘PLANT OPALS’.
5. Increased available P.
6. Responsible for plant disease resistance.
Sources of silicon
Earth crust : 27.6% Most abundant element in earth crust.
Soils 23-35%
Primary and secondary mineral and quartz - major source.
Quartz is the most common mineral in soil, comprising 90-95% of all sand and silt fractions.
Factors affecting Si availability
1. High H2O content encourages Si uptake
2. Heavy application of N decreases Si concentration
3. Liming decreases Si uptake in plants.
4. Acidification increases Si uptake
5. Fe and Al oxides influence Uptake of Si by plants.
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Si fertilizers
1. Calcium silicate slag (CaAl2 Si2O4) - 18.21% Si
2. Calcium silicate (CaSiO3) - 31% Si.
3. Sodium metasilicate NaSiO3 - 23% Si.
Chelates
Chelate is a term derived from a Greek word meaning, “claw”. Chelates are soluble
organic compounds that bond with metals ions such as Fe3+/ Fe2+, Zn2+, Cu2+, Mn2+, and
other, thereby increasing their solubility and supply to plant roots. It is important particularly in
micronutrient availability.
Numerous natural organic compounds in soil, or synthetic compounds added to soils,

are able to complex or chelate ions of micronutrients.
Natural organic chelates in soils are products of microbial activity and degradation of
soil organic matter and plant residues. Root exudates also are capable of complexing
micronutrients.
The concentration of metal ions in solution and the quantity transported to the root by
mass flow and diffusion can be greatly increased through complexation with natural organic
chelating compounds in soil.
Substantial quantities of organic-complexed metal ions can be cycled through crop

residue, which remain available for the succeeding crop.
Many of the natural organic chelates have not been identified; however, compounds
like citric and oxalic acids have chelating properties.
Common synthetic chelates are:
Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA)
Diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA)
Ethylene diamine di-o-hydroxy phenyl acetic acid (EDDHA)
AgriExam.Com 75
References

http://www.ncagr.gov/cyber/kidswrld/plant/nutrient.htm
Mortvedt,J.J.et al.(Eds.).Micronutrients in Agriculture.No.4,Soil Science Society of

America,Madison,Wisconsin,USA.
Questions to ponder
1) What is the role of organic matter addition on micronutrient availability to plants?

2) How does Fe and Al oxides affect the micronutrient availability?
3) Why is copper deficiency often referred to as reclamation disease?
4) What are the ways to avert Fe chlorosis?
5) What are the common manganese fertilizer materials?
AgriExam.Com 76
LECTURE 12
NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY AND TOXICITY
Causes and Symptoms
Nitrogen
When N supplies are more than sufficient, carbohydrates are converted to

proteins. Hence, vegetative portion is less with carbohydrates and more with
protein as protoplasm. As protoplasm are highly hydrated more succulence
results.
Excessive succulence may have a harmful effect. With cotton, a

weakening of the fiber; with grain crops, lodging particularly with a low K supply;
more susceptibility to disease and insect attack occurs.
N deficient plants become stunted and yellow in appearance. The loss of

protein N from chloroplasts in older leaves produces yellowing or chlorosis -
indicative of N deficiency. Chlorosis appears first on lower leaves; upper leaves
remain green. Under severe N deficiency, lower leaves turn brown and die. This
necrosis begins at the leaf tip and progresses along the midrib until the entire leaf
is dead. The tendency of the young upper leaves to remain green as the lower
leaves yellow or die is an indication of the mobility of N in the plant.
Phosphorus
The marked effect of P deficiency is retarding overall growth; the striking

foliar symptoms that are evident with N or K deficiency are seldom observed for
P, In corn and some other grass species, purple discoloration of the leaves or
leaf edges appears.
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Potassium
When K is limiting, characteristics deficiency symptoms appear in the

plant. Typical K deficiency symptoms in alfalfa are white spots on the leaf edges;
in corn nd banana chlorosis and necrosis of the leaf edges.
Since K is mobile in plant, visual deficiency symptoms appear first in the

lower old leaves, progressing toward the top with severity. K deficiency also
occurs in young leaves of high-yielding, fast maturing crops like cotton and
wheat. Another symptom is weakening of straw in grain crops, causing lodging in
small grains and stalk breakage in corn and sorghum, reducing crop yields.
In fact, serious yield reductions may occur without deficiency symptoms.

This phenomenon is termed hidden hunger and is not restricted to K alone.
Calcium
In corn, Ca2+ deficiency prevents the emergence and unfolding of new

leaves, the tips are almost colorless covered with a sticky gelatinous material that
causes them to adhere to one another.
In fruits and vegetables, the most frequent indicator of Ca2+ deficiency is

disorders in the storage tissues: Blossom-end
22 (1/6) rot in tomato, bitter pit of
apples. Often Ca2+ is an immobile element in the plant; hence, there is very little
translocation of Ca2+ to fruits and storage organs.
Magnesium
Deficiency symptoms often appear first on the lower leaves. In many

species, shortage of Mg2+ results in interveinal chlorosis of the leaf, in which only
AgriExam.Com 78
veins remain green. In more advanced stages the leaf tissue becomes
uniformly pale yellow, then brown and necrotic. In cotton, the lower leaves may
develop a reddish-purple cast, gradually turning brown and finally necrotic.
Sulphur
S deficiency has a pronounced retarding effect on plant growth,

characterized by uniformly chlorotic plants - stunted, thin-stemmed, and
spindly. In many plants, these symptoms resemble those of N deficiency. Unlike
N, deficiency symptoms occur first in younger leaves.
S deficient cruciferous crops such as cabbage and rapeseed will initially

develop a reddish color on the underside of the leaves. In rapeseed the leaves
are also cupped inward. In cabbage, there is a reddening and purpling of both
upper and lower leaf surfaces; the cupped leaves turn back on themselves,
presenting flattened-to-concave surfaces on the upper side.
Boron
B deficiency symptoms appear as thickened, wilted, or curled leaves; a

thickened, cracked, or water-soaked condition of petioles and stems; and a
discoloration, cracking, or rotting of fruit, tubers, or roots.
22 (2/6)
Internal cork of apple is caused. In citrus fruits uneven thickness of the
peel, lumpy fruit, and gummy deposits result. The breakdown of internal tissues
in root crops appear as darkened areas and referred as brown heart or black
heart.
AgriExam.Com 79
Iron
Fe deficiency is most frequently seen in crops growing on calcareous or

alkaline soils. Fe chlorosis is exhibited by citrus and deciduous fruit crops, by
sorghum, grown in neutral to alkaline soils. Other crops are soybeans, beans,
corn, strawberries, avocado, vegetable crops, and many ornamentals.
Deficiency of Fe shows up first in young leaves, as a result, growth

ceases. The young leaves develop an interveinal chlorosis, which progresses
rapidly over the entire leaf. In severe cases, the leaves turn entirely white.
Fe toxicity causes nutritional disorders in rice grown on poorly drained,

submerged soils. This condition known as bronzing is associated with Fe levels
> 300 ppm in leaf blade of rice at tillering.
Manganese
In broad-leaved plants, interveinal chlorosis appears. Mn deficiency of

several crops is described by terms: gray speck of oats, marsh spot of peas,
speckled yellows of sugar beets. Wheat plants low in Mn are often more
susceptible to root rot diseases.
Plants are injured by excessive

22 amounts
9 (3/6)
(3/6) of Mn. Crinkle leaf of cotton is
an Mn toxicity observed in highly acid red yellow soils. Mn toxicity in tobacco,
soybeans, tree fruits, and rapeseed is noted on extremely acid soils.
Copper
Deficiencies of Cu are reported in numerous plants, although they are

more prevalent among crops growing in peat and muck soils. Crops most
AgriExam.Com 80
susceptible to Cu deficiency include alfalfa, wheat, onions, carrots, clover, corn,
and fruit trees.
Symptoms vary with crops. In corn, the youngest leaves become yellow
and stunted, and if more severe, the young leaves turn pale and older leaves die
back. In advanced stages, dead tissue appears along the tips and edges of the
leaves in a pattern similar to that of K deficiency.
Cu-deficient small-grain plants lose color in young leaves, which break,

and die. In many vegetable crops, the leaves lack turgor, developing a bluish-
green cast, with chlorotic curl; flower production fails.
Zinc
Crops sensitive to Zn deficiency are corn, beans, citrus, flax, grapes,

onions, rice, and soybeans. Mildly sensitive crops are alfalfa, clovers, sorghum,
sudan grass, and tomatoes.
Deficiency symptoms appear frequently in leaves; sometimes in fruit or

branches or affect in overall development of the plant. Symptoms include light
green, yellow, or white areas between the veins of leaves particularly the older
lower leaves resulting in: Chlorotic leaf areas; Shortening of the stem rosette
22 (4/6)
appearance of the leaves; Malformation of the fruit, often with low or no yield.
White bud in corn and sorghum, little leaf in cotton, mottle leaf or
frenching in citrus crops, fern leaf in potato are described terms of Zn
deficiency.
Molybdenum
AgriExam.Com 81
Mo is a structural component of nitrogenase enzyme that actively involves
in N2 fixation. Mo deficiency arrests biological N2 fixation. Legumes exploit soil N
supplies, turning soil to low N fertility, if the legume residues are not incorporated
in soil.
Chloride
As Cl- is the active osmotic agent, its deficiency results in partial wilting
and loss of leaf turgor. Chlorosis in younger leaves and an overall wilting of the
plants are the two most common symptoms of Cl- deficiency. Necrosis in some
plant parts, leaf bronzing, and reduction in root growth may be seen. Tissue
concentrations below 70 to 700 ppm are usually indicative of deficiency.
Symptoms high level of Cl- in wheat plants are increase total leaf water
potential and cell sap osmotic potential. Excess of Cl- can be harmful, and crops
vary widely in their tolerance to this condition. Tobacco, legumes are among the
most sensitive crops. Leaves of tobacco and potatoes thicken and tend to roll.
The storage quality of potato tubers is adversely affected.
Cobalt
The essentiality of Co is for the growth of symbiotic microorganisms such

as symbiotic rhizobium, free-living N2-fixing bacteria, and blue-green algae and in
the formation of vitamin B12. Hence, lack of cobalt affects N2 fixation in soil.
Silicon
AgriExam.Com 82
Freckling, a necrotic leaf condition is a symptom of low Si in sugarcane
receiving direct sunlight due to Ultraviolet radiation. Adequate Si in sugarcane
plant filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation.
The oxidizing power of rice roots and accompanying tolerance to high

levels of Fe and Mn were dependent of Si nutrition. Si application is necessary
when Si concentration in rice straw falls below 11%. Many of the favorable
effects of Si on plant growth, such as disease resistance, stalk strength, and
reduction in lodging, have also been attributed to K.
Nickel
High levels of Ni may induce Zn or Fe deficiency because of cation

competition. Application of some sewage sludge may result in elevated levels of
Ni in crop plants.
22 (5/6)
AgriExam.Com 83
LECTURE 13
. SOIL FERTILITY EVALUATION
Calibration, Correlation of crop responses, yield prediction,

fertilizer recommendation
SOIL TESTING RESEARCH IN INDIA
Farming is a business and, like all businesspersons, the farmer operates

farming business for profit. Obviously, to reach a decision before planting a crop,
a farmer needs all of the reliable information from the country’s soil evaluation
programme. In our country, system of fertility evaluation is being modified from
time to time in various stages incorporating crop response data.
Some Important landmarks in soil testing research in India:
Year Landmark
1953 Soil fertility and fertilizer use project
1955 Establishment of Soil Testing Laboratories
1956 All India Coordinated Agronomic Research
Project
1960s Establishment of Agricultural Universities
23 (1/16)
1967 All India Coordinated Research Project on Soil
Test Crop Response (STCR) correlation
1967 All India Coordinated Research Project on
Micronutrients in Soils and Plants
81970
22 (6/6)
(6/6) All India Coordinated Research Project on Long
term Fertilizer Experiments
1980s Emphasis on fertilizer prescription for whole
AgriExam.Com 84
cropping system based on initial soil tests.
Since Liebig’s time around 1840 many methods and approaches have
been tried to get a precise or workable basis for predicting the fertilizer
requirements of crops. The fertilizer use project initiated in 1953 following a
study by Stewart (1947) was the first systematic attempt in the whole of the
country to relate the knowledge of soils to the judicious use of fertilizers.
The establishment of soil testing laboratories was initiated in 1955-56.
The project on Model Agronomic Experiments on Experimental Farms
and Simple fertilizer trials on cultivators’ Fields was started in 1957. The Soil
Test Crop Response (STCR) correlation work carried out at Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi had resulted in the selection of
soil test methods and categorizing the tests into low, medium, and high soil
fertility classes.
Soil fertility evaluation
Soils are very heterogeneous in respect to forms of nutrients they

