RF02: ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES:

ISSUES FOR RESEARCH AND TEACHING

Coordinators: Luciana Bazzini and Pessia Tsamir

University of Torino (Italy) Tel Aviv University (Israel).

Algebraic equations and inequalities play an important role in various mathematical

topics including algebra, trigonometry, linear programming and calculus (e.g., Hardy,
Littlewood & Pólya, 1934/1997). Accordingly, various documents, such as the U.S.
NCTM Standards, specify that all students in Grades 9-12 should learn to represent
situations that involve equations and inequalities, and that they should understand the
meaning of equivalent forms of expressions, equations and inequalities and solve
them fluently (NCTM, 1989; 2000). To implement these recommendations it is
crucial to analyze students' ways of thinking about equations and inequalities when
designing instruction and in teaching.
Indeed, in the last decade there has been growing interest in the learning and teaching
of algebraic equations and inequalities. Discussions regarding related issues have
been conducted, for instance, in PME 22 Discussion Group meetings (1998) and
continued during PME 23 Project Group sessions (1999). There was a consensus
among 1999 PG participants that the meetings of the group should be temporarily
postponed, while calling on researchers to invest more efforts in various facets of
algebraic reasoning related to the solution of equations and inequalities. Among the
benefits of the 1998-1999 discussions were the selection of key research questions
and the initiation of collaborative research teams that since then have been working in
this area. The Research Forum at PME 28 provides an opportunity for presenting
some fruits of the research that has been conducted since then, for discussing
theoretical frameworks for data analysis, and for examining the different educational
implications that were suggested and tried. Indeed, in their presentations, all the
invited speakers of this RF make due reference to previous related PME publications
(e.g., Boero, Bazzini, & Garuti, 2001; Duval, 2000; Garuti, Bazzini, & Boero, 2001;
Linchevski & Sfard, 1991; Nunez, 2000; Radford, 2002; Tsamir, & Bazzini, 2001).
The theme of PME28, Inclusion and Diversity, is well reflected in this research
forum. Diversity may be found in the different lines of research, different theories to
account for the findings and the educational implications that have been put forward
by the researchers. For example, among the theoretical frameworks mentioned here to
analyze students’ solutions are the Vygotskian model and Nunez’s grounding
metaphors, in Boero and Bazzini – [BB], Duval’s theory on semiotic registers and
Frege’s theory of denotation, in Sackur – [S], and Fischbein’s model, in Tsamir,
Tirosh and Tiano – [TTT]. Kieran [K] offers three categories for analyzing algebraic
activities: generational, transformational, and global meta-level.

Proceedings of the 28th Conference of the International

Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, 2004 Vol I pp 137–166
 The presentations address a variety of difficulties occurring in students’ solutions of
equations and inequalities, and suggest different reasons for these difficulties. When
analyzing students’ performances, [BB] and [TTT] mention students’ tendencies to
make irrelevant connections between equations and inequalities as a problematic
phenomenon. It should be noted, however, that [K] presents connections made
between equations and inequalities as an important step in solving algebraic problems
by means of non-algebraic methods. [BB] mention traditional, algorithmic teaching
approaches as a main reason for students’ errors, Dreyfus and Hoch [DH] mention
the need to enhance the internal structure of equations that students hold, while [S]
carefully analyzes difficulties with reference to the various solving methods and
indicates that even the functional approach and the use of graphic calculators do not
automatically lead to errorless solutions.
However, beyond their differences, the presentations share common goals. One such
goal is to investigate ways to promote performance on algebraic equations and
inequalities by seeking means for analyzing students’ reactions to various
representations of equations and inequalities in different contexts, while considering
the way this topic was taught. Thus, this forum will also shed light on the more
general issues concerning the interplay between theory, research and instruction.
The two reactors intend to react on all the papers and make concluding statements,
but their review is made from different perspectives.
Further discussion will address a number of key questions, like:
�� What are students’ conceptions of equations / inequalities? What is typical
correct and incorrect reasoning? What are common errors?
�� What are possible sources of students’ incorrect solutions?
�� What theoretical frameworks could be used for analyzing students’ reasoning
about algebraic equations / inequalities?
�� What is the role of the teacher, the context, different modes of representation,
and technology in promoting students’ understanding?
�� What are promising ways to teach the topics of equations / inequalities? What
curricular innovations can we suggest?
�� Is there a global theory that may encompass the local theory of equations and
inequalities?
The discussion of such issues could give further support to research and teaching.
During the sessions at the conference, each of the presenters is allotted only ten
minutes to present the central points of his / her ideas, and each of the reactors is
invited to react on all presentations during a fifteen minutes presentation. Most of the
two sessions are dedicated to the participants’ work in small groups, and to whole RF
discussions.

1–138 PME28 – 2004

 References
Boero P., Bazzini L., & Garuti R. (2001). Metaphors in teaching and learning
mathematics: a case study concerning inequalities, Proceedings of PME 25,
Utrecht, The Netherlands, Vol.2,185-192.
Duval R. (2000). Basic Issues for Research in Mathematics Education, Proceedings
of PME 24, T. Nakahara & M. Koyama eds. Hiroshima University, Japan, Vol.I,
55- 69.
Garuti, R.; Bazzini, L. & Boero, P. (2001). ‘Revealing and promoting the
students’ potential: a case study concerning inequalities’, Proceedings of PME-
XXV, Utrecht, The Netherlands, Vol.3, 9-16
Hardy, G., Littlewood J. E., & Pólya, G. (1934/1997). Inequalities. Cambridge
University Press: England.
Linchevski, L. & Sfard, A. (1991). Rules without reasons as processes without
objects – The case of equations and inequalities. Proceedings of PME15, Assisi,
Italy, Vol. II, 317-324.
Nunez, R. (2000). Mathematical Idea Analysis: What Embodied Cognitive Science
Can Say about the Human Nature of Mathematics, Proceedings of PME-XXIV,
Hiroshima, vol. I, 3-21.
NCTM [National Council of Teachers of Mathematics]. (1989). Curriculum and
evaluation standards for school mathematics, Reston, Virginia.
NCTM [National Council of Teachers of Mathematics]. (2000). Principles and
Standards for School Mathematics, Reston, Virginia.
Radford, L. (2002). On heroes and the collapse of narratives. A contribution to the
study of symbolic thinking. Proceedings of the PME 26 Conference, Vol. 4, pp.
81-88. University of East Anglia, UK.
Tsamir, P., & Bazzini, L. (2001). Can x=3 be the solution of an inequality? A study
of Italian and Israeli students, Proceedings of PME25, Utrecht, The Netherlands,
Vol. IV, 303-310.
Tsamir, P., Tirosh, D., & Almog, N. (1998). Students’ solutions of inequalities,
Proceedings of PME22, Stellenbosch, South Africa, Vol. IV, 129-136.

INEQUALITIES IN MATHEMATICS EDUCATION:

THE NEED FOR COMPLEMENTARY PERSPECTIVES

Paolo Boero, Università di Genova (I), Luciana Bazzini, Università di Torino (I)

1. Introduction
This contribution deals with inequalities: an important subject from the mathematical
point of view; a difficult subject for students; a subject scarcely considered till now
by researchers in mathematics education. Our working hypothesis is that different
tools belonging to different disciplines (cognitive sciences, didactics of mathematics,

PME28 – 2004 1–139

 epistemology of mathematics) related to mathematics education are needed to
interpret difficulties met by students and plan and analyse teaching experiments
intended to cast new light on this subject. Data coming from some teaching
experiments conceived in this perspective and other experimental investigations will
be used to support our working hypothesis. In particular, we will present the
guidelines and some results of a research program conceived according to the above
perspective and concerning the approach to inequalities in 8th - grade. We will show
how a functional approach to inequalities (i. e. an approach based on the comparison
of functions and suggested by the didactical, epistemological and cognitive analyses
of the subject), when suitably managed by the teacher, can reveal (from the research
point of view) and allow to exploit (from the curriculum design point of view) a
students' potential which goes far beyond the mathematics content involved
(inequalities). We will use the Vygotskian perspective and the “didactical contract”
construct to frame the teacher’s role in the classroom and analyse the teacher-students
relationships. Amongst the cognitive tools, in particular we will use the “grounding
metaphor” construct (Nunez, 2000) to analyse some aspects of the students’
behaviour and open the problem of how to enhance students’ use of those metaphors
in this mathematical domain.
2. Inequalities: a challenge for teaching.
In most countries, inequalities are taught in secondary school as a subordinate subject
(in relationship with equations), dealt with in a purely algorithmic manner that avoids,
in particular, the difficulties inherent in the concept of function. This approach
implies a "trivialisation" of the subject, resulting in a sequence of routine procedures,
which are not easy for students to understand, interpret and control. As a consequence
of this approach, students are unable to manage inequalities which do not fit the
learned schemas. For instance, according to different independent studies (Boero et
al, 2000; Malara, 2000), at the entrance of the university mathematics courses in Italy
most students fail in solving easy inequalities like x2-1/x>0. In general, graphic
heuristics are not exploited and algebraic transformations are performed without
taking care of the constraints deriving from the fact that the > sign does not behave
like the = sign (Tsamir et al., 1998). Similar phenomena were described in some
studies concerning the French situation (Assude, 2000; Sackur and Maurel, 2000).
We may ask ourselves what are the reasons of this situation. In a didactical-
anthropological perspective (Chevallard, 1987), one reason could be the fact that
equations (and inequalities) are considered (in most of European countries, including
Italy) as a typical content of school Algebra; this subject matter is distinguished from
Analytic Geometry and does not include functions. This might explain why
inequalities (and equations) are not dealt with in those countries from a functional
point of view. But even in countries where functions (and Analytic Geometry) belong
to school Algebra (see NCTM Standards, 1989 and 2000) the procedural, algebraic
approach prevails in many curricula and even in innovative proposals (Dobbs and
Peterson, 1991). So the didactical-anthropological analysis must be refined and

