Basic Electrical Engineering

(TEE 101)

Objective:
• To discuss the various types of electrical energy sources
• Network Terminology
• Sign Convention
• Current Division and Voltage Division Rule
• To discuss the Source Transformation
 Electrical Energy Sources

Electrical energy sources are used to deliver electrical energy to the circuit.

Electrical Energy Sources are categorized on various basis. Such as:

1. DC sources
2. AC sources

DC Sources
Voltage Source / Current Source

Independent Voltage Source / Dependent Voltage Source / Current

Current Source Source
Voltage Voltage Current Current
Independent Independent Practical Practical
Dependent Dependent Dependent Dependent
Ideal Voltage Ideal Current Voltage Current
Voltage Current Voltage Current
Source Source Source Source
Source Source Source Source
 Independent Ideal Sources
Independent Ideal Voltage Sources
An independent voltage source produces a constant voltage across its two terminals.
This voltage is independent of the amount of current that is flowing through the two
terminals of voltage source.
Independent ideal voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following
figure.

• The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source is a constant line, which is
always equal to the source voltage (VS) irrespective of the current value (I).
• So, the internal resistance of an independent ideal voltage source is zero Ohms.
• Hence, the independent ideal voltage sources do not exist practically, because there will
be some internal resistance.
 Independent Ideal Current Sources
• An independent Ideal current source produces a constant current.
• This current is independent of the voltage across its two terminals.
• Independent ideal current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following
figure.

• The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal current source is a constant line, which is
always equal to the source current (IS) irrespective of the voltage value (V).
• So, the internal resistance of an independent ideal current source is infinite ohms.
• Hence, the independent ideal current sources do not exist practically, because there will
be some internal resistance.
 Non Ideal or Practical Voltage Source
• Independent practical voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the
following figure.

• There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical voltage

source from the V-I characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source.
• This is due to the voltage drop across the internal resistance (RS) of an
independent practical voltage source.
 Non Ideal or Practical Current Source
• Independent practical current source and its V-I characteristics are shown
in the following figure.

• There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical

current source from the V-I characteristics of an independent ideal current
source.
• This is due to the amount of current flows through the internal shunt
resistance (RS) of an independent practical current source.
 Dependent Sources
As the name suggests, dependent sources produce the amount of voltage or current that is
dependent on some other voltage or current. Dependent sources are also called as controlled
sources. Dependent sources can be further divided into the following two categories −
• Dependent Voltage Sources
• Dependent Current Sources

Voltage Dependent Current Dependent

Voltage Source Voltage Source
Dependent Voltage Sources
• A dependent voltage source produces a voltage across its two terminals.
• The amount of this voltage is dependent on some other voltage or current.
• Hence, dependent voltage sources can be further classified into the following two categories −
•Voltage Dependent Voltage Source (VDVS)
•Current Dependent Voltage Source (CDVS)

Dependent voltage sources are represented with the signs ‘+’ and ‘-’ inside a diamond shape. The magnitude
of the voltage source can be represented outside the diamond shape.
Dependent Current Sources
• A dependent current source produces a current.
• The amount of this current is dependent on some other voltage or current.
• Hence, dependent current sources can be further classified into the following two categories −
• Voltage Dependent Current Source (VDCS)
• Current Dependent Current Source (CDCS)
• Dependent current sources are represented with an arrow inside a diamond shape.
• The magnitude of the current source can be represented outside the diamond shape.
• We can observe these dependent or controlled sources in equivalent models of transistors.

Voltage Dependent Current Dependent

Current Source Current Source
 Network Terminology

In order to describe the manner in which the elements are

interconnected in a network, the following terms are used:
• Node: It is a point in an electrical network where two or more elements are
connected
• Junction: It is a point in an electrical network where three or more elements are
connected.
• Branch: A branch is a part of the electrical network which extends from one junction
to another junction. A branch may contain one element or several elements in series.
• Loop: A closed path in an electrical network is called as loop.
• Mesh: The elementary loop of the network which further does not have any other
loop in it is known as Mesh.
 Sign Convention for sources and passive components
Polarity of Voltage Source
• Polarity of the voltage source is fixed and is independent of the direction of current.
• The positive (+) terminal is at a higher potential and negative (-) is at lower potential
• Consider a voltage source as shown in figure below:

• When we go from “a” to “b” (i.e +ve terminal to –ve terminal), then there is a voltage
drop
• When we go from “b” to “a” (i.e. –ve terminal to +ve terminal), then there is a voltage rise
• Voltage Rise indicates positive voltage and Voltage Drop indicates the negative voltage
Polarity of a Resistor
• Current flows from higher potential point to a lower potential point in a circuit or through an
element
• As illustrated in figure given below:

• Since the current “I” flows from point “c” to “d”, the point “c” is at a higher potential and the point
“d” is at lower potential.
• When we move from “c” to “d”, that is, along the direction of current, there is a voltage drop (i.e.
Vcd = -IR)
• When we go from “d” to “c”, that is, opposite to the flow of current, there is a voltage rise (i.e. Vdc
= +IR)
• The following rule is to be remembered while taking sign convention in case of passive elements:
• “Movement along the flow of current gives –ve voltage (i.e. voltage drop)”, and
• “Movement opposite to the flow of current gives +ve voltage (i.e. voltage rise)”
 Current Division Rules
• A parallel circuit acts as a current divider as the current divides in all the branches in a parallel circuit, and
the voltage remains the same across them.
• The current division rule determines the current across the circuit impedance.
• The current division is explained with the help of the circuit shown below:
The current I has been divided into I1 and I2 into two
parallel branches with the resistance R1 and R2 and V is
the voltage drop across the resistance R1 and R2.
V = IR ……..(1)

Then the equation of the current is written as:

Let the total resistance of the circuit be R and is given by the

equation shown below:

Equation (1) can also be written as: I = V/R ……….(3)

Now, putting the value of R from the equation (2) in the equation (3) we will get

But

Putting the value of V = I1R1 from the equation (5) in equation (4), we finally get the equation
as:

And now considering V = I2R2 the equation (4) will be:

Thus, from the equation (6) and (7) the value of the current I1 and I2 respectively is given by
the equation below:

Thus, in the current division rule, it is said that the current in any of the parallel branches is equal
to the ratio of opposite branch resistance to the total resistance, multiplied by the total current.
 Voltage Division Rule
Voltage division between two resistors:
• When there are only two resistors in series (as shown in figure below), the voltage division between them
can be found as follows:
• Total current in the circuit

• By Ohm’s Law

• Similarly

• Thus, the voltage across either of the series resistors is equal to the applied voltage times the ratio of that
resistance to the total resistance.
• Hence, the use of voltage-divider equation eliminates calculations for current when determining voltage
across resistors
 Source Transformation
• A non-ideal or practical voltage source an be transformed to an equivalent non-ideal
or practical current source.
• Vice-versa is also true
• Replacing one source by an equivalent source is often called as source transformation.
• It is a fictional change in the type of source (i.e. it is a mathematical equivalence in
terms of equations in the circuits)
• This transformation techniques serves as a powerful tool to simplify the analysis of
circuits specially with mixed sources
• A practical voltage source and practical current source are said to be equivalent if
their V-I relations are the same for all terminal conditions.
• For equivalence of the two sources, the following conditions should be satisfied:
1. The open circuit voltages at their terminals are equal
2. The short circuit currents at their terminals are equal
 Transformation of Practical voltage source into a practical current source

• The transformation of practical voltage source into a practical current

source is shown in the following figure:

VS
IS 
RS

• Practical voltage source consists of a voltage source (VS) in series with a

resistor (RS).
• This can be converted into a practical current source as shown in the figure.
• It consists of a current source (IS) in parallel with a resistor (RS).
• The value of IS will be equal to the ratio of VS and RS. Mathematically, it can
be represented as VS
IS 
RS
 Transformation of Practical current source into a practical voltage source

• The transformation of practical current source into a practical voltage source is shown
in the following figure.

• Practical current source consists of a current source (IS) in parallel with a resistor (RS).
• This can be converted into a practical voltage source as shown in the figure.
• It consists of a voltage source (VS) in series with a resistor (RS).
• The value of VS will be equal to the product of IS and RS.
• Mathematically, it can be represented as
VS=ISRS