contain, which greatly complicates the interpretation of Soil Test for
assessing fertilizer needs. The total amount of a nutrient present in a soil
offers little information relative to the amount of that nutrient which is
available. Numerous extracting solutions and procedures have been used to
remove nutrient elements from the soil, but none remove exactly the amount
that plant roots obtain.
This means that, in order to interpret the data, the results from each
analytical procedure must be correlated with the plant response obtained in
field experiments by applying that fertilizer nutrient.
By this calibration, the requirement of fertilizer is calculated for achieving
specific yield target. Soil fertility evaluation preferably employs a particular
method of calibration as per the utility of the outcome.
AgriExam.Com 85
Crop Response Data
In nutrient rating experiments, soil test data is correlated with the

response of crop. The response is measured in terms of ‘percent yield’ or
‘percent yield increase’. Both represent the ratio of the yield obtained in
unfertilized soil (nutrient limiting deficient soil) to the yield in fertilizer nutrient
applied soil (non-limiting or nutrient sufficient soil). The yield in non-limiting
soil is otherwise known as maximum attainable yield or yield of standard
treatment with all nutrients applied.
While comparing native fertility, in experiments that are conducted at

different locations, percent yield is used.
Yield without fertilizer nutrient

Percent yield = X 100
Yield in standard treatment
While conducting multi location trials, or a pot experiment in a single

location with soils brought from different locations, percent yield increase is
worked out for every level of fertilizer application. The highest yield obtained
in the experiment with all fertilizer nutrient applied, is taken as Maximum
attainable yield
23 (2/16)
Yield at fertilizer Yield without
Percent yield -
nutrient level fertilizer nutrient X 100
increase =
Maximum attainable yield
The soils analyzed by standard nutrient extraction method are

grouped. The soil tests are calibrated into different fertility groups by various
procedures.
AgriExam.Com 86
Present approaches in formulation of fertilizer recommendations extensively
used in India:
Soil testing programme was initially started adopting the International

soil fertility evaluation and improvement programme (Fitts, 1956). In this
approach much stress is laid on laboratory characterization, followed by
potted-plant studies ultimately leading to field - verification trials. These two
initial steps help in eliminating arbitrariness of field trials. However, this
approach had low adoption as it arrived one critical value below which
economic responses are possible. Later, many improvements were
suggested.
AGRONOMIC APPROACH
This is based on fertilizer rate experiments (recording yield at

increasing nutrient levels) conducted at many locations. The level at which
yields are high are recorded and averaged. From these results, the optimum
dose of fertilizer is recommended for a crop at given agro-climatic region.
Eg. A blanket dose of 120-50-50 kg/ha of N, P2O5, K2O respectively is
recommended for rice.
CRITICAL LIMIT APPROACH
Waugh and Fitts (1965) developed this technique which is largely

meant for less mobile nutrients like P, K and micronutrients. Soils vary
considerably in fixing capacities. Due to it a part of applied P, which is fixed
in soil, is not readily available to plants.
AgriExam.Com 87
The method includes incubation study. For P, Soil is incubated for 72
hours with graded doses of soluble P in the form of monocalcium phosphate.
Then, the amount of phosphates released (extracted) with an extracting
reagent (Olsen or Bray) will be determined. The extracted P versus the
amount of P applied is plotted. If the relationship is unique, then for high P
fixing soils a larger amount of fertilizer P application is needed. This amount
of P fixed is estimated as X-value.
Critical limit
140 Non-responding
120 population
100
% Yield 80
60
40
Responding
20 population
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Soil Test P
23 (6/16)
AgriExam.Com 88
Then, in potted experiment fertilizer P is added at 0, 0.5X, X, 2X levels,
and the test crop was grown to find out the soil critical value. The percentage
yield obtained is plotted against the soil-test value for different soils. By using
a plastic overlay, these data are grouped into two populations as described by
Cate and Nelson (1965). The soil-test value where the vertical line crosses
the x-axis is designated as the soil critical limit.
Critical limit for the soil test value is the limit below which a positive
or economic response to added fertilizer is possible and above which the
response diminishes at a faster rate or vanishes.
The validity of critical value is verified by conducting verification trials

in the field locations where from the soil samples have been collected for pot
studies.
AgriExam.Com 89
14. PREDICTING YIELDS USING NUTRIENT FUNCTIONS
Nutrient function Crop yield is a function of 4 major factors:
Yield = f (crop, soil, climate, management).
Nutrient functions are fitted using data obtained in experiments conducted

either in deductive or inductive approach.
Deductive approach
Deductive approach utilizes the natural variation in soil fertility for

calibrating soil test values. Multilocation trials are carried out with same set
of treatments. The responses are then fitted in the fertilizer prescription
models.
Colwell (1967) developed this approach on the basis that some

variables, which affect the response of crop to fertilizers, if omitted from the
correlation between soil test and crop23response,
(7/16) led to poor correlations. To
prevent this difficulty, a calibration model was suggested based on the
generalization of coefficients of an orthogonal polynomial yield-response
model, which can include all the variables affecting the responses to
fertilizers.
Inductive approach
AgriExam.Com 90
This approach is by creating fertility gradient artificially in a particular
experimental location by addition of fertilizers. The approach of inducing
fertility gradient (Ramamoorthy, 1970) aims at eliminating influence of the 3
out of 4 factors in the yield function, namely: crop, climate and management
in the experimental location.
A large field having wide variation in fertility is chosen in a location. It

is divided into 4 strips, which are treated with 4 doses of N, P and K
fertilizers, viz., control (N0P0K0), ½ normal dose (N½ P½ K½), normal dose
(N1P1K1) and double dose (N2P2K2). The normal doses are fixed based on
nutrient fixing capacity of the soil. Exhaustive crop like maize is grown.
The calibration crop experiment is then laid out. For the purpose of
correlation, 21 treatments having one untreated check plot are tested.
Quadratic Model:
Percentage of yield maximum concept (sufficiency concept)
This is commonly known as Mitscherlich and Bray approach. An

empirical relationship is developed between percent yield, soil test, and
fertilizer maximum yield (Bray, 1944).
100
80
23 (8/16)
% of 60
maximum Y = A (1-10- Cs b – C x)
yield
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Units of growth factor
(soil and fertilizer)
AgriExam.Com 91
Presently, this approach is modified and used by the Department of
Agriculture, Tamil Nadu for giving site-specific fertilizer recommendations.
The modified Mitscherlich-Bray equation is:

Log (A-Y) = Log A - Csb – Cx
Where, A = calculated maximum yield

Y = percentage yield
Cs = proportionality factor for soil nutrient
b = soil test value
x = dose of fertilizer added.
The maximum yield (A) is calculated by extrapolation.
Quadratic Model:
Regression model for maximum profit
The amount of fertilizer that produces the greatest profit per hectare is
called the optimum dressing (Cooke, 1972). Ramamoorthy (1974)
established a significant relationship between soil tests, added fertilizers and
crop yields by fitting a multiple regression of the quadratic form (orthogonal
polynomial yield-response model):
Y = A + b1SN + b2SP + b3SK + b4SN2 + b5SP2 + b6SK2

+ B7FN + b8FP + b9FK + b10FN2 + b11FP2 + b12FK2
+ b13SNFN + b14SPFP + b15SKFK
Where Y = Crop yield (kg/ ha)

A = Intercept
bi = Regression coefficient
AgriExam.Com 92
SN, SP, SK = Available contents of soil N, soil P and Soil K
FN, FP, FK = Fertilizer N, Fertilizer P, Fertilizer K
Fertilizer calibrations for varying soil test value for obtaining maximum
profit per hectare could be derived where the response to added nutrient
follows the law of diminishing returns (Ramamoorthy, 1974)
Fertilizer adjustment equation is derived in the form:
FN = a - b SN – c R
FP2O5 = a - b SP – c R
FK20 = a - b SK – c R
Where,
Cost of fertilizer nutrient (Rs./kg)
R =
Value of produce (Rs./kg)
Linear model:
Targeted Yield approach
Fertilizer recommendation must aim at providing balanced nutrition to

crops. Balanced nutrition should23ensure
23 (9/16)the nutrients to be present in
(10/16)
available forms in adequate quantities and required proportion for the plant
in order to produce maximum yield. The requirement of nutrient to produce
the expected yield can be worked out based on nutrient uptake.
Nutrient requirement of crops
AgriExam.Com 93
Nutrient Requirement (kg) to produce
Crop 100 kg of economic produce
N P2O5 K2O
Rice 2.01 1.12 3.00
Wheat 2.45 0.86 3.28
Maize 2.63 1.39 3.58
Sorghum 2.24 1.33 3.40
Finger millet 2.98 1.13 3.90
Chick pea 4.63 0.84 4.96
Soya bean 6.68 1.77 4.44
Ground nut 5.81 1.96 3.01
Potato 0.39 0.14 0.49
Cotton 4.45 2.83 7.47
Liebig’s law of minimum states that the growth of plants is limited by
the plant nutrient element in the smallest quantity, when all others being
present in adequate amounts. This forms the basis for fertilizer application
for targeted yields, first advocated by Troug (1960) by significant linear
relationship between the yield of grain and uptake of nutrients. Yield target
can be projected within the linear region of the response function.
This approach, popularly known as Soil Test Crop Response

Function (STCR), implies that for obtaining a specific yield (grain or any
11 (10/16)
other economic produce) a definite quantity of the nutrient must be taken up.
This value can be determined by the magnitude of the expected yield (T in
q/ha) and the nutrient requirement to produce unit quantity of that target (NR
in kg/ha).
Once it is known for a target yield, the fertilizer dose (FD kg/ha) can
be estimated.
AgriExam.Com 94
It is done by taking into account the efficiency of soil contribution (CS
in percent) from the soil available nutrients (STV in kg/ha), and the efficiency
of fertilizer of fertilizer contribution (CF in percent) from the fertilizer nutrients
(FD in kg/ha) towards the total uptake.
NR CS
FD = X 100 T - X STV
CF CF
Where F and S stand for fertilizer and soil nutrient in Kg/ha and T is
yield target in q/ha.
23 (11/16)
AgriExam.Com 95
LECTURE 15
FERTILITY EVALUATION BY PLANT ANALYSIS
Plant analysis is a useful diagnostic tool to ascertain if a nutrient has

been or is being assimilated. Plant analysis is also important in ascertaining
the nutrient requirements and nutrient status of plants during various stages
of growth.
A reasonably simple laboratory test of plant sample provides a
measure of nutrient availability in soil or nutrient status of plant at the time
the sample was collected. If these tests are to be useful in making fertilizer
recommendations, a coordinated laboratory-field research program must be
conducted in order to obtain the desired information.
Deficiency symptoms
Careful inspection of growing seedling or plants can help identify specific

nutrient stress. If a plant is lacking in a particular nutrient, characteristic
symptoms may appear. Nutrient deficiency symptoms must be related to
some function of the nutrient in the plant. Visual symptoms may be
caused by more than one nutrient. In a set of nutrient omission and
addition pot experiments, exact limiting nutrients can be identified.
Tissue tests
The concentration of the nutrients in the cell sap is usually a good

indication of how well the plant is supplied at the time of testing. These
semi-quantitative tests are intended mainly for verifying or predicting
deficiencies of N, P, K, S and several micronutrients.
AgriExam.Com 96
Method: the plant parts may be chopped up and extracted with reagents.
The intensity of color developed is compared with standards and used as
a measure of nutrient concentration. Tissue tests are quick, easy to
conduct and interpret.
For tissue tests, the time of sampling and plant part to be sampled have
already been standardized for many crops. Tissue test can be done 5-6
times in a season and concentration can be monitored in the farm
premises.
There can be two peak periods of nutrient demand, one during maximum
vegetative growth and second during reproductive stage. Fertilization
can be done to maintain the peak concentration at critical stages.
Total plant analysis
As in tissue tests, a standardized method for time and method of

sampling of plant part are available for total analysis, which is done at
laboratory. The critical nutrient concentration is commonly used in
interpreting plant analysis results and diagnosing nutritional problems.
Diagnosis and Recommendation 23 (12/16) System (DRIS)