1–140 PME28 – 2004

 integrated with an epistemological analysis: we must consider the big distance
between the subject as a school subject, and the mathematicians’ professional
approach to the subject. Indeed the functional aspect of inequalities plays a crucial
role when mathematicians solve equations with approximation methods, deal with the
concept of limit or treat applied mathematical problems involving asymptotic
stability. We can make the hypothesis that an alternative approach to inequalities
based on the concept of function could provide an opportunity to promote the learning
process of the difficult concepts involved and the development of the inherent skills
(see Harel and Dubinsky, 1992 for a survey). It could also ensure an high level of
control of the solution processes of equations and inequalities (Sackur and Maurel,
2000; Yerushalmy and Gilead,1997).
3. The teaching experiments
Keeping the previous analysis into account we have planned two teaching
experiments at the VIII-grade level with rather limited aims: investigating the
feasibility of an early functional approach to inequalities; and revealing students'
potential and difficulties in dealing with this subject as a special case of comparison
of functions. According to a Vygotskian perspective, we choose to guide our VIII-
grade students in a cooperative, gradual enrichment of tools and skills inherent in the
functional treatment of inequalities. Then we have analysed how (in relatively
complex tasks) they had been able to use their knowledge and increase their
experience in an autonomous way.
As concerns the content, the concepts of function and variable have been approached
through activities involving tables, graphs and formulas. According to existing
cognitive and epistemological analyses, at the beginning the function was presented
as a machine transforming x-values into y-values (machine view in Slavit, 1997), then
classroom activities focused on the variation of y as depending on the variation of x
(covariance view). By this way a dynamic idea of function gradually prevailed on the
static consideration of a set of corresponding pairs (correspondence view). As a
consequence, a peculiar aspect of the concept of variable was put into evidence (a
variable as a "running variable", i.e. a movement on a set of numbers represented on a
straight line) (Ursini and Trigueros, 1997). Finally, the approach to inequalities was
realised by comparing functions.
The specific didactical contract demanded to compare functions as global, dynamic
entities. Students knew that they had to compare functions by making hypotheses
based on the analysis of their formulas. The point-by-point construction of graphs was
discouraged. As a consequence, the ordinary table of x, y values was sometimes
exploited as a tool to analyse how y changed when x changed (column-vertical
analysis) and not as a tool to read the line-horizontal point-by-point correspondence
between x-values and y-values. The algebraic and the graphical settings were strictly
related (formulas were read in terms of shapes in the (x,y) plane, while graphs evoked
formulas). The teachers promoted classroom discussions about "what do we loose and

PME28 – 2004 1–141

 what do we earn" when a function is represented through formulas or graphs or tables
or common language. Also different ways of describing given functions have been
enhanced (see Duval, 1995: coordination of different linguistic registers). They
became personal tools exploited and to compare functions. Even the metaphors used
by students to describe the role of different pieces of the same formula have been
encouraged and discussed.
4. Some remarks and questions.
First of all, some remarks on the role of metaphors are worth noticing. Since the
beginning of the eighties metaphors have been reconsidered as crucial components of
thinking. Nunez (2000) describes conceptual metaphors as follows: “Conceptual
metaphors are in fact fundamental cognitive mechanisms (technically, they are
inference-preserving cross-domain mappings) which project the inferential structure
of a source domain onto a target domain, allowing the use of effortless species-
specific body-based inference to structure abstract inference". Considering
conceptual metaphors, Lakoff and Nunez (2000) (see also Nunez, 2000) make a
distinction between grounding metaphors (i. e. conceptual metaphors which "ground
our understanding of mathematical ideas in terms of everyday experience") and other
kinds of conceptual metaphors (Redefinitional metaphors, Linking metaphors).
Concerning grounding metaphors, our research study aims to show how different
kinds of grounding metaphors can intervene (as crucial tools of thinking) in novices'
approach to inequalities and to discuss possible refinements of the idea of a
grounding metaphor, deriving from the analysis of students' behaviour and related to
the cultural variety of everyday life source domains. Finally we aim to investigate
how grounding metaphors can become a legitimate tool of thinking for students.
In particular, it would be interesting to discuss the following questions:
I) what theories and what tools do offer the best opportunities to interpret students'
behaviors when they deal with inequalities?
II) can the study of teaching and learning inequalities be reduced to the study of
teaching and learning functions?
Some research findings have been already presented in Boero & al., (2001); and
Garuti & al, (2001). Further results related to on-going research will be discussed.

References
Assude, T.(2000), 'De l'usage de 'techniques faibles' et 'techniques fortes' dans
l'organisation du curriculum, Actes des Séminaires SFIDA-9 à SFIDA-12, Volume
III (IX), 9-14.
Boero, P, Bazzini, L. & Garuti, R..(2001), ‘Metaphors in teaching and learning
mathematyics: a case study concerning inequalities’, Proceedings of PME-XXV,
Utrecht, The Netherlands, Vol.2,185-192.

1–142 PME28 – 2004

 Garuti, R., Bazzini, L. & Boero, P (2001), ‘Revealing and promoting the students’
potential: a case study concerning inequalities’, Proceedings of PME-XXV,
Utrecht, The Netherlands, Vol.3, 9-16.
Chevallard, Y.(1987), La transposition didactique, La pensée sauvage, Grenoble
Dobbs, D & Peterson, J. (1991), 'The sign-chart method for solving inequalities'.
Mathematics Teacher, 84, 657-664
Duval, R: (1995), Sémiosis et pensée humaine, Peter Lang, Berne.
Harel, G. and E. Dubinsky (Eds), (1992), The Development of the Concept of
Function, MAA.
Lakoff, G. & Nunez, R. (2000), Where Mathematics Comes From: How the
Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics into Being, Basic Books, New York
Malara, N. (2000), 'Una riflessione sui comportamenti di studenti universitari nello
studio di disequazioni', Actes des Séminaires SFIDA-9 à SFIDA-12,Vol.III (XII),
13-28, IREM, Nice.
Nunez, R. (2000), 'Mathematical Idea Analysis: What Embodied Cognitive Science
Can Say about the Human Nature of Mathematics', Proceedings of PME-XXIV,
Hiroshima, Vol. I, 3-21.
Sackur, C. & Maurel, M. (2000), 'Les outils théoriques du GECO et les inéquations
en classe de seconde', Actes des Séminaires SFIDA-9 à SFIDA-12, Volume III
(X), 7-24.
Slavit, D.(1997), 'An alternate route to the reification of function', Educational
Studies in Mathematics., 33, 259-281.
Tsamir P., Almog N., Tirosh D.(1998), 'Students’ solutions of inequalities',
Proceedings of PME 22, Stellenbosch, South Africa, Vol. VI, 129-136.
Ursini, S. & Trigueros, M. (1997), 'Understanding of different uses of variables: A
study with starting college students', Proc. of PME-XXI, Lathi, Vol. 4, pp. 254-
261.
Yerushalmy, M, Gilead, S. (1997), 'Solving Equations in a Technological
Environment: Seeing and Manipulating', Mathematics Teacher, 90 (2), 156-163.

THE EQUATION / INEQUALITY CONNECTION IN

CONSTRUCTING MEANING FOR INEQUALITY SITUATIONS

Carolyn Kieran, Université du Québec à Montréal, (CA).