Integrated
DRIS is a system that identifies all the nutritional factors limiting crop
production. Index values measure how far particular nutrients in the leaf
or plant are from optimum levels. Index values are used in the calibration
to classify yield factors in the order of limiting importance. To develop a
DRIS for a given crop, the following criteria are to be well considered.
AgriExam.Com 97
 All factors having effect on yield
 Relationship among factors
 Calibration norms
 Continually refined recommendations
DRIS was developed based on nutrient ratios. When compared to

concentration that normally varies with season, nutrient ratio does not vary
much. When a nutrient ratio has an optimal value, optimum yield occurs
unless some other limiting factor reduces the yield.
N→ N↑ N↓
P→ P↑ P↓
Both numerator Both numerator Both numerator and

and denominator and denominator denominator
optimal excessive insufficient
When the ratio is too low a response in the numerator will be obtained
if it is limiting. If the nutrient in the denominator is excessive, a yield
response may or may not occur depending on the level of other yield factors.
23 (13/16)
AgriExam.Com 98
N/P
P↓ N↑
K/P N/K
P→ →N Optimum nutrient
balance
K↑ K→ →K K↓
Satisfactory nutrient
N→ P→
balance
N↓ P↑
General diagram for a DRIS; constructed on

nutrient ratios for N-P-K
When the ratio is too high the reverse it true. Usually N/S, K/Mg,
K/Ca, Ca + Mg /K, N/P ratios are commonly used. Initially relationship
among N-P-K is calibrated.
Thus, DRIS has several advantages to integrate much nutrient

concentration at various stages, in different seasons suitable for many
cultivars of a crop.
DRIS has been found suitable for several grain crops and perennial
fruit trees. 23 (14/16)
CROP LOGGING
An excellent example of the use of plant analysis in crop production is

the crop logging carried out for sugarcane in Hawaii. The crop log, which is
a graphic record of the progress of the crop, contains a series of chemical
AgriExam.Com 99
and physical measurements. Critical nutrient concentration approach is
used in the crop log system.
In sugarcane, plant is sampled at 35 days and analyzed for N, sugar,

moisture and weight of young sheath tissue. Nutrients like P and K are
monitored at critical stages. Based on moisture, irrigation is scheduled.
Based on nutrient content, fertilizer application is done. By this record
keeping, the productivity of crop is increased.
BIOLOGICAL TESTS
Simpler and rapid laboratory/ green house techniques utilize small

quantity of soil to quantify nutrient supplying power of a soil.
Tests using higher plants:
Neubauer seedling method: The neubauer technique is based on the uptake

of nutrients by a large number of plants grown on a small amount soil. The
roots thoroughly penetrate the soil, exhausting available nutrient supply
within a short time. Usually 100 seedlings of rye or oats made to feed 100 g
soil mixed with 50 g sand. Blank 23
without soil is also run. Total P2O5 and
(15/16)
K2O uptake is calculated and blank value is detected to get root soluble
P2O5 and K2O. Values designated as Neubauer Nos. (mg/ 100 g soil) are
used to determine the deficiency. These tables give the maximum values
of available macro and micronutrients for satisfactory yields of various
crops.
AgriExam.Com 100
Standard and Demont technique: It is a modified neubauer technique. Round
cardboard cartons with bottom removed are nested in a container and filled
with sand. Seeds are sown. After 2-3 weeks of growth, a carton containing
the plants is nested in a second carton holding 200 g soil or soil + fertilizer.
When the mat of roots meets soil, it is allowed to feed for 3-4 days. Then
nutrient uptake is estimated.
Deficiency test of sunflower for Boron
Sunflower is grown in the test soil supplied with nutrient solution with
all essential nutrients excepting boron. From the day of appearance of B
deficiency symptoms of leaves, the soil is identified as deficient (<28 days),
moderately deficient (28-36 days), and not deficient (>36 days).
Microbiological methods:
In the absence of nutrients, certain microorganisms exhibit behavior

similar to that of higher plants. For example, growth of Azotobacter or
Aspergillus niger reflects nutrient deficiency in the soil. The soil is grouped
from very deficient to not deficient in the respective elements, depending on
the amount of colony growth. In comparison with methods that utilize
growing of higher plants, microbiological methods are rapid, simple and
23 (16/16)
require little space.
Sacket and Stewart technique
AgriExam.Com 101
For identifying P and K deficiency test soil is divided in to 4 portions.
Solution containing soluble P, K, and P+K are added in 3 portions and one
portion was allowed as check. They are inoculated with Azotobacter and
incubated for 72 hrs. Based on colony growth deficiency is identified.
Melich Cunninghamella – plaque test:
Cunninghamella is sensitive for P. Test soil is mixed with nutrient

solution and a paste is prepared. The paste is spread on a clay dish.
Cunninghamella is inoculated at the centre and incubated for 5-6 days.
Based on the diameter of mycelial growth, the soil is diagnosed as deficient
(<10 cm), moderately deficient (11-21 cm), or not deficient (>22 cm).
Mulder Aspergillus niger test for Cu and Mg
Colours of mycelial and spores are used to delineate the deficiency of

Cu and Mg. This method is used for Mo, Co, Mn, S, Zn also.
AgriExam.Com 102
LECTURE 16
SOIL TESTING AND CORRELATION
The composite samples obtained from fields are used in pot-

culture plant studies to assess the crop responses (in terms of dry matter) to
added fertilizers. Calibration of the responses to soil - test values was
obtained by using different methods. Fixation studies are conducted to
ascertain the capacity of soil to fix nutrient to be applied, finally, the results
are interpreted to confirm nutrient deficiencies, index soil fertility, and
establish “critical level” for each nutrient. The results are verified in the next
stage, in field experiments.
Fertility group/ Index
The International soil fertility evaluation and improvement programme

(Waugh and Fitts, 1965) advocated grouping of soils into low-medium-high
categories.
The method:
• Collection of representative soil samples and analysis by using

different extractants for the ‘available’ nutrient
• Conducting of potted-plant studies with graded doses of added

nutrient supplying all other nutrients to meet the crop requirement
23 (3/16)
• Computing of the percentage yield responses
• Plotting of the soil-test data obtained with different methods and the
percent yield response; and to find the scatter distribution for the best
correlating soils test methods. The scatter diagram will be generally
curvilinear. The response is less, as the soil test value increases.
• The general groups are low, medium and high
AgriExam.Com 103
The fertility groups followed in Tamil Nadu
Available nutrients (kg/ ha)

Fertility group
KMnO4-N NaHCO3-P NH4OAc-K
Low <280 < 11 < 118
Medium 280-450 11- 22 118-280

High >450 > 22 >280
This classification indicates that low classes of soils would markedly respond
to added fertilizers and high status of soils does not respond to them. In the
medium range, nothing could be predicted. In addition, by this grouping, it
was not possible to indicate how much fertilizer was to be added to get
economic yields. Thus, this grouping is qualitative. Arbitrarily, the
recommended dose of fertilizer for a crop is increased by 25% in low status
and reduced by 25 % in high status.
140 V. LOW LOW MEDIUM HIGH V. HIGH

120
100
% Yield 80
increase
60
40
20
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33
Soil Test P
AgriExam.Com 104
Fertility index
Fertility index expresses the relative sufficiency as a percentage of soil
nutrient amount adequate for optimum yields. The probability of a
response to fertilizer application increases with decreasing soil test level.
More than 85% of soils testing very low may give greater response and
profit. About 60-85% of soils, having medium soil test value may give little
profit. Around 15% soils with very high soil test may have little response.
In general, the very low to very high classification is easily understood by the
grower. However, separate group classification need to be done accounting
for greater variability associated with crops and soils.
Probability of Crop Response Fertility

Soil Test Rating
(% Yield increase) Index
Very low 95–100 0-10
Low 70-95 10-25
Medium 40-70 25-50
High 10-40 50-100
Very High 0-10 100+
23 (5/16)
AgriExam.Com 105
LECTURE 17
SOIL TESTING
Soil Testing, STL Functions
Soil Testing
Soil testing is defined as a ‘programme for procedural evaluation of

soil fertility by Rapid chemical analysis particularly to assess the available
nutrient status and reaction of a soil’.
A soil test is a chemical method for estimating nutrient supplying

power of a soil. Compared to plant analysis, the primary advantage of soil
testing is its ability to determine the nutrient status of the soil before the crop
is planted.
The result of a soil test is known as soil test value. A soil test value
measures a part of the total nutrient supply in the soil and represents only as
an index of nutrient ability.
Soil test do not measure the exact quantity of a nutrient potentially

taken up by a crop. To predict nutrient needs of crops a soil test must be
calibrated against the response of crops in nutrient rate experiments in
greenhouse and fields. Thereafter, interpretation and evaluation of the soil
test values primarily form the basis for fertilizer recommendation.
Soil test programmes have the following objectives:
• To provide an index of nutrient availability

• To predict the probability of profitable response to fertilizer
AgriExam.Com 106
• To provide a basis for fertilizer recommendation
• To evaluate the soil fertility status and a county soil area or a
statewide basis by the use of the soil test summaries.
Phases of Soil Testing programme
1. Collecting the soil samples

2. Extraction and determining the available nutrients
3. Calibrating and interpreting the analytical results
4. Making the fertilizer recommendation and management
Soil sampling
The most critical aspect of soil testing is obtaining a soil sample that is
representative of the field. There is always a considerable opportunity for
sampling error. If a sample does not represent a field, it is impossible to
provide a reliable fertilizer recommendation.
The soils are normally heterogeneous, and wide variability can occur
even in a uniform fields. Intensive soil sampling is the most efficient way to
evaluate variability. The sampling error in a field is generally greater than
the error in the laboratory analysis.
Soil Unit: It is an area of soil to be

24represented
(1/4) by a composite sample.
After the soil unit is determined, the soil samples are collected throughout
the area. The number of samples for combining into each representative
composite sample varies from 5-20 samples in an area of an acre. Usually a
composite sample of one kg of soil is taken from a field.
The size of the area may be sometimes even less for areas that vary
in appearance, slope, drainage, soil types, past treatment These areas are
AgriExam.Com 107
to be sampled for separately. The purpose of the procedure of making a
composite sample is to minimize the influence of any local non-uniformity in
the soil.
Normally for all field crops, sampling soil up to 15 cm depth is

practiced. For deep-rooted crops and tree crops samples up to 1-2 m
may be necessary. While sampling, first a uniform portion is taken from the
surface to the depth desired. Second, the same volume is obtained from
each area.
Preparation of the composite soil sample in the laboratory
It involves the following steps: Drying, grinding, sieving, mixing,

partitioning, weighing, and storing. Uniform mixing and sampling is done by
Quartering Technique:
The soil sample is coned in the center of the mixing sheet. Cone is
flattened and divided through the center with a flat wooden sheet. One half
is moved to the side quantitatively. Then each half is further divided into
half, the four quarters being separated into separate ‘quarters’. Two
diagonally ‘opposite quarters’ are discarded quantitatively. The two other
are mixed by rolling. This process is repeated, until 250-500 g composite
soil material is obtained.
24 (3/4)
(2/4)
For micronutrient analysis – sampling and processing of samples
should alone be done only with stainless steel materials, plastic, or wood to
avoid contamination.
The soil test values calibrated nutrient functions are advocated to the
farmers as a package of nutrient management that aims at judicious use of
fertilizers. Ultimately any soil testing and interpretation must involve
AgriExam.Com 108
‘economics’ because it is used to make a fertilizer recommendation to
achieve an economic goal that would give maximum profit per hectare of
land.
Extraction and determining the available nutrients
Many chemical extractants have been developed for use in soil

testing. The ability of an extractant to extract a plant nutrient in quantities
related to plant requirements depends on the reactions that control nutrient
supply and availability. The extractants commonly used in soil testing
programmes are given below.
Common Nutrient source

Plant nutrient
extractant extracted
NO3- KCl, CaCl2 Solution
NH4+ KCl Solution -
Exchangeable
Available N KMnO4 - NaOH Mineralizable
Organic N
H2PO4-/ HPO42- NH4F - HCl (Bray- Fe/ Al mineral

(Available P) p) solubility
NaHCO3 - P Ca mineral solubility
(Olsen-P)
K+(Available K) NH4OAc-K Exchangeable
Ca2+, Mg2+ EDTA Exchangeable
SO42- CaCl2 Solution AEC

Zn2+, Fe3+, Mn2+, DTPA Chelation
Cu2+
AgriExam.Com 109
H3BO30 Hot water Solution
Organic C Chromic acid Oxidizable C
SOIL TESTING LABORATORY
Soil Testing Laboratories of the Department of Agriculture funded by

State Government are functioning at identified centres in each district. Soil
testing services are also extended to the farming community in the Soil
Laboratories operated by Central government and Agricultural Universities.
The major functions of State Soil Testing Laboratory are:
• Analysis of soil samples which are collected from the farmers by the
Assistant Agricultural Officers for texture (by feel method), lime status,
Electrical conductivity, pH and available N, P and K status at lower
charges/ sample; and advocating fertilizer recommendation for different
crops. Available micronutrients will be analyzed on request.
• Analyzing irrigation water samples for EC, pH, cations, and anions;
Assessing their quality based on different parameters; and suggesting
suitable ameliorative measures for different soil condition and crops.
• Adopting two villages for a particular period by each soil testing

laboratory; collecting and analyzing the soil and irrigation water samples
10 (4/8)
at free of cost and advocating the recommendations.
• Collection of benchmark water samples from the wells marked in a

particular block/ water shed/ taluk. After analyzing the water samples for
different properties, water quality map will be prepared.
AgriExam.Com 110
• Based on the soil test value for the soil samples collected during the
particular year they are rated as low, medium, and high; and village
fertility indices will be prepared.
• Conducting trials related to soil fertility to solve the site-specific problems.
Functions of mobile soil testing laboratory
• The staff of the Mobile STL will visit the villages, collecting and analyzing
the soil and irrigation water samples in the village itself and giving
recommendations immediately.
• Showing the audio-visual programmes through projectors in the villages

educating the importance of soil testing, plant protection measures and
other practices related to crop production.
• In addition, Mobile STL is carrying out other regular functions of

stationary soil-testing laboratory.
(4/4)
AgriExam.Com 111
LECTURE 18
FERTILITY SURVEY AND MAPPING
Survey, village indices
Soil Fertility Survey
Soil survey essentially aims at taxonomical classification of soils in

well-defined units. The properties studied in the survey are ultimately used
to plot the extent of boundaries on a map. The maps are referred for various
purposes particularly for predicting yields based on soil fertility.
Fertility surveys are carried out in profile studies. Profiles in

representative locations in each soil series are opened and thoroughly
examined. From samples collected at different depthwise layer, soil
physical, chemical, and biological properties are thoroughly studied. The
factors limiting crop growth are identified in field and laboratory estimations.
Parameter on the depth of soil, rooting depth, bulk density, particle

density, porosity, water holding capacity, possible profile moisture storage,
soil reaction, salinity, total and available nutrients, presence of hard pans.
By interpretive analysis the fertility, data are grouped and used for mapping.
The division of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning of State