Recent algebra learning research has included a focus on students’ understanding of

and approaches to inequalities. For example, Bazzini & Tsamir (2001) have
researched 16- and 17-year-old students’ ways of thinking when solving various types
of algebraic inequalities. Bazzini, Boero, and Garuti (2001) have studied the
feasibility of a functional approach in the teaching of inequalities to eighth grade
students. Tsamir, Almog, and Tirosh (1998) have observed high school math majors’
methods for solving equations and inequalities and have noted that the most common

PME28 – 2004 1–143

 were algebraic manipulations, drawing an graph, and using the number line. This
body of research has advanced the field with respect to our knowledge of students’
conceptions of inequalities in several ways. It has pointed out, for example, the
positive role that graphical representations can play in helping students to better
conceptualize the symbolic form of inequalities, as well as the pitfalls involved in
attempting to apply to the solving of inequalities some of the transformational
techniques used with equations. Despite its foray into graphical representations, this
same body of research has been quite narrow in emphasis with its almost exclusive
focus on the manipulative/symbolic aspects of inequalities.
Theoretical Framework
By means of a model recently developed and presented at the ICME-8 conference in
Sevilla (Kieran, 1996), algebra can be viewed according to three main categories of
activity: generational, transformational, and global meta-level. For the case of
inequalities, meaning for the symbolic form is often derived via the global meta-level
activity of contextualized problem solving, which activity tends to then be harnessed
to generate the symbolic form of inequalities. However, these two types of activity
seem absent from the current research on inequalities. Because the students involved
in those studies are often older secondary level students, we presume that they have
already constructed meaning for the symbolic form of inequalities; nevertheless, the
research remains relatively silent on this issue.
Data Source
The goal of this contribution to the PME Research Forum is to present a brief
analysis of a classroom sequence that aimed at introducing inequalities. The data are
drawn from the TIMSS-R 1999 video study of 8th grade mathematics teaching in
algebra classes around the world (Hiebert et al., 2003). The lesson, which was the
first of a set of seven such lessons, involved a Japanese class where the teacher used a
specific problem situation to create meaning for mathematical inequalities and for
their algebraic form (www.intel.com/education/math). In this analysis, both the global
meta-level activity of problem solving and the accompanying activity of generating
an inequality are interwoven as we witness the teacher orchestrating both his overall
aims for the lesson and particular students’ approaches to the solving of the problem
situation, which was as follows:
It has been one month since Ichiro’s mother entered the hospital. He has decided to
give a prayer with his small brother at a local temple every morning so that she will
soon be well. There are 18 ten-yen coins in Ichiro’s wallet and just 22 five-yen coins
in the younger brother’s wallet. They decided to place one coin from each of them in
the offertory box each morning and continue the payer until either wallet becomes
empty. One day after prayer, they looked into their wallets and found the younger
brother’s amount was bigger than Ichiro’s. How many days since they started prayer?
(translated version)

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 Brief Analysis of Student Work
After the teacher spent a few minutes clarifying the problem situation to the class,
students began to work individually on the problem. The teacher circulated, taking
note of the various solution methods being worked and encouraging students to try
more than one method. After some time had passed, the teacher asked certain students
to present their solutions at the blackboard in the following order (see figure below):

The above methods that were used to solve the “inequality” problem situation show
that the majority of the students who were invited to the board approached this
problem as an equality situation, which enabled them--by means of a slight adaptation
of the solution to the equality--to provide the solution for the inequality. They used
the following language to express this idea:
Student three: “Well, in the beginning, Ichiro had 180 yen, and the smaller brother
had 110 yen. And since there is a difference of 70 yen, and since the difference
between them becomes smaller by five yen each day, so it’s 70 divided by 10 minus
5. And since by the fourteenth day it becomes exactly the same amount of money, so
since on the day after that there will be a difference, so 14 plus one is 15 and it’s the
fifteenth day.”
Student four: “On the fourteenth day they become the same amount of money. And
the next day since Ichiro puts in 10 yen and the smaller brother puts in 5 yen …. the
amount of money put in is bigger for Ichiro. So the next day Ichiro’s amount of
money left is less so it becomes the fifteenth day.”
The student work (Student five) that involved the symbolic form of an inequality
right from the start served as a tool for the teacher to introduce to the rest of the class
both the inequality symbol and an expression containing this symbol:

PME28 – 2004 1–145

 S: (wrote on the blackboard: 180 – 10x < 110 – 5x). The one labeled x is that one day
after they finished their prayers. On that day since the smaller brother’s amount of
money was bigger than his brother … and the person who had 110 yen is the amount
of money the smaller brother had in the beginning.
T: So these kinds of expressions … the fact is these are the ones we’re going to use
from now on. Equations that use symbols like this … umm, we’ll call them
inequalities. … So today I think we would like to find the value for x that holds true
for this mathematical expression while actually putting in numbers.
The teacher then asked students to complete a table (see figure above). When
the table displayed on the blackboard was filled in, the teacher noted: “x holds true
for 15, 16, 17, and 18; these are the ‘<’. The first value of x [13] was a ‘>’; the second
one [14] was equal -- ‘the standard’”. The teacher then asked about the 19th day, to
which one student responded that Ichiro’s wallet was then empty and that the
situation was finished.
Concluding Remarks
In this classroom segment, we have witnessed the close relationship between
inequality and equality concepts in eighth grade students. In using a problem-solving
context involving a situation of inequality, an algebraic activity that we have
characterized as being at the global meta-level, the teacher aimed to help students
acquire some meaning for the form of algebraic inequalities. The problem provided a
backdrop for generating an expression containing an inequality symbol. The solution
to this inequality, having already been found by the students by means of non-
algebraic methods, was regenerated by substituting values, from the vicinity of the
solution, into the two algebraic expressions that formed the algebraic inequality. In
this way, the relationship between the solution to the linear equality (180-10x=110-
5x) and those of its two related inequalities (180-10x>110-5x and 180-10x<110-5x)
could be drawn out – implicitly appealing to a number-line interpretation of these
solutions. It is also noted that, among the students’ attempted solving approaches to
the given problem, no one used a Cartesian graphical representation.
It has been argued from the research carried out with older students (e.g., Tsamir,
Almog, & Tirosh, 1998) that there are clear pitfalls involved in attempting to apply to
the solving of inequalities some of the transformational techniques used with
equations. Yet, if the Japanese students’ thinking about inequalities is at all
representative of other students of this age range, then the interweaving of inequalities
and equalities would seem to be rather deeply rooted. The didactical challenge is to
find ways to help students beware of the traps of the equality/inequality connection in
their transformational work with symbols, while they still enjoy its benefits in
algebraic activity of the generative and global meta-level types.

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 Some Questions
• The global meta-level activity of contextualized problem solving has
successfully been used to provide meaning for inequalities and for their symbolic
form. This leads to the question of whether, in a similar way, certain aspects of such
contextualized activity can be found to be effective in helping students make sense of
some of the exceptional transformation rules used in solving inequalities.
• The properties underlying valid equation-solving transformations are not the
same as those underlying valid inequality-solving transformations. For example,
multiplying both sides by the same number, which produces equivalent equations, can
lead to pitfalls for inequalities. As the differences between the two domains are
critical, the following question arises: What is the nature of instructional support that
can generate in students the kinds of mental representations that will enable them to
think about these critical differences when engaging in symbol manipulation activity
involving inequalities?
• In which ways, if any, and for which age-ranges of students, can symbol-
manipulation technology be harnessed so as to provide viable approaches for
developing students’ algebraic theorizing with respect to inequalities and their
manipulation?
References
Bazzini, L., Boero, P., & Garuti, R. (2001). Revealing and promoting students’
potential in algebra: A case study concerning inequalities. In H. Chick et al.,
(Eds.), The Future of the Teaching and Learning of Algebra (Vol. 1, pp. 53-60).
Melbourne, Australia: Program Committee of the 12th ICMI Study Conference.
Bazzini, L., & Tsamir, P. (2001). Research-based instruction: Widening students’
perspective when dealing with inequalities. In H. Chick et al., (Eds.), The Future
of the Teaching and Learning of Algebra (Vol. 1, pp. 61-68). Melbourne,
Australia: Program Committee of the 12th ICMI Study Conference.
Hiebert, J., et al. (2003). Teaching mathematics in seven countries: Results from the
TIMSS 1999 Video Study (NCES 2003-013). Washington, DC: National Center
for Education Statistics.
Kieran, C. (1996). The changing face of school algebra. In C. Alsina et al. (Eds.),
Eighth International Congress on Mathematical Education: Selected Lectures
(pp. 271-290). Sevilla, Spain: S.A.E.M. Thales.
Tsamir, P., Almog, N., & Tirosh, D. (1998). Students’ solutions to inequalities. In A.
Olivier & K. Newstead (Eds.), Proceedings of the 22nd Conference of the
International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (Vol. 4, pp.
129-136). Stellenbosch, South Africa: PME Program Committee.

PME28 – 2004 1–147

 PROBLEMS RELATED TO THE USE OF
GRAPHS IN SOLVING INEQUALITIES

Catherine Sackur, GECO, Nice (France)

I. Introduction
Graphs of functions are used increasingly to solve algebraic inequalities. This
phenomenon is most probably in relation with the increasing use of graphic
calculators in schools.
Most teachers seem to see the use of graphs as something that should help students in
their solving of inequalities. In relation to some observations in our classrooms
(students aged 15 and 17), we came to consider that this is not always the case and
that there is a need to study some of the problems that arise when one changes a
problem in algebra into a problem on graphs.
Solving an inequality graphically means, at first look, comparing the position of two
curves. Starting from an algebraic inequality, it supposes that the student does the
following work:
Inequality � create the two functions� emergence of the graphs through the
emergence of y � compare the y � come back to x.
We will first address Duval’s theory on semiotic registers to point out some of the
difficulties that can arise. Then, as dealing with graphs means dealing with functions
we will question some differences between denotation in algebra and denotation in
calculus as they appeared in some recent, and still ongoing, work by Maurel &
Sackur.
II. Some Observations
We will first give a quick look to some results coming from the classroom. We asked
our students to solve the inequality 3/x>2+x. As we expected, all the students who
used an algebraic method to solve it made the expected error. They multiplied by x
whatever the sign of x could be, thus giving an incorrect answer: x � ]-3;1[. Quite a
few students used a graphical solution, drawing the graphs of the two functions:
y=3/x and y= x+2. Then we found two types of errors: the first one came from
reading the solution of the inequality, the second one from the writing of the solution
for x even if the reading on the graph was correct. Older students (age 17)
encountered the same type of difficulties on working with graphs. Our purpose is to
give some interpretation of these errors and to show that the use of graphs for solving
inequalities should be carefully prepared.

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 III. Duval’s theory of semiotic registers
III. 1. The concepts
Mathematics is working with representations of objects. The large variety of
semiotics representations for the same mathematical object is stressed as a factor of
difficulties for students in learning and understanding mathematics.
A. The registers
Duval considers that there are four different types of semiotic registers in
mathematics (Duval, 2000). We will not give any exhaustive description of the
registers, those that we will be interested in for this presentation will be described in
part III. 2. The most interesting point for us is that two representations in two
different registers of the same mathematical object do not have the same content, the
same meaning (Frege 1985). Change of register makes explicit different aspects and
different properties of the same object.
Duval emphasises the fact that comprehension in mathematics assumes the co-
ordination of at least two registers.
B. The two types of transformation of semiotics registers
�� Treatment inside one register corresponds to all transformations that can be made
on a representation of one type. For instance all algebraic operations on an
expression.
�� Conversion between two registers is more interesting for us. Conversion is the
origin of many difficulties as it is generally not reversible and can be very easy
(Duval says congruent) in one direction and difficult (non-congruent) in the other.
III. 2. Application to our Problem
If we come back to the table in the introduction, we can identify 4 registers involved
in the solving of an inequality graphically.
I II III IV
Algebraic Fonctional Graphical Graphical
bi-dimentional mono-dimentional
3/x>x+2 f(x)=3/x y=3/x x�[…]
g(x)=2+x y=2+x
An algebraic resolution of the inequality consists of “treatment” inside register I.
For simplicity, we will consider that students shift directly from register I to register
III, and we will now study the two “conversions” I�III and III�IV.
To explore the congruence between two registers we have to look at the different
ways students act in both of them.

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 Conversion I�III:
1. First of all students must identify two different graphs in place of one inequality.
The emergence of y and its role is a source of difficulty for students (Bazzini & al.,
2001).
2. Then the type of transformations that the students have to make in register I have
no correspondence in register III. In register I, one writes a sequence of algebraic
expressions. The different graphs corresponding to these different expressions do no
appear in register III. Another aspect of this conversion is the fact that the
transformations in algebra are done for “all” x, whether on a graph one can only
visualise the graph for limited values of x.
3. Graphically one has to focus on the y for different values of x, which means
looking at the intersection of the curves with straight lines whose equations are x=a.
The process of solving depends on the position of the curves, on the number of points
where they intersect each other. For simplicity sake we will just observe four
different situations as shown in Fig. 1. In the simplest case, “f(x)>0”, the conversion
is congruent, as this can be translated as “the curve Cf is above the x-axis”.
Difficulties arise when the slope of the function is steep such as y=1/x when x is
close to 0 or y=1000x. The problem is no longer “Cf being above Cg”, but Cf
belonging to one or other of the parts of plane limited by Cg”. One can see, easily,
that there is then a difference between solving equations and solving inequalities.
4. Concerning the inequality 3/x>x+2, the situation is interesting in the following
way: algebraically, one has to distinguish between x>0 and x<0. To this separation
corresponds the fact that one of the graph (y=3/x) has no intersection with the straight
line x=0. Thus the algebraic activity has its correspondence in the graphical register
and vice versa. See Fig. 2.
Our conclusion is that, most probably, the conversion is not congruent.
Conversion III�IV: The situation here seems simpler. There is a one to one
correspondence between the points on the graph of function f where f is greater than
g and the abscises of these points. We can then say that the conversion between those
two registers is congruent.
The question is to interpret the difficulties that the students encounter to come back to
the solution of the inequality with x. As we will see, the situation is different from the
one we can observe with an equation and enforces the link between inequalities and
functions.
III. The Theory of Denotation
The theory of denotation in algebra is well known (Frege, 1985) and has been used in
many situations to interpret the difficulties of the students. We have been lately
interested in understanding what could be the concept of denotation in calculus and
functional analysis (Maurel & al. 2001). The results we mention here are a very first
attempt in this direction.

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 III. 1. Denotation in Calculus
We studied several situations: primitives, error terms in Taylor formulas. We came to
the conclusion that a symbol like � f ( x)dx doesn’t correspond to one function (one
mathematical object) as it does in algebra but to a class of functions. Ignoring this can
lead to some difficulties such as the demonstration that 1=0. Legrand (Legrand, 1993)
has emphasised the fact that very often in calculus one has to abandon some
information in order to obtain the result. We think that the difficulties of the students
in shifting from the graph to the solution in x could come from this aspect.
III. 2. The Case of the Inequality
Very shortly, we can say that, here also, there is not a one to one correspondence
between the graph and the set of solutions in x. Different graphs can lead to the same
set of solutions as is shown in Fig 3. There is not one point for one x but an infinite
number of points. The situation looks very similar to the situation of the primitives.
One has to abandon information, the precise graph of the functions, to focus only on
the abscises of these points.
IV. Conclusion
Concerning inequalities, the use of graphs induces new difficulties for students, some
of them being specific of functions. It should not be taken for granted that when
“solving graphically” students learn the same mathematics as when “solving
algebraically”. Our interest is not so much “how to have students learn to solve
inequalities?” but “what do they learn in mathematics when they solve algebraically
or graphically?”.
Another important question is the apparent similarity between the solving of
equations and the solving of inequalities. This issue appears to be a crucial one.
References
Bazzini L., Boero P, Garuti R. (2001). Moving symbols around and Developing.
Understanding the case of algebraic expressions. .Proceedings of PME 25
Conference, Vol. 2 , 121-128, Freudenthal Institute, Utrecht, NL.
Duval R. (2000). Basic Issues for Research in Mathematics Education. Proceedings
of PME 24 Conference, Vol. 1, 55-69,.Hiroshima University, Japan.
Frege G. (1985). Collected papers in mathematics, logics and philosophy, Blackwell
Publishers.
Legrand M. (1993). Débat scientifique en cours de mathématiques et spécificité de
l’analyse. Repères-IREM, 10. pp. 123-159. Topiques éditions, Metz, France.
Maurel M., Sackur C. & Drouhard J.P., (2001). Le symbolisme de l’algèbre dans
l’approche de l’analyse. Actes des Séminaires SFIDA 13 à 16, pp 16-9, 16-16.
IREM de Nice, France.

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 Figures (these belongs to the preceeding paper)
f f
f
f

g g
g g

O O O O
Fig. 1.

g
f1 f2

g
O

Fig. 2 Fig. 3

EQUATIONS – A STRUCTURAL APPROACH

Tommy Dreyfus and Maureen Hoch , Tel Aviv University (Israel)

Structure
Reading papers on teaching and learning algebra (and other topics in mathematics,
including calculus) one frequently meets the term structure. Some examples of papers
in which structure plays a substantial role are Sfard & Linchevski (1994), Dreyfus &
Eisenberg (1996), Linchevski & Livneh (1999), Zorn (2002). Structure appears to be
a convenient term to describe something many of us may have some vague feeling
for but cannot grasp in words. In fact, in few papers is there an attempt at defining, or
even circumscribing what the authors mean by structure.
According to Sfard & Linchevski algebra is a hierarchical structure. In algebra what
may be considered to be an operation at one level can be acted on as an abstract
object at a higher level. Dreyfus & Eisenberg variously describe structure as the
result of construction; as involving symmetry; as being composed of definitions,
theorems and proofs; as being a method of classification; as relationships. Zorn states
that “Understanding basic mathematics profoundly means proficiency at detecting,
recognizing and exploiting structure, and at drawing useful connections among
different structures”. While giving no definition of structure he hints that it may be
connected to pattern. Linchevski & Livneh discuss students’ difficulties with
mathematical structures in the number system and in the “algebraic system” but
nowhere do they define what these structures are. They also use the term algebraic
structure without explanation, and refer to surface structure, hidden structure and
structural properties.