Department of agriculture, which is operating in selected districts of the
Tamil Nadu compiles the information and publish them as a Report. The
reports are available on cost basis to needy persons and institutions. The
results of survey are further classified and mapped by National Bureau of
AgriExam.Com 112
Soil Survey and Land Use Planning located in Nagpur, Bangalore and in
many other locations in India. The Maps are distributed on cost basis for
their effective use. Soil Maps of Agro-climatic regions, fertility status,
irrigability, soil depth, crop suitability, salinity, etc are available.
Besides, the State Agricultural Universities and other national

Institutes conduct soil surveys and prepare maps on nutrient status marking
the macro and micronutrient deficient soils for ready recognition. The
remote sensing tools are also used in Mapping.
Village Fertility Indices and Mapping
In our country, the soil testing laboratories are functioning in all the
states. In Tamil Nadu, the soil testing and mobile soil testing laboratories
are functioning in almost all the districts.
One of the major functions of these laboratories is to analyze the soil

samples collected from the farmers for available N, P and K status. For
every year few taluk will be adopted. After analyzing the soil samples for
available NPK, they are grouped as low, medium and high based on the
soil test value as follows.
After grouping soils as low, medium or high, Village Fertility Index

25
3 (4/4)
(1/2)
(VFI) will be worked out for every revenue village.
NL + 2 NM + 3 NH
VFI =
NL + NM + NH
Where NL, NM, NH are the number of soil samples falling under
the category low, medium and high, which are given weight of 1,2,3
AgriExam.Com 113
respectively. Arbitrarily an index below 1.5 is low, between 1.5-2.5 is
medium, and above 2.5 is high.
Using these fertility indices, the current area wise fertilizer

recommendation for each crop can be modified. A soil fertility map may be
prepared in any outline map of block / taluk by plotting the index values
within the boundary of villages.
25 (2/2)
AgriExam.Com 114
LECTURE 19
PERMANENT MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS
OPM, NPM, LTFE, Findings
Permanent Manurial Experiments
Permanent manurial experiments are conducted to study the long

term effect of continuous application of plant nutrients either singly or in
combination and with or without organic manure on crop yield, nutrient
uptake, and physico-chemical and biological properties of soil.
The first one started was the classical field experiment at

Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden in England in 1854 by
Lawes and Gilbert.
Most of PMEs test common treatment combinations like: Fertilizer N

or P or K alone, Fertilizer N and K, Fertilizer N and P, Fertilizer NPK,
Farmyard Manure (FYM), Residual effect of FYM, Hand weeding, Zn or S
addition, Control (no manure), tillage, irrigation, etc.
Similar to Rothamsted experiment, in India PME was started at

Coimbatore in 1909 and this was the first of its kind in our country. This
called as Old Permanent Manurial experiment (OPM) is being conducted in
red soil (Alfisol) with cereal-cotton crop rotation under rainfed conditions.
Subsequently in 1925, a second experiment was started with the

same treatments and called as New Permanent Manurial (NPM) experiment
to test the effect under irrigated conditions.
AgriExam.Com 115
In OPM and NPM a uniform fertilizer dose of 25-60-75 kg N, P2O5 and
K2O/ha is being applied in all these years. As these are designed with very
low dose of fertilizers and manures without any replication and
randomization, they do not match to the present day use pattern of fertilizer/
manure and statistical analysis.
Therefore, to study the effect of intensive cropping and manuring

new set of experimental design was implemented all over India by ICAR by a
coordinated scheme on Long Term Fertilizer Experiment (LTFE). During
1972, LTFEs were started at 11 centres and later further expanded at seven
more centres.
Under this scheme, a third experiment was started in 1972 at Coimbatore

called as Long Term Fertilizer Experiment (LTFE) in medium black soil
(Inceptisol) to test intensive cropping system with Ragi-maize cropping
system.
The major findings in these experiments are:
 Application of single nutrient (N or P or K) alone resulted in lower crop

yield. Combination of NP and NPK gave higher yield.
 Phosphorus became a limiting26nutrient

(1/2) when it was not applied and it
reduced the yield to the extent of 50-60 per cent. Application of P

along with N, K, and FYM raised the available soil P from low to
medium status.
 Potassium was depleted even when it is applied continuously.
AgriExam.Com 116
 Continuous use of N fertilizer alone reduced the soil productivity.
Addition of FYM with NPK significantly increased the crop yield to the
tune of 15-20 per cent over NPK alone. Addition of organic manure
improved pore space and water holding capacity of soil. Combined
application of organic manure and inorganic fertilizer not only
increased the yield of crops but also improved the soil productivity.
 Population of bacteria, fungi, Actinomycetes and Azotobacter were

increased due to organic manure incorporation. The activities of
enzyme urease, dehydrogenase, cellulase, and amylase were favored
by organic manure application.
AgriExam.Com 117
LECTURE 20
FERTILIZERS - USE AND LEGISLATION
Definition, Classification, Indian Scene, products,

consumption, Legislation
Fertilizers
Fertilizers are the materials either natural or manufactured, containing

nutrients essential for normal growth and development of plants. It may also
be defined that any material or substance intended for use as a nutrient
carrier in soil or crops for boosting crop yields.
In India, the use of artificial fertilizers was first initiated in 1896 when
imported Chilean nitrate was used as a fertilizer. By about 1905 calcium
nitrate, calcium cyanamide, ammonium sulphate, super phosphate and
potassium sulphate were also imported and used.
After the World War I, the Imperial Chemical Industries carried out
valuable field experiments on different crops particularly on rice with
ammonium sulphate during the period 1920-30, which established the
26 (2/2)fertilizers. The manufacture of
general superiority over other nitrogenous
ammonium sulphate in India was first started at Belegolla in Mysore in
1938 on a small scale.
Share of total fertilizer

12consumption
(2/2) (%) in
India
Rice 40.5
Wheat 24.2
Sugarcane 8.7
AgriExam.Com 118
Cotton 6.7
Later in 1947, its manufacture was started at Alwaye. In 1951, the
Government of India set up fertilizer factory at Sindri for the production of
ammonium sulphate in the public sector. Gradually several factories were
established and use of fertilizers become increasingly popular.
Presently India is the Third producer of N and P fertilizers in the

world.
Classification of fertilizers
The fertilizer materials may be classified in several ways
Based on fertilizer mixture behavior
 Straight or simple nitrogenous, phosphatic or Potassic

fertilizers;
 Complex fertilizers having more than one nutrient in single material
and fertilizers having more than one nutrient in single material
 Fertilizer mixtures home mixed or factory mixed materials.
Based on their chemical reaction and nature
 Acidic, neutral, and basic fertilizers
Based on nutrients present

 Simple fertilizers which contain only one nutrient
(Single carrier)
 Compound fertilizers which contain more than one nutrient
(Multinutrient carrier)
AgriExam.Com 119
Physical properties of fertilizers:
Physical properties of fertilizers have bearing on bagging storage,

transportation, handling, and application. They are properties include –
hygroscopic nature, free moisture content, particle size, melting point,

solubility, specific gravity, segregation,
granule hardness, angle of response, drillability etc.,
Chemical properties of fertilizers:
Chemical properties include the nature and amount of nutrients

present, associated elements, their chemical reaction, and salt index.
These make a basis for their selection by the cultivators so that they may
achieve highest productivity with least damage to soil fertility and least unit
cost of fertilizers.
INDIAN FERTILIZER SCENE
India is the Third largest producer and consumer of fertilizers in the world.
At present, there are 59 large size fertilizer plants in the country manufacturing
range of fertilizers. The current installed capacity is 12.1 m tonnes per annum
(tpa).
This fertilizer sector is highly subsidized. It relies heavily on imports to

meet domestic demand. Indian Government incurs a total subsidy bill about 14%
of fiscal deficit every year.
AgriExam.Com 120
The major grades of fertilizers are Nitrogenous (N), Phosphatic (P)
and Potassic (K). N accounts for 71%, P for 22%, and K for 7% of the total
fertilizer consumption. Potassic grade of fertilizer is totally imported and is
not manufactured in India.
Urea (85% of N fertilizer consumption) constitutes 58% of the total

consumption of fertilizers in India. Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) accounts
for approximately 66% of consumption of phosphatic fertilizers.
The N based fertilizer uses indigenously available feedstock (raw

material) to produce ammonia, which is processed further to make urea.
Rock phosphate and potash, the key raw materials for Phosphatic
and Potassic fertilizers respectively are imported into India, due to lack of
domestic availability.
Before April 1, 1997, the State Governments fixed fertilizer prices at non-
remunerative levels. In addition, there were procedural delays in fixing prices
for each crop season, and delays in reimbursing subsidy to the producers.
The reimbursement price fixation is now done by the Central Government,

which may lead to more realistic price levels, and faster disbursements of
subsidies.
27 (3/8)
AgriExam.Com 121
Consumption of Fertilizer by Nutrients (‘000 tonnes)
Year N P2O5 K2O Total
1951-52 58.7 6.9 - 65.6

1961-62 249.8 60.5 28.0 338.3
1971-72 1798.0 558.2 300.6 2656.8

1981-82 4068.7 1322.3 676.2 6067.2
1991-92 8046.3 3321.2 1360.6 12728.0

1992-93 8426.8 2843.8 883.9 12154.5
1993-94 8788.3 2669.3 908.7 12366.3
1994-95 9507.1 2931.7 1124.8 13563.6

1995-96 9822.8 2897.5 1155.8 13876.2
1996-97 10301.8 2976.8 1029.6 14308.1

1997-98 10901.8 3913.6 1372.5 16187.8
1998-99 11353.8 4112.2 1331.5 16797.5
1999-00 11592.7 4798.3 1678.7 18069.7

2000-01 10861.9 4212.4 1557.1 16631.4
AgriExam.Com 122
Important Fertilizer Products in India
Consumption
Grade (%) (1999-2000)
‘000 tonnes
Produced in India
Straight Nitrogenous
Urea 46 N 20277.66
Ammonium sulphate 20.6 N 638.10
Ammonium chloride 25 N 75.19
Calcium ammonium nitrate 25 N 347.25
Straight Phosphatic
Single super phosphate 16 P2O5 3600.99
Diammonium phosphate 18-46-0 6937.68
NP/NPK Complex Fertilizers N: P2O5: K2O

Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate 16-20-0 220.89
Nitro Phosphate with Potash 15-15-15 341.82
Urea Ammonium Phosphate 27 (4/8) 28-28-0 173.66
14-35-14 184.32
Nitro Phosphate 20-20-0 1531.56
23-23-0 222.19
Others 10-26-26 529.79
12-32-16 499.45
17-17-17 681.00
19-19-19 126.63
AgriExam.Com 123
14-28-14 11.47
Imported Fertilizers
Straight Potassic
Muriate of potash 60 K2O 2049.24