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 Defining or circumscribing what we mean by structure is not an easy undertaking.
Many mathematicians, especially algebraists, tend to give the definition of some
category that includes algebraic objects such as groups, rings, fields, ideals etc. But
this is not helpful for us if we want to deal with high school algebra and with learning
it. What does structure mean if we talk about high school algebra, and more
specifically about equations with all their technical aspects?
In this contribution, we will remain guilty of the same sin of talking about structure
without saying what we mean by it. Further issues of definition of structure and of
examining the meaning of the definition in practice are discussed in Hoch & Dreyfus
(2004). Here we will concentrate on why one might want to look at structure.
There are two quite different areas where structure is important for equations,
recognizing an equation and dealing with its internal structure.
Recognizing an Equation
One would expect that one of the mathematical objects most easily recognized by
students is an equation. (In order to avoid the need to distinguish between equation
and identity, we include here identities under the general category of equations –
more specifically, an equation with the entire substitution set as solution.) We have
asked some Israeli high school students who learn mathematics at above average
level to say what they think an equation is. Responses included:
1. An exercise where the aim is to find x.
2. An exercise that has a solution, that is, an exercise before you’ve solved it, and in
the end you can do something to it and get to the solution. You need to find the
variable.
3. x-s on one side, numbers on the other, an equal sign between them; need to find x.
4. A statement including two sides, an equal sign, and one or more x-s.
5. Two sides connected by an equal sign and certain rules for solving.
We see responses 1 and 2 as being purely procedural, referring to what has to be
carried out. The others refer to external form. This might qualify as structure and be
useful from the formal language point of view but it remains surface structure.
Response 3 also mentions procedure, whereas response 4 focuses on external form
only. Response 5 comes closest to indicating that there may be some underlying
structure by mentioning “certain rules”. The responses do not refer to what we might
call the deep structure of equation, the mathematical properties of the object
”equation“. If these responses are typical, our data indicate that structure is not
something that is in the realm of awareness of high school students.
The Internal Structure of Equations
Equations also have internal structure – at a finer level than the one needed to say
whether something is an equation or not. Recognizing and using this internal
structure may make solving the equation easier and increase success. Internal
structure may be the actual or potential structure of the equation. By actual structure

PME28 – 2004 1–153

 we mean the equation as it is given. For example the actual structure of the equation
1
� 3x � 4
x �2 could be described as a rational equation describing the intersection of a
rational function with a linear function. The potential refers to what can be reached
by transforming the equation. In the case of this example, the potential structure is
2
quadratic, specifically the quadratic equation 3x � 2 x � 9 � 0 whose structure is
rather different from the original one. There might be an intermediate case where
minor operations such as adding or removing brackets lead to a different structure.
1
� 3�x � 2� � 10
The above equation could be written x �2 .
Wenger (1987) provides a classic example of where recognizing actual structure is
helpful in solving the equation. When solving the equation v u � 1 � 2v 1 � u for v,
recognizing the linear structure yields a relatively easy solution process. Many
students, of course, focus on the square root sign which is a signal for them to square
both sides of the equation. Another classic example is this parametric equation in
� x � a �� x � b� � x � b�� x � c� � x � a �� x � c�
� � �1
x: �c � a ��c � b� � a � b��a � c� �b � a ��b � c� . It appears in Movshovitz-Hadar &
Webb (1998). Here “brute force” leads to a solution only at the hands of a very
determined and very adept solver while examination of the structure provides a much
more efficient solution. Examining a structure that is just below the surface, the
structure of the individual terms that make up the equation, reveals that x=a is a
solution, and then that x=b and x=c are also solutions. The internal deep structure –
the properties of a quadratic equation – provides the information for the final
solution, that this equation is true for all values of x.
A typical equation from high school algebra is (x2 - 4x)2 - x2 + 4x = 6. It can be
solved by recognising that a simple substitution transforms it into a quadratic
equation. Thus a minor operation reveals structure and gives a handle on solving the
1 x �1 x �
equation. Another example is � � x � 5�� � � . An examination of the
4 x �1 � 4 x �1 �
structure reveals that this is a linear equation masquerading as a rational equation. For
many students however the presence of an algebraic fraction is a signal to multiply by
a common denominator leading to a long and error prone solution (see Hoch &
Dreyfus, 2004). Here recognizing a hidden structure and transforming the equation
(by subtracting the same term from both sides), so as to show this hidden structure, is
used to solve the equation. We see that recognizing and using structure is likely to
increase success in algebra substantially.
In Conclusion
Our experience is that Israeli students have little difficulty in actually recognizing
equations but extreme difficulty in talking about this recognition. They rarely relate
to equations in any way apart from the procedural. They usually do not recognize the
internal structure of equations. If they do recognize structure they rarely use it (see

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 for example Hoch, 2003) and in fact they have difficulty solving all but the most
standard equations. Also, teachers do not seem to be aware of what recognizing and
using structure could do for the student. The emphasis in the algebra classroom is on
mechanical methods for solving equations. For example, the method of substitution is
taught in tenth grade, but usually on a very technical level, and is soon forgotten (see
Hoch & Dreyfus, 2004).
We suggest that the forum address the issue of ways of presenting algebra that will
focus students’ attention on structure.
References
Dreyfus, T. & Eisenberg, T. (1996). On different facets of mathematical thinking. In:
R. J. Sternberg & T. Ben-Zeev (Eds.), The Nature of Mathematical Thinking,
253-284. Mahwah, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hoch, M. (2003). Structure sense. Presented at the 3rd Conference of the European
Researchers in Mathematics Education. Bellaria, Italy.
Hoch, M. & Dreyfus, T. (2004). Structure sense in high school algebra: the effect of
brackets. Research report prepared for the 28th Conference of the International
Group for the Psychology of Mathematics. Bergen, Norway.
Linchevski, L. & Livneh, D.(1999). Structure sense: the relationship between
algebraic and numerical contexts. Educational Studies in Mathematics 40(2),173-
196.
Movshovitz-Hadar, N. & Webb, J. H. (1998). One Equals Zero and Other
Mathematical Surprises: Paradoxes, Fallacies, and Mind Bogglers. Emeryville,
CA, USA: Key Curriculum Press.
Sfard, A. & Linchevski, L. (1994). The gains and the pitfalls of reification - the case
of algebra. Educational Studies in Mathematics 26, 191-228.
Wenger, R. H. (1987). Cognitive science and algebra learning. In: A. H. Schoenfeld
(Ed.), Cognitive Science and Mathematics Education, 217-249. Hillsdale, NJ,
USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Zorn, P. (2002). Algebra, computer algebra, and mathematical thinking. Presented at
the 2nd International Conference on the Teaching of Mathematics at the
Undergraduate Level. Hersonissos, Crete, Greece: University of Crete.

“NEW ERRORS” AND “OLD ERRORS”:

THE CASE OF QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

Pessia Tsamir, Dina Tirosh, Sarit Tiano, Tel-Aviv University (Israel)

A prominent line of research in mathematics education is the study of errors. The
early research on mathematics learning viewed students’ errors as flaws that interfere
with learning and need to be avoided (e.g., Greeno, Collins & Resnick, 1996). From
an instructional perspective, students' errors were traditionally perceived either as

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 signals of the inefficiency of a particular sequence of instruction or as a powerful tool
to diagnose learning difficulties and to direct the related remediation (e.g., Ashlock,
1990; Fischbein, 1987). Borasi (1987) argued that errors could and should be used as
springboards for problem solving and for motivating inquiry about the nature of
mathematics, and Avital (1980) claimed that the best way to address common
mistakes is to intentionally introduce them and to encourage a mathematical
exploration of the related definitions and theorems.
But what is actually happening in the classrooms with respect to errors? Do teachers
intentionally introduce common errors and if so: How? When? To whom? How do
teachers address errors made by students? What are the factors that influence their
reactions? In this paper we discuss our initial attempts to explore teachers’
declarations and practices regarding the role of errors in their classrooms. We
describe here the case of Rami, a very experienced mathematics teacher who has a
reputation of an excellent teacher. We shall focus here on a variety of ways in which
Rami addressed errors when teaching quadratic inequalities. We shall first briefly
describe what is known from the literature on students’ common errors when solving
quadratic inequalities and to their possible sources.
Literature on Quadratic Inequalities: Errors, Sources and Instruction
In the last decade there is a growing interest in students’ performances when solving
various types of algebraic inequalities in general and quadratic inequalities in
particular (e.g., Linchevski & Sfard, 1991; Tsamir & Bazzini, 2001). Several common
errors were identified, including the tendencies to: (1) multiply / divide both sides of
an inequality by a factor that is not necessarily positive, (2) deal with products in the
following manner: a�b>0 � a>0 and b>0; a�b<0 � a<0 and b<0; (3) make
inappropriate decisions regarding logical connectives, and (4) reject {x| x = a}, “R”
and “�” as solutions. Several publications mentioned possible sources for these
errors, mainly relating to possible overgeneralizations from equations to inequalities
(e.g., Tsamir, Tirosh & Almog, 1998), and to the grasp of transformable inequalities
as being equivalent (Linchevski & Sfard, 1991). Some of these errors are intuitive
(Fischbein, 1987), and are, thus, likely to evolve in every class. Consequently, we
decided to explore how various teachers address errors in their classrooms. Here we
focus on a class that dealt with quadratic inequalities.
The Study
Setting and Methodology
At the time the study was carried out, Rami was the head mathematics teacher in a
secondary school. He was a very energetic and highly motivated teacher who
invested much effort in his instruction and in establishing open, friendly relationship
with his students and colleagues. For the purpose of our study, one of the researchers
(ST) observed and videotaped Rami’s three lessons on quadratic inequalities in an
average, 13th grade class (learning for a certificate of electronic technicians). The
videotapes were transcribed and all the “error-episodes” were defined (an error

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 episode consists of an error made in class and the subsequent, related event). Several
reflective interviews were then conducted with Rami. In these interviews he was first
asked to list students’ common errors when solving quadratic inequalities. Then, he
was presented with the transcriptions of several “error-episodes” that occurred during
his instruction. He was asked to identify the error, to specify its possible sources, to
explain the way he addressed it in class, to comment on it and to relate to other,
suggested ways of handling this error. Later on, Rami was presented with a list of
quadratic inequalities that are known to elicit specific errors. He was asked to list the
errors that students are likely to make in each case. Finally, Rami was presented with
the typical errors that students commonly make when solving the same quadratic
inequalities and asked: “How would you react, in class, to such errors”. The
interviews lasted about 90 minutes. They were audio-taped and transcribed.
Due to space limitations, we shall focus here only on one main observation regarding
Rami’s didactical ways of addressing errors in his lessons on quadratic inequalities.
New Errors and Old Errors: A Critical Dichotomy
Our analysis of the “error episodes” revealed that Rami addressed the errors that
occurred in his class in two distinguished, clusters of reactions: The economic cluster
and the elaborated cluster. In the economic cluster we included his following, typical
reactions: 1) ignore the error and go on teaching, 2) state the correct solution, and 3)
when having a mix of erroneous and correct suggestions, address only the correct
ones. The following, three reactions are representative of the elaborated cluster : 1)
ask the student to repeat his erroneous solution and to explain his reasoning to the
entire class 2) try to find out if other students in the class hold the same opinions, and
3) try to lead the student (e.g., by counter examples) to realize that she erred.
All in all, it was noticeable that the economic and the elaborated cluster were
distinguished in terms of the time allotted for and the effort invested in discussing the
errors. An economic reaction is a short, local reaction that highlights only the correct
solution, with no reference to the incorrect solutions. An elaborated reaction unlike
the economic ones, is more time consuming and didactically more demanding. Here,
Rami explicitly addressed the incorrect ideas, asking the student for further
explanations and trying to trace the source of the error.
A question that naturally arose is: What directed Rami’s didactical conduct? Under
what circumstances was he acting in an economic manner? In what occasions did he
prefer the elaborated reaction? Rami’s behaviors could be attributed to various
factors, some of which are student oriented (e.g., capabilities, gender) while others
are timing oriented (in what part of the lesson the error occurred). Our analysis ruled
out the “student” option, since Rami reacted to the same student in different ways on
different occasions. At first it seemed that the timing was a major factor that guided
Rami’s reactions: Economic reactions were more frequent at the beginning of the first
lesson while elaborated reactions were more evident by the end of this lesson. But
this split was not apparent in the other two lessons. A detailed examination of the

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 mathematical content of the episodes that were included in each of the two clusters
led us to conclude that the episodes in the economic cluster addressed errors that
were embedded in mathematical topics that were studied prior to the lessons on
quadratic inequalities (e.g., quadratic equation, parabolas). Elaborated reactions were
provided by Rami to issues that were part of the topic at hand (e.g., logical
connectives). This observation was confirmed by Rami during the subsequent,
reflective interview. Indeed, when Rami was asked to relate to various error episodes
that occurred during his lessons, he clearly stated that the nature of the error, in terms
of being “new” or “”old” is a main factor that influenced his reaction to the error.
Summing Up and Looking Ahead
Our results indicate a phenomenon that at first glance seems obvious, i.e., allotting
more time and didactical energies to errors in the new topic, and less time and efforts
to those that relate to mathematical topics that were studied previously. This
observation raises many issues for further explorations, three of which are: (1) Is this
conduct a general characteristic of Rami's instruction or is it typical only to his
teaching of quadratic inequalities? (2) Is the "new errors"/"old errors"' split typical
only to Rami or to other expert teachers / novice teachers? (3) What are the pros and
cons of this approach? We shall deal with these issues in our presentation.
References
Ashlock, B. (1990). Error patterns in computation. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Avital, S. (1980). What can be done with students' errors? Shvavim (15) [Hebrew].
Borasi (1987). Exploring mathematics through the analysis of errors. For the
Learning of Mathematics, 7, 2-8.
Fischbein, E. (1987). Intuition in science and mathematics. Dordrecht, The
Netherlands: Reidel.
Linchevski, L. & Sfard, A. (1991). Rules without reasons as processes without
objects – The case of equations and inequalities. Proceedings of PME15, Assisi,
Italy, Vol. II, 317-324.
Tsamir, P., Tirosh, D., & Almog, N. (1998). Students’ solutions of inequalities,
Proceedings of PME22, Stellenbosch, South Africa, Vol. IV, pp. 129-136.
Tsamir, P., & Bazzini, L. (2001). Can x=3 be the solution of an inequality? A study
of Italian and Israeli students, Proceedings of PME25, Utrecht, The Netherlands,
Vol. IV, 303-310.

REFLECTIONS ON RESEARCH AND TEACHING OF

EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
David Tall, Mathematics Education Research Centre, University of Warwick, (UK)
In reacting to this forum on ‘Algebraic Equalities and Inequalities’, I take a problem-
solving approach, first, asking ‘what is the problem?’ then looking at the five

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 presentations to see what can be synthesized from their various positions
(acknowledging that they are here limited to very short summaries).
The ‘problem’, as initially formulated, focuses on the algebraic manipulation of
equations and inequalities. Tsamir et al [TTT] focus mainly to this aspect by
considering how a teacher might cope with errors that arise from the inappropriate
use of earlier experiences in equations that produce errors with inequalities. This
focus is broadened in the list of ‘Key Questions’, to encourage the consideration of
different theoretical frameworks—and the use of technology—to see how research
can improve teaching and learning. The other papers take the key questions in
different directions. Boero & Bazzini [BB] and Sackur [S] consider broader issues,
with a particular focus on the switch from algebraic to visual representations where
an inequality f ( x) � g( x) is visualised by seeing where the graph of f is above the
graph of g. Underlying both approaches are relationships between different
representations (or semiotic registers, as described in the subtle theory of Duval).
Kieran [K] presents a different overall framework (‘generational’, ‘transform-ational’
and ‘global meta-level’) that may be described as a ‘vertical’ theory of development
rather than a ‘horizontal’ theory of relationships between represent-ations. Finally,
Dreyfus & Hoch [DH] broaden the context to the increasingly sophisticated structure
of equations, from a procedure to undo an arithmetic calculation, to solving equations
with xs on both sides, to more subtle cases of equations containing substructures and
equations solved using specified rules.)
This brings me back to ‘the problem’. What is it that this forum is really attempting to
address? There seems to be an implicit understanding that we need to help students to
understand and operate with equations and inequalities. But for what purpose? If the
purpose is to solve a given equation or inequality, then a graphical picture may be
appropriate. For instance, to ‘see’ what happens to the inequality x 2 � x � c as c
varies, a powerful visual representation is given by the quadratic f (x) � x 2 and a
straight line g( x) � x � c that moves up and down as c changes. However, if the
problem is to enable the student to become fluent in meaningful manipulation of
symbolism, then the activities with the graph may involve no symbolic manipulation
whatever (particularly if the graph is drawn by computer). [S] considers the strengths
and weaknesses of moving between different registers. These focus on different
aspects, highlighting some, neglecting others. If an aspect is absent, then its variation
does not figure in the link between representations. An example is the evaluation of a
function by carrying out a procedure: 2(x+1) and 2x+2 are different procedures in the
symbolic register but are represented by precisely the same graph.
The focus of [BB] on graphs of functions as global dynamic entities uses the idea of
‘grounding metaphors’ of Lakoff & Nunez in a way that ‘could also ensure a high
level of the control of the solution process’. But what solution process? The visual
enactive activity can give a powerful embodied sense of global relationships between
functions as entities, but how does it relate to the meaningful manipulation of
symbols? It emphasizes the strength of grounded metaphors but not the ‘incidental