Sulphate of potash 50 K2O 17.50
Straight Phosphatic
Rock phosphate 12-18 P2O5 102.96
27 (5/8)
AgriExam.Com 124
LECTURE 21
PROSPECTS OF FERTILIZER USE
Growth in the future will have to come from an increase in cropping

intensity and productivity growth, which implies the higher use of fertilizers.
This is because during 1991-2000, food grain production grew at a rate of
1.7% (population growth over the same period: 1.9%), while net sown area
stagnated at 1.41 m hectares.
Agriculture constitutes 33% of GDP and farmers constitute over 60%

of the vote bank in India. Considering the importance and sensitivity of the
sector and the strong lobby of farmers in Indian politics, it is unlikely that the
government will frame a clear longterm policy in near future to resolve
problems faced by manufacturers. Hence, regulated pricing and subsidies is
likely to continue.
Availability of natural gas will be crucial to the fortunes of fertilizer

manufacturers as it is the preferred feedstock. Any reduction in availability
and changes in its pricing will affect production and profitability of the
companies in this sector.
In a much-deregulated environment, market forces will dictate the

competition. Distribution networks, cost competitiveness and regional
27 (6/8)
imbalances will assume importance. In such a scenario, efficient producers
and distributors will do well. Potash fertilizer will continue to be imported, as
it cannot be manufactured domestically due to the absence of supplies of
critical raw materials.
FERTILIZER LEGISLATION
AgriExam.Com 125
Chemical fertilizers are becoming increasingly expensive day by day
due to hike of prices of petroleum, inflation etc., which tempts dealers to
adopt malpractices for earning more profits through adulteration, supplies of
underweight materials or blending of degraded fertilizers etc. Thus, the
farmers are ditched and often they fail to get good response of applied
fertilizers. Therefore, the laws regulating the manufacture and sale of
various fertilizers are essential to ensure that the consumer or the farmer is
supplied with fertilizers of standard quality.
Keeping these points in mind, the Government of India brought in the
fertilizer Control Act.
FERTILIZER CONTROL ACT
The Union Government of India promulgated the fertilizer Control Act

(F.C.O) in 1957 under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (section 3)
with a view to regulate fertilizer business in India.
The F.C.O. keeps a strict watch on quality control of fertilizers,

provides for the registration of dealers and statutory control of fertilizer prices
by Government. Therefore, everybody involved in fertilizer business as a
manufacturer, dealer or a salesperson, must have proper understanding of
the F.C.O. in order to avoid infringement of Government regulations.
The provisions given in the Order will also help the consumers/
farmers to know their rights and privileges in respect of fertilizer quality and
Authorities to be approached for their grievances regarding supply of sub-
standard materials, overcharging or containers of underweight supplies.
The F.C.O. is published by the Fertilizer Association of India (F.A.I.),

updated when ever felt necessary. The Order has provisions on quality for
AgriExam.Com 126
each consumed fertilizer product and F.C.O. should be consulted under
infringement of any of them.
Control of Quality of Fertilizers
The F.C.O. has provisions to penalize manufactures, distributors, and

dealers for supply of spurious or adulterated fertilizers to consumers or
farmers. The F.C.O. has fixed specifications for various fertilizers, which
must be present in them failing which the legislation comes in force, and
guilty is punished.
Example: The specifications for urea

Moisture % by weight (Max.) … 1.00
Total nitrogen % by weight (Min.) … 46.00
Biuret % by weight (Max.) … 1.50
Particle size:
Granules must pass through IS sieve 320 and
Not less than 80% by weight shall be retained on IS sieve 100.
If it is in the form of prill, it shall pass IS sieve 200 and
Not less than 80% by weight shall be retained on IS sieve 100.
Example: The specifications for Rock phosphate
Particle size:
27 through
The material must completely pass (7/8) 6.3 mm IS sieve and not less
than 20 % material shall pass through 1.50 micron IS sieve.
Total P2O5 content is to be guaranteed by the dealer.
Example: The specifications for Potassium Schoenite
Moisture per cent by weight … 1.50

Potassium % (K2O) by weight (Max.) … 23.00
AgriExam.Com 127
MgO % by weight (Min. on dry basis) … 10.0
Total chloride % (Cl) by weight (Max. on dry basis) … 2.5
Sodium % (as NaCl) (Max. on dry basis) … 1.60
AgriExam.Com 128
LECTURE 22
Tolerance limit in Plant Nutrient for various fertilizers
Category Limit
Straight fertilizers : 0.1 Unit of nutrient
containing <20% plant
nutrients
Straight fertilizers : 0.2 Unit of nutrient
containing >20% plant
nutrients
Calcium ammonium nitrate : 0.3 Unit of nutrient
Complex/ Mixed fertilizers : 0.5 unit for each and maximum
of 2.5 % for all nutrients
Fertilizer Movement Control Order

The Fertilizer Movement Order (F.M.O.) was promulgated by
Government of India in April 1973 to ensure an equitable distribution of
fertilizers in various States. According to the fertilizer movement order, no
person or agency can export chemical fertilizers from any State. However,
Food Corporation of India, Warehousing Corporation of India and Indian
Potash Limited; materials like Rock phosphate, bone meal (both raw and
steamed) and zinc sulphate are exempted from the movement restriction.
Agency responsible for Enforcement of F.C.O
AgriExam.Com 129
The Controller of Fertilizers for India, usually a Joint Secretary to the
Government of India (Ministry of Agriculture) is responsible for the
enforcement of F.C.O. throughout the country.
Electrical Conductivity of the soil saturation extract
Measurement of EC of the soil saturation extract is essential for the

assessment of saline soil for the plant growth.
EC (dS m-1) <2 - Salinity effects mostly negligible

2-4 - Yields of very sensitive crops may be restricted
4-8 - Yields of many crops restricted
8-16 - Only tolerant crops yield satisfactorily
>16 - Only a few tolerant crops yield satisfactorily
Concentration of water soluble boron
The determination of water-soluble boron concentration is also

another criteria for characterization of saline soils. The critical limits of boron
concentration for the plant growth are given below.
Boron <0.7 - Crops can grow (safe)

concentration 0.7-1.5 - 10 Marginal
(19/26)
(ppm) >1.5 - Unsafe
Reclamation of Saline Soils
In saline soils, reclamation consists mainly in removing the excess salts.

This can be done either
• By scraping the salts from the surface (or)
AgriExam.Com 130
• Washing them down into lower layers beyond the root zone preferably
completely out of the solum (or)
• By growing salt tolerant crops (or) by a combination of two (or) more of
these methods
Scraping helps to remove salts that have formed an encrustation on

the surface, but it is never very helpful in complete reclamation. Substantial
quantities of soluble salts are still present in the soil body and hinder plant
growth.
Salt tolerant crops

High salt tolerant crops - Rice, sugarcane, Sesbania, oats
Medium salt tolerant crops - Castor, cotton, sorghum, cumbu
Low salt tolerant crops - Pulses, pea, sunnhemp, sesamum
The growing of salt tolerant plants with a view to remove salts is also
not a practical proposition. Although these plants remove substantial
quantities of salts from the soil, comparatively larger quantities are still left
behind. Salt formation is a continuous process; hence, the reclamation is
never complete
LEACHING REQUIREMENT (LR) It may be defined as
The fraction of the irrigation water that must be leached through the
root zone to control the soil salinity at any specified level.
LR=
Where
LR - Leaching requirement in percentage
Ddw - Depth of drainage water in inches
Diw - Depth of irrigation water in inches
AgriExam.Com 131
ECiw - EC of irrigation water (dSm-1)
ECdw - EC of drainage water (dSm-1)
If the soil is not free draining, artificial drains are opened (or) tile
drains laid underground to help to wash out the salts.
ALKALI SOIL (sodic/ Solonetz)
Alkali (or) sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the

saturation extract less than 4 dS m-1 and an ESP of > 15. The pH is usually
between 8.5 and 10.0. Formerly these soils were called “black alkali soils”
Genesis/ origin
It is evident that soil colloids adsorb and retain cations on their

charged surfaces. Cation adsorption occurs due to electrical charges at the
surface of the soil colloids. While, adsorbed cations are combined
chemically with the soil colloids, they may be replaced by other cations that
occur in soil solution. The reaction of cation in solution that replaces an
adsorbed cation is called as cation exchange and is expressed as cmol (p+)
kg-1.
Calcium and magnesium are the principal cations found in the soil
10 (20/26)
solution and on the exchange complex of normal soils in arid regions. When
excess soluble salts accumulate in these soils, sodium frequently becomes
the dominant cation in the soil solution. In arid regions as the solution
becomes concentrated through evaporation or water absorption by plants,
the Ca2+ and Mg2+ are precipitated as CaSO4, CaCO3 and MgCO3 with a
corresponding increase in sodium concentration. When the Na+
concentration is more than 15% of the total cations a part of the original
exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+ replaced by sodium resulting in alkali soils.
AgriExam.Com 132
Na+
Clay Ca2+ + 2 Na+ ↔ Clay + Ca2+
Na+
Though the reaction is reversible, Ca2+ are removed in drainage water

as soon as they formed. Hence, the reaction proceeds in one direction from
left to right only. The process whereby a normal soil is converted into an
alkali soil is known as “alkalization”.
Characteristics various methods are available to characterize
• A direct determination of exchangeable sodium

Exchangeable sodium = Total sodium - Soluble sodium
• The soil pH also gives an indication of soil alkalinity indirectly. An
increase in pH reading of 1.0 or more, with change in moisture content
from a low to high value has itself been found useful in some area for
detecting alakali conditions.
The higher the ESP, the higher is the soil pH.
• Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
The US Salinity Laboratory
SAR =
developed the concept of
SAR to define the equilibrium between
10 (21/26)
soluble and exchangeable cations
(Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+ are concentrations in saturation extract in me L-1)

The value of SAR can be used for the determination of exchangeable
sodium percentage (ESP)
ESP =
AgriExam.Com 133
The following regression equation is also used to work out ESP
Y = 0.0673 + 0.035 X
Where Y - indicates ESP and X - indicates SAR
Soils having SAR value greater than 13 are considered as sodic soils.
Impact of soil sodicity
• Dispersion of soil colloids leads to development of compact soil

• Due to compactness of soil, aeration, hydraulic conductivity, drainage
and microbial activity are reduced
• High sodicity caused by Na2CO3 increases soil pH
• High hydroxyl (OH-) ion concentration has direct detrimental effect on
plants.
• Excess of Na+ induces the deficiencies of Ca2+ and Mg2+
• High pH in alkali soil decreases the availability of many plant nutrients
like P, Ca, N, Mg, Fe, Cu, and Zn.
10 (22/26)
AgriExam.Com 134
23.
Genesis, Characteristics, and Reclamation of acid soils
Learning objectives
To study the genesis, characteristics and reclamation of acid soils
Soil acidity refers to presence of higher concentration of H+ concentration in soil solution and at
exchange sites. Soil acidity is a major problem in relation to plant growth and therefore acid soils are called a
problem soil. Acid soils are characterized by low soil pH, which varies form strongly acidic (4.5-‐5.5) to
extremely acidic (<4.5) and with low base saturation.
Soil acidity is of three kinds viz., active acidity, exchangeable acidity and residual acidity. The
hydrogen ions in the soil solution contribute to active acidity. It may be defined as the acidity developed due
to concentration of H+ and Al3+ ions in the soil solution. The concentration of hydrogen ion in soil solution
due to active acidity is very small, implying that only a meager amount of lime would be required to
neutralize active acidity. Inspite of smaller concentration, active acidity is important since the plant root and
the microbes around the rhizosphere are influenced by it.
The concentration of exchangeable Al and H ions contribute to exchangeable acidity. It may be

defined as the acidity developed due to adsorbed H and Al ions on soil colloids.
Aluminium hydroxyl ions and H and Al ions present in non – exchangeable form with organic matter
and clay account for the residual acidity.
Total acidity = Active acidity + Exchangeable acidity + Residual acidity
Sources of soil acidity
Leaching due to heavy rainfall
Acid soils are common in all regions where rainfall or precipitation is high enough to leach
appreciable amounts of exchangeable bases from the surface soils and relatively insoluble compounds
of Al and Fe remains in soil. The nature of these compounds is acidic and its oxides and hydroxides react
with water and release hydrogen ions in soil solution and become acidic. Besides, when the soluble
AgriExam.Com 135
bases are lost, the H+ ions of the carbonic acid and other acids developed in the soil replace the basic
cations of the colloidal complex. As the soil gets gradually depletes of its exchangeable bases through
constant leaching, it gets desaturated and becomes increasingly acid.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
H2CO3 + CaCO3 Ca (HCO3)2
Leachable
Acidic parent material
Some soils have developed from parent materials which are acid such as granite and that may
contribute to some extent soil acidity.
Acid forming fertilizers and soluble salts
The use of ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate increases soil acidity. Ammonium ions from
ammonium sulphate when applied to the soil replace calcium ions from the exchange complex and the
calcium sulphate is formed and finally leached out.
(NH4)2SO4 2NH4+ + SO42-‐

NH4
Clay Clay
2NH4 + Ca CaSO4 +

NH4
leached out
NH
4 Nitrification H
Clay Clay
+ 3O2 + 2HNO3
NH4 H

Acid soil
AgriExam.Com 136
Besides, basic portion of ammonium sulphate is NH4+ and it undergoes biological transformation in
the soil and form acid forming nitrate ions. Similarly, sulphur also produces acid forming sulphate ions
through oxidation. Divalent cations of soluble salts usually have a greater effect on lowering soil pH than
monovalent metal cations.
Humus and other organic acids
During organic matter decomposition, humus, organic acids and different acid slats may also be
produced and also concentration of CO2 increased. The increased concentration of CO2, hydrolysis of
acid salts and various organic acids increased the total acidity of soil.
Aluminosilicate minerals
At low pH values most of the Al is present as the hydrated Aluminium ions, which undergoes
hydrolysis and release hydrogen ions in the soil solution.
Carbon dioxide
Soil containing high concentration of CO2, the pH value of such soil will be low and the soil becomes
acidic. Root activity and metabolism may also serve as sources of CO2, which ultimately helps the soil to
become acidic.
Hydrous oxides
These are mainly oxides of iron and aluminium. Under favourable conditions they undergo stepwise
hydrolysis with the release of hydrogen ions in the soil solution and develop soil acidity.
Production constraints
 Increased solubility and toxicity of Al, Mn and Fe