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 properties’ of Lakoff’s theory, which may be usefully employed in a particular
context but have the potential to be the sources of errors in new contexts.
It is my belief that the phenomenon of ‘cognitive obstacles’ arises precisely because
the individual’s subconscious links to incidental properties in earlier experiences are
no longer appropriate in a new context. Rather than use the high sounding language
of ‘metaphor’ for the recall of earlier experiences, I use the prosaic term ‘met-before’.
I hypothesise that it is precisely the met-befores in solving linear equations that
causes problems in inequalities researched by [TTT]. Students taught to manipulate
symbols in equations, will build personal constructions that work in their (possibly
procedural) solutions of linear equations but operate as sub-conscious met-befores
that cause misconceptions when applied to inequalities.
In a given context there are often several different approaches possible. [K] reveals a
spectrum of responses to a problem that may be formulated as an inequality,
including a physical representation, the use of tables, equations and inequalities.
[DH] presents a compatible spectrum, with different emphases, numerical procedures
to ‘undo’ equations, more subtle manipulation of expressions as mental entities, and
seeing sub-structures of equations as mental entities in themselves. Some of these
approaches may be more amenable to future development than others; in particular,
theories of cognitive compression from process to manipulable mental entities (which
are entirely absent from all the presentations) address the possibility that the
construction of mentally manipulable entities is likely to be more productive for long-
term development.
Later developments in the use of inequalities include the formal notion of limit,
where the epsilon-delta method will certainly benefit from meaningful grounding of
inequalities, but will also need to focus on the manipulation of symbols and the
development of formal proof. Inequalities at a formal level involve axioms for order
in a field F, for example, by specifying a subset P of F that has simple properties (if
a � P , then one and only one of these holds: a � P , �a � P or a � 0 ; if a, b � P
then a � b, ab � P .) In this case a � b is defined to be true when a � b � P . This use
of ‘rules’ is not a meaningless procedural activity but a meaningful formal approach
that has the potential of giving new meanings. For instance, a structure theorem may
be proved to show that every ordered field ‘contains’ the rational numbers and may
also contain ‘infinitesimals’ that are elements in F which are smaller than any rational
number. In this way intuitive concepts at one stage (infinitesimals as ‘arbitrarily
small’ variable quantities) can be given a formal mathematical meaning.
An organization such as PME needs to aim not only for local solutions to problems,
but also for global views of long-term development. The papers in this forum present
essential ingredients to contribute such a wider scheme.
When the ‘problem’ of equations and inequalities is seen in this way, a wider picture
emerges. There are unspoken belief systems that get in the way of our deliberations.
For instance, while several of the papers give examples of different individuals using

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 different methods to solve the same problem, no one attempts to say whether one
solution is potentially better or worse for long-term development. Differences are
apparent in the success and failure in all the examples given. Do we need to look at
different solutions for different kinds of needs? Rich embodiments have strengths that
may be appropriate in some contexts (perhaps to solve an inequality in a specific
problem) and misleading in others (where concepts of constructed that, if unresolved,
become met-befores causing obstacles in later learning). Do all students follow
through the same kind of Piagetian development or, does their journey through
mathematics find them using methods that are more or less suited to long-term
development that gives different kinds of possibilities for future development?
In addition to the horizontal framework of registers and the vertical framework of
[K], I offer a third that relates to the algebraic spectrum of [DH]. A study of long-
term development of symbolism in arithmetic and algebra (Tall et al., 2001) led to a
categorization of algebra (Thomas & Tall, 2001) in three levels, which we termed
‘evaluation algebra’, ‘manipulation algebra’ and ‘axiomatic algebra’. The first
encompasses the idea of an expression, say 3+2x being used simply for evaluation,
say in a spreadsheet or in a graph-drawing program. The second encompasses the
idea of an expression as a thinkable entity to be manipulated. The third concentrates
on the properties of the manipulation and leads to an axiomatic approach to algebra in
terms of groups, rings, fields, ordered fields, vector spaces, etc. In what ways do the
papers presented in this forum address problems both at a local level and also in
producing a helpful global theory? Much of the discussion could involve evaluation
algebra, [TTT] considers manipulation and [DH] looks from manipulation to
axiomatic. Do we need one kind of algebra for some students and other kinds for
others? Richard Skemp once said to me, ‘there is nothing as practical as a good
theory’. In our forum it would be practical to look for a global theory encompassing
the local theory of equations and inequalities.
References
Tall, D. O. et al (2001). Symbols and the Bifurcation between Procedural and
Conceptual Thinking, Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and
Technology Education 1, 81–104.
Thomas, M. O. J. & Tall, D. O. (2001). The long-term cognitive development of
symbolic algebra, International Congress of Mathematical Instruction (ICMI)
Working Group Proceedings - The Future of the Teaching and Learning of
Algebra, Melbourne, 2, 590-597.

SYNTAX AND MEANING

Luis Radford, Université Laurentienne, Ontario, (CA).
A forum is certainly a multi-voiced dialogue, an example of what Bakhtin used to call
heteroglossia, or the encounter of multiple perspectives in cultural interaction. With

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 their own intonation and from their own perspective, the papers of the research forum
engage in dialogue with each other about pedagogical, psychological and
epistemological questions concerning two key concepts of school algebra, namely,
equations and inequalities. They offer us valuable reflections on the search for new
contexts to introduce students to inequalities (e.g. functional covariance) and a
critical understanding of the limits and possibilities of these contexts. They also
provide us with fine enquiries about urgent learning problems along the lines of key
theoretical constructs that have played a central role since the 1980s in mathematics
education (such as structure and the cognitive status of students’ errors).
The papers tackle a general problématique against the background of the present
context of discussions about cognition. In the past few years, there have indeed been
important changes in conceptions of cognition in general, as witnessed by e.g., a
recent interest in phenomenology, semiotics, and embodiment. We have become
aware of the decisive role of artefacts in the genesis and development of
mathematical thinking and we have become sensitive to theoretical claims from
sociology and anthropology that emphasize the intrinsic social dimension of the
mind. With their own intonation and from their own perspective, the papers of the
research forum have engaged each other in a dialogue on the problem of algebraic
thinking as set by the general stage of our current understanding of cognition. Since
one of the key common themes of the papers is that of syntax and meaning, let me
delve into it and comment on what the papers intimate in this respect.
1. Meaning
In the introduction to their paper, Boero and Bazzini find fault with the classical
approach to inequalities and claim that the “purely algorithmic manner” that reduces
the solving of inequalities to “routine procedures” limits students’ understanding.
This complaint is not new. In the seminal book edited by Wagner and Kieran (1989)
the same reasons led Lesley Booth to object to the considerable attention paid to the
syntactic aspects of algebra in the classroom. There is nevertheless a subtle but
important difference in how solutions are envisaged one the one hand, by Booth and
the structural perspective, and by Boero and Bazzini, on the other.
Booth claimed that difficulties in learning syntax were the result of a poor
understanding of the mathematical structures underpinning algebraic representations:
“our ability to manipulate algebraic symbols successfully requires that we first
understand the structural properties of mathematical operations and relations”, she
argued, and added that “[t]hese structural properties constitute the semantic aspects of
algebra.” (Booth, 1989, pp. 57-58). I do not think that Boero and Bazzini disagree
with the important role played by structural properties in the constitution of the
semantics of algebra. Nevertheless, they seem to disagree with the idea that,
ontogenetically speaking, the understanding of structural properties comes first as
well as with the claim that these structural properties alone constitute the semantics of
algebra. Indeed, in their approach (see also Garuti et al., 2001), the study of the
production of meaning is located in an activity that transcends mathematical

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 structures. Their analysis traces elements of students’ linguistic activity and body
language in an attempt to detect metaphors, gestures and bodily actions that can
prove crucial in students’ understanding and use of algebraic symbolism. In their
analysis of the way in which students make sense of a quadratic inequality, they
emphasize the students’ allusion to artefacts and to their understanding of symbols in
terms of cultural linguistic embodied categories such as “going up” and “going
down”. As I see it, the covariational functional context that they propose is
conceived of as a means for students to produce meaning and understand signs.
The idea that the production of meaning goes beyond mathematical structures and the
claim that meaning is produced in the crossroad of diverse semiotic (mathematical
and non-mathematical) systems is certainly one of the cornerstones of non-structural
approaches to mathematical thinking. And yet, many difficult problems remain.
Algebraic symbolism is undoubtedly a powerful tool. Even if some calculators and
computer software are able to perform symbolic manipulations, algebraic symbolism
is not likely to be abandoned in schools –at least not in the short term. Kieran’s
reflections on what happens to meaning when students translate a word-problem into
symbolism, Sackur’s interest in understanding the outcome of meaning in conversion
between, and treatments within, registers and Dreyfus and Hoch’s concerns about
students recognizing the underpinning structures in equations thus appear to be more
than justified. Certainly, one of the crucial problems in the development of algebraic
thinking is to move from an understanding of signs having been endowed with a
contextual and embodied meaning, to an understanding of signs that can be subjected
to formal transformations. The meaning that results from noticing that a graph “goes
up” or “goes down” supposes an origo, that is, an observer’s viewpoint. This origo
(Radford 2002a) is the reference point of students’ spatial-temporal mathematical
experience, the spatial-temporal point from where an embodied meaning is bestowed
on signs. Algebraic transformations, such as those mentioned by Dreyfus and Hoch,
require the evanescence of the origo. Does this amount to saying that symbolic
manipulations of signs are performed in the absence of meaning? To comment on
this question, let us now turn to the idea of syntax.
2. Syntax
One of the tenets of structuralism is the clear-cut distinction between syntax and
semantics. From a structural perspective, the real nature of things is seen not in the
world of appearances, but in their true meanings –something governed by the
intangible but objective laws that Freud placed in the unconscious, and that structural
anthropology, psychology and linguistics, after Saussure and Lévi-Strauss,
thematized as “deep structures”. Syntax was conceived of as lying on “surface
structures”, it was merely dead matter, the shadows of deep, structurally governed,
mental activity. It is understandable that, in this context, in 1989 Kaput argued that
instead of teaching syntax (which would produce “student alienation”) we should be
teaching semantics (Kaput, 1989, p. 168). Nevertheless, as I have already stated, we
have become more sensitive to the claim that every experience, even the more

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 abstract one found in mathematics, is always accompanied of some particular sensory
experience, or –as Kant put it in the Critique of Pure Reason– that every cognition
always involves a concept and a sensation.
How, then, within this context, can we address e.g. Dreyfus and Hoch’s legitimate
concerns? Recognizing equivalent equations is one of the fundamental steps in
learning algebra. The formal transformation of symbols in fact requires an awareness
of a new mode of signification –a mode of signification that is proper to symbolic
thinking (Radford, 2002b) and whose emergence only became possible in the
Renaissance. As Bochner (1966) noted, despite the originality and reputation of
Greek mathematics, symbolization did not advance beyond a first stage of iconic
idealization where calculations on signs of signs were not accomplished. It is not
surprising then that the problem of explaining the formal manipulation of symbols
puzzled logicians and mathematicians such as Frege, Russell, and Husserl. While for
Russell (1976, p. 218) formal manipulations of signs are empty descriptions of
reality, for Frege and Husserl formal manipulations do not amount to manipulations
devoid of meaning. In fact, for Frege, equivalent algebraic expressions correspond to
a single mathematical object seen from different perspectives: they have the same
referent but they have a different Sinn (meaning). Adopting an intentional,
phenomenological stance, Husserl contended that manipulations of signs require a
shift in attention: the focus should become the signs themselves, but not as signs per
se. Husserl insisted that the abstract manipulation of signs is supported by new
meanings arising from rules resembling the “rules of a game” (Husserl 1961, p. 79).
These remarks do not solve the crucial problem raised by Dreyfus and Hoch, also
present in the other papers of this forum. It would certainly be of little help to tell
students that a seemingly rational equation is, after transformations, equivalent to a
linear equation because they are both designations of the same mathematical object.
Perhaps Husserl’s insight intimates that the change in the way we attend the object of
attention (e.g. the modeled situation or the equation itself) leading to an awareness of
the “rules of the game” rests on a process of perceptual semioisis, or a dialectical
movement between perceived sign-forms, interpretation, and action. Hence, it may be
worthwhile to consider the ontogenesis of new modes of signification required by
algebraic symbolism as a back and forth movement between interpreting the
symbolic expression in its diagrammatic form (Peirce) and the (mathematically
structured) hypothetical generation of new diagram-equations.
It might be very well the case that the greatest difficulty in dealing with equations and
inequalities resides in: (1) the understanding of the apophantic nature of equations
and inequalities and (2) the apodeictic nature of their transformations.
Number (1) refers to the fact that, in contrast to a symbolic expression like x+1, an
equation or an inequality makes an apophansis or predicative judgment (in Husserl’s
sense; Husserl, 1973): it asserts e.g. that P(x) = 0. Number (2) refers to the necessary
truth-preserving transformations of equations and inequalities –if, for a certain x, it is

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 true that P(x) = 0, then Q(x) = 0, etc., something that Vieta expressed by saying that
algebra is an analytic art. What I want to suggest is that the predicative judgments
P ( x) � 0 or P ( x) � 0 , etc. that rest at the core of solving an equation or an inequality
should not be confined to the written register containing an alphanumeric string of
signs. We need an ampler concept of predication (and of mathematical text) less
committed to the written tradition in which Vieta was writing not many years after
the invention of printing. We also need a better concept of predication capable of
integrating into itself the plurality of semiotic systems that students and teachers use,
such as speech, gestures, graphs, bodily action, etc., as shown clearly in the Grade 8
lesson mentioned by Kieran. Predicative judgments would be made up of a complex
string of gestures, written signs, segments of speech and artefact-mediated body
actions. Their transformations would not be confined to the realm of logic and
formal symbol manipulation, for the passage from one step to the next in a semiotic
process is not something predetermined in advance by the logic of deduction alone:
what seems to be a formal manipulation is in fact continually open to interpretation.
There is, in the end, no opposition between syntax and meaning. Every sign has a
meaning. Otherwise, it cannot be a sign. Conversely, every meaning is an abstract
entity –“a general” (Otte, 2003)– which finds instantiation in signs only.
References
Bochner, S. (1966). The role of mathematics in the rise of science. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Garuti, R., Bazzini, L Boero, P. ,. & (2001). Revealing and promoting the students’
potential. Proceedings of the PME 25 Conference.Utrecht (NL) Vol.3, 9-16.
Booth, L. (1989). A Question of Structure. In S. Wagner and C. Kieran (Eds.),
Research Issues in the Learning and Teaching of Algebra (pp. 57-59). Reston:
NCTM & Lawrence Erlbaum.
Husserl, E. (1961). Recherches Logiques (Recherches I et II). Paris: PUF.
Husserl, E. (1973). Experience and Judgment. Evanston: Northwestern University
Press.
Kaput, J. (1987). Linking Representations in the Symbol System of Algebra. In
Wagner and Kieran, (Eds.), Research Issues in the Learning and Teaching of
Algebra (pp. 167-194). Reston: NCTM & Lawrence Erlbaum.
Otte, M. (2003). Meaning and Mathematics. Pre-print. Institut für Didaktik der
Mathematik. Universität Bielefeld.
Radford, L. (2002a). The seen, the spoken and the written. A semiotic approach to the
problem of objectification of mathematical knowledge. For the Learning of
Mathematics, 22(2), 14-23.
Radford, L. (2002b). On heroes and the collapse of narratives. A contribution to the
study of symbolic thinking. Proceedings of the PME 26 Conference, Vol. 4, pp.
81-88. University of East Anglia, UK.
Russell, B. (1976). An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth. London: G. Allen and Unwin.

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 Wagner and C. Kieran (eds.) (1989). Research Issues in the Learning and Teaching
of Algebra. Reston: NCTM & Lawrence Erlbaum.

SOME FINAL COMMENTS

One main aim of this research forum is to have a rich discussion and enable the
participants to address the issues presented in the five presentations. For this purpose
we decided to have the following structure of meetings: In Session One: each of the
presenters will briefly [10 minutes] present their studies together with educational
implications, and conclude his / her presentation by posing a number of questions for
further discussion. Then, all the participants will be asked to discuss these questions,
raise additional questions, dilemmas, doubts and comments that will be addressed by
the presenters, reactors and all the others during the second meeting. In Session Two:
each of the reactors will present his analysis of the approaches presented in sessions
one [15 minutes], referring both to the presentations and to participants’ remarks
made during the first sessions. There will be ample time for the audience to add their
own thoughts and analyses to those of the reactors.
Another aim of this RF is to discuss issues of inclusion and diversity. This will be
done by refining the questions posed by the participants so as to meet the needs,
abilities and beliefs of different students, teachers, and classes. For example, when
discussing students’ erroneous solutions to inequalities, we will address the following
questions: What are the difficulties of low achievers vs. high achievers? Boys vs.
girls? Those who studied the topic in different ways (e.g., graphical vs. algebraic
approaches)? When discussing the teaching of equations and inequalities, we may for
instance address the following questions: How do different teachers make their
related didactical decisions? What is the impact of different teaching approaches on
different students?
Finally, this RF aims to create a wide international network to investigate the
teaching and learning of algebraic equations and inequalities by deepening existent
collaborations and encouraging researchers from additional countries to enter this
endeavor. A selection of contributions discussed during the Research Forum could
also yield specific publications on the theme.

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