 Deficiency of Ca and Mg,
 Reduced availability of P and Mo and
 Reduced microbial activity

AgriExam.Com 137
Management of acid soils
Management of the acid soils should be directed towards enhanced crop productivity either through
addition of amendments to correct the soil abnormalities or by manipulating the agronomic practices
depending upon the climatic and edaphic conditions.
Soil amelioration
Lime has been recognized as an effective soil ameliorant as it reduces Al, Fe and Mn toxicity and
increases base saturation, P and Mo availability of acid soils. Liming also increases atmospheric N fixation as
well as N mineralization in acid soils through enhanced microbial activity.
Liming materials
Source of lime material is an important aspect of acid soil management and the economics of
application of different sources need to be given due importance. Commercial limestone and dolomite
limestone are the most widely used amendments. Carbonates, oxides and hydroxides of calcium and
magnesium are referred to as agricultural lime.
Among, the naturally occurring lime sources calcitic, dolomitic and stromatolitic limestones are
important carbonates. The other liming sources are marl, oyster shells and several industrial wastes like
steel mill slag, blast furnace slag, lime sludge from paper mills, pressmud from sugar mills, cement wastes,
precipitated calcium carbonate, etc were found to be equally effective as ground limestone and are also
cheaper. Considering the efficiency of limestone as 100%, efficiencies of basic slag and dolomite were found
to be 110 and 94 % respectively.
Burnt lime is the oxide of lime or quick lime. Quick lime is produced in large kilns. Its reactions in soil
are much faster compared to those of carbonates.
CaCO3 + heat CaO + CO2
CaMg(CO3)2 + heat CaO + MgO + 2 CO2
AgriExam.Com 138

Addition of water to burnt lime makes hydroxide or hydrated lime (slaked lime), which is more caustic than
burnt lime.
Lime when applied to acidic soils either in the form of oxide, hydroxide or carbonate reacts with
carbon dioxide and water to form bicarbonate.
CaO + H2O + 2 CO2 Ca (HCO3)2
Ca (OH)2 + 2 CO2 Ca(HCO3)2
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca (HCO3)2

These liming materials on reaction with soil colloid, replace hydrogen and aluminium ions from the
colloidal phase to soil solution.
H+ Ca++
Clay + Ca ++ Clay + H+
+
H
Lime requirement:
Four important factors govern the lime requirement, viz.,
 The required change in pH

 The buffer capacity of the soil to be limed
 The chemical composition of the liming materials used
 The fineness of the liming materials.

AgriExam.Com 139
A fine textured acid soil requires much larger quantity of lime than does a sandy soil or a loamy soil
with the same pH value. Calcitic or dolomitic limestone reacts slowly with soil colloids, whereas burnt lime
and hydrated lime react faster and bring about changes in soil pH within a few days.
Lime requirement of an acid soil may be defined as the amount of liming material that must be
added to raise the pH to some prescribed value. Shoemaker et al. (1961) buffer method is used for the
determination of lime requirement of an acid soil. Lime requirement interms of pure CaCO3 can be observed
from the following table.
Lime requirement of an acid soil
pH of soil buffer lime required to bring pH down to indicated level (CaCO3) in tonnes per acre
suspension
pH 6.0 pH 6.4 pH 6.8
(Field soil sample)
6.7 1.0 1.2 1.4
6.6 1.4 1.7 1.9
6.5 1.8 2.2 2.5
6.4 2.3 2.7 3.1
6.3 2.7 3.2 3.7
6.2 3.1 3.7 4.2
6.1 3.5 4.2 4.8
6.0 3.9 4.7 5.4
5.9 4.4 5.2 6.0
5.8 4.8 5.7 6.5
5.7 5.2 6.2 7.1
5.6 5.6 6.7 7.7
5.5 6.0 7.2 8.3
AgriExam.Com 140
5.4 6.5 7.7 8.9
5.3 6.9 8.2 9.4
5.2 7.4 8.4 10.0
5.1 7.8 9.1 10.6
5.0 8.2 9.6 11.2
4.9 8.6 10.1 11.8
4.8 9.1 10.6 12.4
Benefits:
The most conspicuous effect of liming was on the exchangeable acidity, which registered a
decrease up to 95 %. A decrease of 70-‐74% in pH dependent and total acidity was recorded by
liming. An average yield improvement of 30 % could be obtained.
Crop choice:
Selection of crops tolerant to acidity is an effective tool to counter this soil problem and breeding of
such varieties is of specific importance for attaining higher productivity, particularly in areas where liming is
not an economic proposition. The crops can be grouped on the basis of their performance in different soil
pH range.
Relative tolerance of crops to soil acidity
Crops Optimum pH range
Cereals
Maize, sorghum, wheat, barley 6.0-‐7.5

Millets 5.0-‐6.5
Rice 4.0-‐6.0
Oats 5.0-‐7.7
Legumes
Field beans, soybean, pea, lentil etc. 5.5-‐7.0
Groundnut 5.3-‐6.6
Other crops
AgriExam.Com 141
Sugarcane 6.0-‐7.5
Cotton 5.0-‐6.5
Potato 5.0-‐5.5
Tea 4.0-‐6.0
Occurrence in India:
95% of soils of Assam and 30% of geographical area of Jammu and Kashmir are acidic. In West
Bengal, 2.2 Mha, in Himachal Pradesh, 0.33 Mha, in Bihar, 2 Mha and all hill soils of erstwhile U.P. come
under acid soils. About 80% of soils in Orissa, 88% in Kerala, 45% in Karnataka and 20% in Maharastra are
acidic. The laterite zone in Tamil Nadu is covered with acid soil and about 40,000 ha are acidic in Andhra
Pradesh.
References
1. Text book of Soil Science by T.D. Biswas and S.K. Mukherjee. Tata McGraw-‐Hill Publishing Company
Limited, New Delhi.
2. A text book of Soil Science by D.K. Das. Kalyani Publishers
3. Acid Soils of India and Liming by Mandal, S.C., M.K. Sinha and H. Sinha. 1975. Tech. Bulletin (Agric),
51; ICAR, New Delhi.
4. Soil Acidity and liming by Adams, F. (Ed) (1984). 2nd Edn, American Soiciety of Agronony, Madison,
U.S.A.
Questions to Ponder
1)What ions are the principal sources of soil acidity?
2) is soil pH altered by fertilizer application?
3) what is agricultural lime?
4)what are the factors that determine the frequency and rate of liming?
5)What is fluid lime?
AgriExam.Com 142
24.
Genesis, Characteristics, and Reclamation of saline soils
Learning objectives
To study the genesis, characteristics and reclamation of saline soils
Saline soils are defined as soils having a conductivity of the saturation extract greater than 4
-1
dS m and an exchangeable sodium percentage less than 15. The pH is usually less than 8.5.
Formerly these soils were called white alkali soils because of surface crust of white salts.
Relationship between ECSE and EC1:2.5
EC (dS m-1)
Saturation extract 1: 2.5
4-8 1-3
8-12 3-8
12-16 8-16
Formation
The process by which the saline soil formed is called salinisation. Saline soils occur mostly
in arid or semi arid regions. In arid regions saline soils occur not only because there is less rainfall
available to leach and transport the salts but also because of high evaporation rates, which tend
further to concentrate the salts in soils and in surface waters.
Major production constraints
Presence of salts leads to alteration of osmotic potential of the soil solution. Consequently
water intake by plants restricted and thereby nutrients uptake by plants are also reduced. In this soil
due to high salt levels microbial activity is reduced. Specific ion effects on plants are also seen due
to toxicity of ions like chloride, sulphate, etc.
AgriExam.Com 143
Management of saline soils
The reclamation of saline soils involves basically the removal of salts from the saline soil
through the processes of leaching with water and drainage. Provision of lateral and main drainage
channels of 60 cm deep and 45 cm wide and leaching of salts could reclaim the soils. Therefore,
provision of adequate drainage system is a pre-requisite for any reclamation process. Sub-surface
drainage is an effective tool for lowering the water table, removal of excess salts and prevention of
secondary salinisation.
Irrigation management
Efficient water management leads to increased crop yield under saline soil condition.
Proportional mixing of good quality (if available) water with saline water and then using for irrigation
reduces the effect of salinity. Alternate furrow irrigation favours growth of plant than flooding. Drip,
sprinkler and pitcher irrigation have been found to be more efficient than the conventional flood
irrigation method since relatively lesser amount of water is used under these improved methods.
Fertilizer management
Addition of extra dose of nitrogen to the tune of 20-25% of recommended level will
compensate the low availability of N in these soils. Addition of organic manures like, FYM, compost,
etc helps in reducing the ill effect of salinity due to release of organic acids produced during
decomposition. Green manuring (Sunhemp, Daincha, Kolingi) and or green leaf manuring also
counteracts the effects of salinity. Application of farm yard manure at 5 t ha-1 at 10-15 days before
transplanting in the case of paddy crop and before sowing in the case of garden land crops can
alleviate the problems of salinity.
Crop choice / Crop management
Crops are to be chosen based on the soil salinity level. The relative salt tolerance of different
crops is as follows:
Relative tolerance of crops to salinity
Plant species Threshold salinity (dS m-1)
Field crops
Cotton 7.7
AgriExam.Com 144
Sugarbeet 7.0
Sorghum 6.8
Wheat 6.0
Soybean 5.0
Groundnut 3.2
Rice 3.0
Maize 1.7
Sugarcane 1.7
Vegetables
Tomato 2.5
Cabbage 1.8
Potato 1.7
Onion 1.2
Carrot 1.0
Fruits
Citrus 1.7
Soil / cultural management
Planting the seed in the centre of the raised bed / ridge may affect the germination as it is the
spot of greatest salt accumulation. A better salinity control can be achieved by using sloping beds
with seeds planted on the sloping side just above the water line. Alternate furrow irrigation is
advantageous as the salts can be displaced beyond the single seed row. Application of straw and
polythene mulch had been found to curtail the evaporation from soil surface resulting in the reduced
salt concentration in the root zone profile within 30 days.
Management of saline soils becomes essential and unavoidable particularly in areas where
both soil as well as irrigation water is saline in nature.
AgriExam.Com 145
Extent and distribution of salt affected soils in India
Saline soils Alkali soils Coastal saline soil Total

Sr. No. State
(ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)
1 Andhra Pradesh 0 196609 77598 274207
2 A & N islands 0 0 77000 77000
3 Bihar 47301 105852 0 153153
4 Gujarat 1218255 541430 462315 2222000
5 Haryana 49157 183399 0 232556
6 J&K 0 17500 0 17500
7 Karnataka 1307 148136 586 150029
8 Kerala 0 0 20000 20000
9 Maharashtra 177093 422670 6996 606759
10 Madhya Pradesh 0 139720 0 139720
11 Orissa 0 0 147138 147138
12 Punjab 0 151717 0 151717
13 Rajasthan 195571 179371 0 374942
14 Tamil Nadu 0 354784 13231 368015
15 Uttar Pradesh 21989 1346971 0 1368960
16 West Bengal 0 0 441272 441272
Total 1710673 3788159 1246136 6744968
Source : www.cssri.org
Questions to Ponder
1)What is the relationship between salts and electrical conductivity?
2)What is the fate of leached ouyt salt during saline soil reclamation?
3)What is the nutrient management in saline soil?
4)Where is saline soil predominant in India?Why? ?
5)What are halophytes?
AgriExam.Com 146
25.
Genesis, Characteristics, and Reclamation of sodic soils
Learning objectives
To study the genesis, characteristics and reclamation of sodic soils
Sodic soils - Definition
Alkali or sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the saturation extract less
than 4 dS m-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15. The pH is usually between
8.5 – 10.0.
Most alkali soils, particularly in the arid and semi-arid regions, contain CaCO3 in the profile
in some form and constant hydrolysis of CaCO3 sustains the release of OH- ions in soil solution.
The OH- ions so released result in the maintenance of higher pH in calcareous alkali soils than that
in non – calcareous alkali soils.
Expected loss of soil productivity due to ESP in different soils
ESP Loss in productivity (%)
Alluvium derived soils Black soils

(Vertisols)
(Inceptisols / Alfisols)
Up to 5 Nil Up to 10
5-15 <10 10-25
15-40 10-25 25-50
>40 25-50 >50
Formation
Soil colloids adsorb and retain cations on their surfaces. Cation adsorption occurs as a
consequence of the electrical charges at the surface of the soil colloids. While adsorbed cations are
combined chemically with the soil colloids, they may be replaced by other cations that occur in the
soil solution. Calcium and Magnesium are the principal cations found in the soil solution and on the
AgriExam.Com 147
exchange complex of normal soils in arid regions. When excess soluble salts accumulate in these
soils, sodium frequently becomes the dominant cation in the soil solution resulting alkali or sodic
soils.
Major production constraints
Excess exchangeable sodium in alkali soils affects both the physical and chemical properties
of soils.
a) Dispersion of soil colloids

b) Specific ion effect
Reclamation of alkali / sodic soils
Physical Amelioration
This is not actually removes sodium from exchange complex but improve physical condition
of soil through improvement in infiltration and aeration. The commonly followed physical methods
include
 Deep ploughing is adopted to break the hard pan developed at subsurface due to
sodium and improving free-movement water. This also helps in improvement of
aeration.
 Providing drainage is also practiced to improve aeration and to remove further
accumulation of salts at root zone.
 Sand filling which reduces heaviness of the soil and increases capillary movements
of water.
 Profile inversion – Inverting the soil benefits in improvement of physical condition of
soil as that of deep ploughing.
Chemical Amelioration
Reclamation of alkali / sodic soils requires neutralization of alkalinity and replacement of

most of the sodium ions from the soil – exchange complex by the more favourable calcium ions.
This can be accomplished by the application of chemical amendments (the materials that directly or
indirectly furnish or mobilize divalent cations, usually Ca2+ for the replacement of sodium from the
exchange complex of the soil) followed by leaching to remove soluble salts and other reaction
products. The chemical amendments can be broadly grouped as follows:
 Direct Ca suppliers: Gypsum, calcium carbonate, phospho-gypsum, etc.
AgriExam.Com 148
 Indirect Ca suppliers: Elemental Sulphur, sulphuric acid, pyrites, FeSO4, etc.
Among them gypsum is, by far, the most commonly used chemical amendment. Calcium
carbonate is insoluble in nature which of no use in calcareous sodic soils (have already precipitated
CaCO3) but can be used in non calcareous sodic soils (do not have precipitated CaCO3) since pH of
this soils are low at surface and favouring solubilisation of CaCO3. Some of indirect suppliers of Ca
viz. Elemental sulphur, sulphuric acid, iron sulphate are also used for calcareous sodic soils. These
materials on application solubilise the precipitated CaCO3 in sodic soils and releases Ca for
reclamation.
Other sources
Distillery spent wash
Distillery spent wash is acidic (pH 3.8-4.2) with considerable quantity of magnesium. About 2
lakh litres of distillery spent wash can be added to an acre of sodic soil in summer months. Natural
oxidation is induced for a period of six weeks with intermittent ploughing once in a month. In the
second month (after 45-60 days) fresh water may be irrigated and drained. Such a treatment
reduces the pH and exchangeable sodium percentage and increases the productivity of the sodic
soil.
Distillery effluent
Distillery effluent contains both macro and micronutrients. Because of its high salt content, it
can be used for one time application to fallow lands, About 20 to 40 tonnes per ha of distillery
effluent can be sprayed uniformly on the fallow land. It should not be allowed for complete drying
over a period of 20 to 30 days. The effluent applied field has to be thoroughly ploughed two times
for the oxidation and mineralization of organic matter. Then the crops can be cultivated in the
effluent applied fields by conventional methods.
Pulp and paper mill effluents
Pulp and paper effluents contain lot of dissolved solids and stabilized organic matter. The
properly treated matter can safely be used for irrigation with appropriate amendments viz.
pressmud @ 5 tonnes ha-1, fortified pressmud @ 2.5 tonne ha-1 or daincha as in situ green manure.
AgriExam.Com 149
The following crops and varieties were found to be suitable for cultivation in Tamil Nadu along with
recommended doses of amendments viz. pressmud @ 5 tonnes ha-1, fortified pressmud @ 2.5
tonnes ha-1 or daincha as in situ green manure (6.25 tonnes ha-1).
Rice IR 20, TRY 1, CO 43
Maize CO 1
Sunflower CO 2
Groundnut TMV 2, TMV 7
Soybean CO 1
Sugarcane COC 92061,COC 671, COC 6304, COC 91064
Fodder crops Cumbu-Napier hybrid, Paragrass,Guinea grass
Certain oil seed crops like gingelly and castor, pulses like greengram and blackgram were
found to be sensitive for effluent irrigation.
Benefits
 Application of gypsum, pressmud and pyrite increases the grain yield of rice grown in a
sodic soil by 79, 81 and 69 % over control respectively. Pyrite was as effective as one third
of gypsum, when applied on total S content basis.
 Gypsum alone enhanced the grain yield significantly by > 50 % over control. When the
manures (Green manures, FYM) were added with gypsum further improvement in yield (15
%) was observed.
 An average yield improvement of > 50 % could be possible according to severity of the
problem.
Crop choice
Rice is preferred as first crop in alkali / sodic soil as it can grow under submergence, can
tolerate fair extent of ESP and can influence several microbial processes in the soil. Rice-Wheat /
Barley – Sesbania, rice-berseem are some of the rice based cropping sequences recommended for
sodic soils during reclamation. Some of the lands where aerable cropping after reclamation is not
economically feasible can be brought under different agroforestry systems like silviculture,
AgriExam.Com 150
silvipasture etc. which can improve the physical and chemical properties of the soil along with
additional return on long-term basis. Some grasses like Bracharia mutica (Para grass) and
Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass) etc. had been reported to produce 50% yield at ESP level
above 30.
The sodicity tolerance ratings of different crops is as follows
Relative tolerance of crops to sodicity
ESP (range*) Crop
2-10 Deciduous fruits, nuts, citrus, avocado
10-15 Safflower, blackgram, peas, lentil, pigeonpea
16-20 Chichpea, soybean
20-25 Clover, groundnut, cowpea, pearl millet
25-30 Linseed, garlic, clusterbean
30-50 Oats, mustard, cotton, wheat, tomatoes
50-60 Beets, barley, sesbania
60-70 Rice
*Relative yields are only 50% of the potential in respective sodicity ranges.
Relative tolerance of fruit trees to sodicity
Tolerance to sodicity ESP Trees
High 40-50 Ber, tamarind, sapota, wood apple, date palm
Medium 30-40 Pomegranate
Low 20-30 Guava, lemon, grape
Sensitive 20 Mango, jack fruit, banana
Benefits
Sodic soil reclamation through afforestation is a slow process measuring about 20-30 %
during 9 years with a better efficacy of A. indica than Pongamia pinnata.
AgriExam.Com 151
Saline-alkali/ sodic soils
Saline-alkali / sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the saturation extract
greater than 4 dS m-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15. The pH is variable
and usually above 8.5 depending on the relative amounts of exchangeable sodium and soluble
salts. When soils dominated by exchangeable sodium, the pH will be more than 8.5 and when soils
dominated by soluble salts, the pH will be less than 8.5.
Formation
These soils form as a result of the combined processes of salinizaiton and alkalization. If the
excess soluble salts of these soils are leached downward, the properties of these soils may change
markedly and become similar to those of sodic soil.
Management of saline alkali soils

The reclamation / management practices recommended for the reclamation of sodic soil can
be followed for the management of saline – sodic soil.
Extent and distribution of sodic soils in India
Alkali
Sr. No. State soils
(ha)
1 Andhra Pradesh 196609
2 Bihar 105852
3 Gujarat 541430
4 Haryana 183399
5 J & K* 17500
6 Karnataka 148136
7 Maharashtra 422670
8 Madhya Pradesh 139720
9 Punjab 151717
10 Rajasthan 179371
11 Tamil Nadu 354784
12 Uttar Pradesh 1346971
Total 3788159
Source : www.cssri.org
AgriExam.Com 152
References
Maliwal,G.L. and Somani,L.L. 2011.Soil Technology.Agrotech Publishing academy, Udaipur.
Nyle C. Brady (1996).The Nature and Properties of soils. Tenth edition. Prentice hall of India
Pvt.Ltd,New Delhi.
Questions to Ponder
1)What is the relationship between salts and electrical conductivity?
2)What is the fate of leached ouyt salt during saline soil reclamation?
3)What is the nutrient management in saline soil?
4)Where is saline soil predominant in India?Why? ?
5)What are halophytes?
AgriExam.Com 153
26.
Characteristics and Remediation of heavy metal contaminated soils
Learning objective
To study the characteristics of heavy metal contaminated soils and remediation
Soil contamination
Soil contamination is the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration of the natural
soil environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground
storage tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface
strata, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most
common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other
heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization
and intensity of chemical usage. The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health
risks, both of direct contact and from secondary contamination of water supplies.
The unscientific disposal of untreated or under-treated effluents has resulted in

accumulation of heavy metals in land and water bodies. Heavy metal contamination due to the
sewage and sludge application to soils imposes a major limitation on potential land use. Cultivated
areas under peri-urban agriculture are worst affected by this problem. The heavy metals
accumulating in soil may get entry into the human and animal food chain through the crops grown
on it.
Heavy metals prevailing in soils and their regulatory limits
Elements Conc. range Regulatory limit
(mg kg-1) (mg kg-1)
Lead 1-6900 600
Cadmium 0.1-345 100
Arsenic 0.1-102 20
Chromium 0.005-3950 100
AgriExam.Com 154
Mercury 0.01-1800 270
Copper 0.03-1550 600
Zinc 0.15-5000 1500
Management of soil pollution
Bioremediation
Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses microorganisms, fungi, green
plants or their enzymes to return the environment altered by contaminants to its original condition.
Bioremediation may be employed to attack specific soil contaminants, such as degradation of
chlorinated hydrocarbons by bacteria. An example of a more general approach is the clanup of oil
spills by the addition of nitrate and / or sulfate fertilizers to facilitate the decomposition of crude oil
by indigenous or exogenous bacteria.
Important and widely reported hyper-accumulators used for metal remediation
Elements Plant species Max

conc. (mg
kg-1)
Cadmium Thlaspi caerulescens 500
Copper Ipomoea alpina 12300
Cobalt Haumaniuastrum robertii 10200
Lead Thlaspi rotundifolium, Brassica juncea, Zea mays 8200
Nickel Alyssum lesbiacum, Sebertia accuminata 47500
Zinc Thlaspi caerulescens, Brassica juncea, B. oleracea, B. 51600
campestris
Selenium Brassica juncea, B. napus 900
Chromium Brassica juncea, Helianthus annus 1400
Microorganisms used for metal remediation
Elements Microorganisms
Cadmium Citrobacter spp.
Copper Bacillus spp.
Cobalt Zooglea spp.
Nickel Zooglea spp.
Zinc Bacillus spp.
Chromium Pseudomonas ambigua, Chlamydomonas sp, Oscillatoria sp.,
Arthrobacter sp., Agrobacterium sp..
It is therefore imperative that to solve the soil chemical constraints and make the lands highly
productive on a sustainable basis, we need to develop the technologies suitable to specific
locations which will be economically feasible and workable at farmer’s field. So we have to give
AgriExam.Com 155
emphasis on increasing the current yield level and at the same time develop suitable technologies
to reclaim the problem soils.
Questions to Ponder
1)What are heavy metals?
2) What are the long term effects of irrigation with distillery spent wash?
3)Which effluent contains high amounts of chromium?
4)What is the effect of heavy metals in foraging animals?
5)What are the critical levels of heavy metals in soils ?
AgriExam.Com 156
LECTURE 27
ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY
Water quality parameters, management
Irrigation water quality criteria
Water quality is determined according to the purpose for which it will

be used. For irrigation water, the usual criteria include salinity, sodicity, and
ion toxicities.
Various criteria are considered in evaluating the quality of irrigation
water namely:
1. Salinity hazard
2. Sodium hazard
3. Salt index
4. Alkalinity hazard
5. Permeability hazard
6. Specific ion toxicity hazards
SALINITY HAZARD
The concentration of soluble salts in irrigation water can be classified

in terms of Electrical Conductivity (EC) and expressed as dS m-1.
There are four classes of salinity viz., C1, C2, C3 and C4.
AgriExam.Com 157
The classes C1 and C2 of water are considered suitable for irrigation
purposes (no problem). C3 and C4 classes of water are not suitable for
irrigation purpose (severe problems).
EC
Water class Remarks
(dS m-1)
C1 - Low salinity 0-0.25 Can be used safely
C2 - Medium salinity 0.25-0.75 Can be used with moderate

leaching
C3 - High salinity 0.75-2.25 Can be used for irrigation
purposes with some
management practices
C4 - Very high 2.25-5.00 Can not be used for
irrigation purposes
SODICITY HAZARD
High concentrations of sodium are undesirable in water because

sodium adsorbs on to the soil cation exchange sites, causing soil aggregates
to break down (deflocculation), sealing the pores of the soil and making it
impermeable to water flow. The sodicity hazard of irrigation water is usually
evaluated by:
• 11 (1/8)
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
• Adjusted SAR
• Sodium to calcium activity ratio (SCAR)
• Sodium ratio
• Figure of merit
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
AgriExam.Com 158
United States Salinity Laboratory
(USSL) staff introduced the concept of
sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) to predict the
sodium hazard. It is calculated as
Where all the ions expressed as me L-1
The sodium hazard of irrigation water expressed through SAR does

not take into account the effect of anionic composition. Sodicity hazard also
classified as S1, S2, S3 and S4.
Water class SAR Remarks

S1 low sodium 0-10 Little or no hazard
hazard
S2 medium sodium 10-18 Appreciable hazard but can
hazard be used with appropriate
management
S3 High sodium 18-26 Unsatisfactory for most of the
hazard crops
S4 Very high sodium > 26 Unsatisfactory for most of the
hazard crops
11 (2/8)
AgriExam.Com 159
Adjusted SAR : To predict sodicity hazard more correctly for those water
which contain appreciable amounts of HCO3 but no RSC. Ayers and Wescot
pointed out that sodicity hazard of these irrigation waters should be
determined by Adjusted SAR to be calculated as follows.
Adj. SAR = SAR (1 + (8.4 - pHc)
Where SAR = Sodium Adsorption Ratio

pHC = (pK2 - pKc) + pCa + p (Alk)
pK2 - pKc = conc. of Ca + Mg + Na in me L-1
pCa = Ca in me l-1
pAlk =from conc. of CO3+ HCO3 in me L-1.
The adjusted SAR should be evaluated for such water which have EC
higher than 1.5 and less than 3.0 dS m-1 because only this group of water
are more likely to have twin problem of RSC and SAR.
Sodium to Calcium Activity Ratio (SCAR)

The application of SAR to the group of water, which have EC > 5 dS
-1
m and Mg/Ca ratio > 1 is obviously questionable. For the ground water
having EC > 5 dS m-1 and dominance of magnesium over calcium, the SAR
value should be calculated as Na+ / .
The classification of SAR/ SCAR ratio was given by Gupta (1986) by
following 6 classes of sodicity.
11 (3/8)
1. Non-sodic water (< 5)

2. Normal water (5-10)
3. Low sodicity water (10-20)
4. Medium sodicity water (20-30)
5. High sodicity water (30-40)
6. Very high sodicity water (>40)
AgriExam.Com 160
Sodium ratio
Sodium ratio =
For good water, this ratio should not exceed one.
Figure of merit
This term was proposed by Cassidy to express the relative proportion
of divalent to monovalent cation and calculated by
Figure of merit =
Salt index
It is also used for predicting sodium hazard. It is the relation between

Na+, Ca2+, and CaCO3 present in irrigation water.
Salt index = (Total Na) - (total Ca-Ca in CaCO3) x 4.85
Where all ions are to be expressed in ppm. Salt index is negative for
all good water and positive for those unsuitable for irrigation.
Alkalinity hazard is evaluated by
Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC)

Residual Sodium Bicarbonate
11 (RSBC)
(4/8)
Bicarbonates (HCO3-) occur in low salinity water and its concentration

usually decreases with an increase in EC. The proportion of bicarbonate ion
is higher than calcium ions are considered undesirable, because after
evaporation of irrigation water bicarbonate ions tend to precipitate calcium
ions. Hence, the effect of bicarbonate together with carbonates evaluated
through RSC.
AgriExam.Com 161
RSC = (CO3-- + HCO3-) - (Ca2+ + Mg2+), all ions expressed as me L-1.
RSC (me l-1) Water quality

< 1.25 Water can be used safely
1.25 - 2.5 Water can be used with certain management

> 2.5 Unsuitable for irrigation purposes
Since carbonate ions do not occur very frequently in appreciable
concentrations, and as bicarbonate ions do not precipitate magnesium ions,
Gupta suggested that alkalinity hazard should be determined through the
index called Residual Sodium Bicarbonate (RSBC) to be calculated as
below.
RSBC = HCO3- - Ca 2+, all ions expressed as me L-1.
Based on RSC/ RSBC ratio there are 6 alkalinity classes proposed
Non-alkaline water (-ve)

Normal water (0 me l-1)
Low alkalinity water (2.5 me l-1)
Medium alkalinity water (2.5-5.0 me l-1)
High alkalinity water (5.0-10.0 me l-1)
Very high alkalinity water (> 10.0 me l-1)
Permeability hazard
High sodium in the irrigation water can cause severe soil permeability
problem. Permeability is affected not only by high sodium but also by CO32-
and HCO3- content in water. A part of CO3—and HCO3- is precipitated as
CaCO3 (or) MgCO3 removing Ca and Mg from irrigation water and leads to
AgriExam.Com 162
increased proportion of solution. The effect on permeability has been
evaluated by the term permeability index, which is calculated as
Permeability index =
Where ions are expressed as me L-1 . If permeability index value exceed 65,
water is considered suitable for irrigation.
SPECIFIC ION TOXICITY HAZARD
Sodium: Among the soluble constituents of irrigation water, sodium is

considered most hazardous. Excess of sodium ions characterizes the water
as saline or alkaline depending upon its occurrence in association with
chloride/ sulphate or carbonate/ bicarbonate ions. For some time in the past,
the quality of irrigation water used to be evaluated with respect to sodium
based on soluble sodium percentage (SSP) calculated as below.
SSP =
It has been useful in characterizing water, since a high value indicates

soft water and low value hard water. When water with excess of sodium
(SSP=66) is used for irrigation, part 11
of it(6/8)
is adsorbed by the soil. Both, soils
and plants are adversely affected by high sodium irrigation water. Sodium
soils are relatively impermeable to air and water. They are hard when dry,
difficult to till and plastic and sticky when wet. These adverse physical
conditions prevent germination and are generally unfavourable for plant
growth. Even though, sodium is not as essential as other nutrients, it is
taken up freely by many plants and it may be specifically toxic to plants.
AgriExam.Com 163
Magnesium: It is believed that one of the important qualitative criteria
in judging the irrigation water is its Mg content in relation to total divalent
cations, since high Mg content in relation to total divalent cations, since high
Mg adsorption by soils affects their physical properties. A harmful effect on
soils appears when Ca: Mg ratio decline below 50.
Mg Adsorption Ratio =
Chlorides: The occurrence of chloride ions in irrigation water

increases with increase in EC and sodium ions. Therefore, these ions are
most dominant in very high salinity water. Unlike sodium ions, the chloride
ions neither affect on the physical properties of the soil, nor are adsorbed by
the soil. Therefore, it has generally not been included in modern
classification system. However, it is used as a factor in some regional water
classification.
Chloride
Concentration (me L-1) =
Chloride concentration (me

Water quality
l-1)
4 Excellent water
4-7 Moderately
11 (7/8) good water
7-12 Slightly usable
12-20 Not suitable
> 20 Not suitable
Sulphate: Sulphate salts are less harmful when compared to chlorides.

This is because when both the ions occur in this concentration, only half of
the sulphate ions contribute to salinity due to the fact that approximately half
AgriExam.Com 164
of the sulphates gets precipitated as CaSO4 while the other half remains in
soluble form as Na-MgSO4 in the soil. That is the reason, the potential
salinity of irrigation is calculated as Cl- + ½ SO4--.
Eaton proposed three classes for sulphate
< 4 me l-1 - Excellent water

4-12 me l-1 - Good to injurious
-1
> 12 me l - Injurious to unsatisfactory
Potential salinity
It can be worked out by using the formula Cl + 1/2 SO42- where ions
are expressed in me l-1.
Potential salinity
Remarks
(me L-1)
3-15 Can be recommended for medium permeability soils
3-7 Recommended for soils of low permeability
Boron: It is evident that boron is essential for the normal growth of the
plant, but the amount required is very small. The occurrence of boron in
toxic concentration in certain irrigation water makes it necessary to consider
this element in assessing the water quality. The permissible limits of boron
in irrigation water are:
Boron Crops
Remarks
class Sensitive Semi-tolerant Tolerant
Very low < 0.33 < 0.67 < 1.00 For safely use
Low Can be
0.33-0.67 0.67-1.33 1-2.0
managed
Medium 0.67-1.00 1.33-2.00 2.0-3.0 Unsuitable
AgriExam.Com 165
High 1.0-1.25 2.00-2.50 3.0-3.75 Unsuitable
Very high > 1.25 > 2.50 > 3.75 Unsuitable
Fluorine: fluorides are only sparingly soluble and are in only small
amounts. The concentration of fluoride ranges from traces to more than 10
mg L-1 in natural water, and surface water do not exceed 0.3 mg L-1 unless
they are polluted. Irrigation with fluoride saline water (upto 25 mg L-1) has
not been found to affect yield of wheat. Therefore, it is doubtful if fluoride
requires any monitoring in India. At present, the average concentration of
fluoride has not been observed to be very high (10 mg l-1).
Nitrate: Very frequently ground water contain high amount of nitrate.

When such type of irrigation water is applied on soils continuously, various
properties of soils are affected.
<5 No problem
NO3 me l-1 5-30 Intensity of problem is moderate
> 30 Intensity of problem is severe
Lithium : Lithium is a trace element may be found in most of saline

ground water and irrigated soils. It has been found that 0.05-0.1 ppm of
lithium in water produce toxic effects on growth of citrus. It has also been
reported that saline soils of varying degrees found in India contain lithium
11 (8/8)
upto 2.5 ppm. Fortunately, the germination of majority of crops is not
affected with this level of lithium content.
AgriExam.Com 166
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Soil Chemistry, Soil Fertility & Nutrient Management

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SOIL CHEMISTRY, SOIL FERTILITY & NUTRIENT

Disclaimer:-The information on this website does not warrant or assume any

2 SOIL PH AND BUFFER PH 3-6

3 SOIL PH AND PERCENT BASE SATURATION 7-9

4 SOIL AS A SOURCE OF PLANT NUTRIENTS - ESSENTIAL 10-16

7 NITROGEN – TRANSFORMATION, FACTORS AFFECTING 30-39

13 SOIL FERTILITY EVALUATION 84-89

14 PREDICTING YIELDS USING NUTRIENT FUNCTIONS 90-95

15 FERTILITY EVALUATION BY PLANT ANALYSIS 96-102

16 SOIL TESTING AND CORRELATION 103-105

18 FERTILITY SURVEY AND MAPPING 112-114

19 PERMANENT MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS 115-117

20 FERTILIZERS - USE AND LEGISLATION 118-124

21 PROSPECTS OF FERTILIZER USE 125-128

22 TOLERANCE LIMIT IN PLANT NUTRIENT FOR VARIOUS 129-134

A knowledge of environmental soil chemistry is paramount to predicting the fate,

Reduction potential (also known as redox potential) is the tendency of a

A reduction potential is measured in volts (V). Because the true or absolute

The relative reactivities of different half-cells can be compared to predict the

Any system or environment that accepts electrons from a normal hydrogen

Sometimes when electrolysis is carried out in an aqueous solution, water, rather

Absolute reduction potentials can be determined if we find the actual potential

Buffer pH (BpH) This is a value that is generated in the laboratory, it is not an

During physical and chemical weathering processes in which rocks, minerals,

Cation Exchange Capacity

The pH scale is a logarithmic expression of hydrogen ion [H+] concentration in

Another technique that some soil-testing laboratories use to develop an ag-lime

Phosphorus is particularly reactive with aluminum, iron, and calcium. Thus, in

In general, the availability of nitrogen, potassium, calcium, and magnesium

To understand the importance of soil fertility

To study the essential nutrients in plant growth

Crop yield and quality depends upon the

Soil is one of the key factors affecting

Soil Qualities Soil Characteristics

History of development of soil fertility

Priestly (1800) established the essentiality of O2 for the plant growth.

Justus Von Liebig (1835) suggested that

J.B. Lawes and J. H. Gilbert (1843) established permanent manurial experiment at

Essential and Beneficial elements

3. The element must be directly involved in plant metabolism.

D.J.Nicholas coined the term “functional or metabolic nutrient”

Essentiality of the elements established by

Carbon : Priestly (1800)

1) Based on the amount required by the plant

Classification based on the role of element in plant system

(According to TRUOG, 1954)

ii). Accessory structural elements : N. P. S

iii). Regulator & Carriers : K, Ca, Mg

Tisdale,S.L.,Nelson,W.L.,Beaton,J.D.,Havlin,J.L.1997.Soil fertility and Fertilizers.Fifth edition,

2) Which elements are considered to be essential for crop growth?

To know the functions of each nutrient in plant

Ex: Ca, Mg and S.

Ex: Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl and Ni.

Metals K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu,

Primary N, K 400-1000 1-1.5

Secondar Ca, Mg 0.2-0.5

Micro Fe, Mn, B 1-2 0.002-0.01

Others <1 <0.002

Concentration, Mobility, forms, functions

NUTRIENT CONCENTRATION IN TISSUE