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Stability and Control Limitations

This document discusses stability and control limitations related to aircraft structures and aerodynamics. It describes how aerodynamic forces can distort aircraft structures and how this interaction is called aeroelasticity. At high speeds, aerodynamic loads can overpower structural stiffness, causing divergence. It also discusses different types of flutter that can occur due to interactions between aerodynamic forces, inertia forces, and elastic properties of surfaces. Methods to prevent divergence and different types of flutter are also presented.

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Khalid Hasan
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18 views30 pages

Stability and Control Limitations

This document discusses stability and control limitations related to aircraft structures and aerodynamics. It describes how aerodynamic forces can distort aircraft structures and how this interaction is called aeroelasticity. At high speeds, aerodynamic loads can overpower structural stiffness, causing divergence. It also discusses different types of flutter that can occur due to interactions between aerodynamic forces, inertia forces, and elastic properties of surfaces. Methods to prevent divergence and different types of flutter are also presented.

Uploaded by

Khalid Hasan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Stability and Control

Limitations
• Aerodynamic forces acting on the aircraft produce
distortion of the structure, and this distortion
produces corresponding elastic forces in the
structure.
• Structural distortion produces additional
aerodynamic loading and this process is continued
until either an equilibrium condition is reached or
structural failure occurs.
• This interaction between the aerodynamic loads and
the elastic deformation of the airframe is known as
aero-elasticity, or aero-elastic coupling.
• At low airspeeds, the aerodynamic forces are relatively
small, and the resultant distortion of the structure
produces only negligible effects.
• At higher speeds, aerodynamic loads and the
consequent distortion are correspondingly greater.
• Aerodynamic force is proportional to V2, but structural
torsional stiffness remains constant.
• This relationship implies that at some high speed, the
aerodynamic force build-up may overpower the
resisting torsional stiffness and ‘divergence’ will occur.
• The aircraft must be designed so the speed at which
divergence occurs is higher than the design speeds VD/
MD.
Definitions
• Elasticity: The structure of an aircraft is designed
to be as light as possible. This results in the
aircraft being a fairly flexible structure.
• Backlash: The possibility of movement of the
control surface without any movement of the
pilot’s controls (not on Powered controls).
▪ Mass distribution: The position of the CG of a surface in
relation to its torsional axis.
▪ Mass balance: A mass located to change the position of the
CG of a surface in relation to its torsional axis.
▪ Flutter: The rapid and uncontrolled oscillation of a surface
resulting from imbalance. Flutter normally leads to a
catastrophic failure of the structure.
▪ Divergence: The structure will continue to distort until it
breaks (non-oscillatory).
Operating limitations
• The torsional axis is an axis about which the wing will
twist or flex.
• Any force applied along the torsional axis of the wing
will not cause the wing to twist.
• However, the wing may bend or flex (move at right
angles to the chord line) under this force.
• Thus the torsional axis is an important feature of the
wing structure.
• It is the axis about which the wing may twist in torsion
or bend in flexure.
• Torsional or flexural
vibrations are usually
damped by the structural
rigidity of the airframe.
They are by themselves fairly
harmless.
• However, if an external
force acts together with
the vibration the reaction
may be such that it causes
structural failure.
Flutter
• With aerodynamic excitations (gusts, control
inputs, etc.), the wing can interact with the
aerofoil mass and the aerodynamic load imposed
on the aerofoil.
• Such bending and torsion, called ‘flutter’, can cause
vibration, and if excessive, can cause structural failure.
• If the aircraft is not properly maintained, flutter could
occur at flight speeds well below the operational limit
speed.
• Flutter involves:
• aerodynamic forces.
• inertia forces.
• the elastic properties of a surface.
• The risk of experiencing flutter increases with IAS.
• Flutter may be one of the following three types,
one wing flutter and the two being control
surface flutters:
• torsional flexural flutter;
• torsional aileron flutter;
• flexural aileron flutter.
Torsional Flexural Flutter
• Torsional Flexural Flutter
occurs as a result of the
wing flexing and bending
when aerodynamic loads are
applied.
• A full cycle of one
flutter appears as a
sine wave due to
the movement of
the airplane.
• Torsional flexural flutter can be prevented in the
design:
• either by making the critical flutter speed far in
excess of the maximum operational speed limit,
• or by ensuring that the CG of the wing is on, or
ahead of, the torsional axis.
• Resistance to flutter increases with increasing
wing stiffness.
• CG can be moved forward by mounting engines
ahead of the wing, which act as mass balances
• This reduces the bending stress counter-balancing lift
by moving the flexural axis forward, closer to the AC.
• The next two types of flutters develop as a result of an
oscillation of the control surface coupled with an
oscillation in bending or twisting of the wing, tail-
plane or fin.
• A control surface oscillation can result from backlash
(free play) in the control system or from a disturbance
(gust).
• Flutter can develop if the CG of the control surface is
behind the hinge line, so that the inertia of the control
surface causes a moment around the hinge.
Torsional Aileron Flutter
• This type of flutter can be prevented:
• by mass-balancing the ailerons, or
• by making the controls irreversible.
Flexural Aileron Flutter
• Divergence

• Lack of torsional rigidity in a wing can, in extreme cases, cause divergence.


• When a vertical gust increases the angle of attack
of the wing, the added lift force will bend the
wing tip upwards from position 1 to 2
• the increase in lift acting through the AC, which is
forward of the flexural axis, will twist the wing tip
nose-up; this increases the angle of attack further.
• The wing tip will rapidly progress to position 3
and 4. The wing is being wound up like a spring
and can break if distorted too much.
• How far the structure is distorted depends on:
• the flexibility of the structure.
• the distance between the AC and the flexural axis.
• the dynamic pressure (IAS).
• Lift increases with V2, and torsional
rigidity remains the same for all
speed.
• Therefore, there is a critical speed
(the divergence speed), beyond
which the aerodynamic moment will
overcome the resistance of the wings
torsional rigidity.
• In such a situation the wing will twist
until structural failure occurs.
• Two methods to prevent structural failure
due to the twisting of the wing are to:
• Make the wing stiffer so that the divergence
speed is well in excess of the maximum
operating speed;
• but this will increase weight.
Aileron reversal
Low Speed
• lowering an aileron when flying at high angles of
attack could stall that wing.
• The wing will drop instead of rising as intended,
known as low speed aileron reversal.
High Speed
• Aileron reversal occurs at high speed when the wing twists as a result of the
loads caused by operating the ailerons.
• The aileron deflected downwards, since its Aerodynamic forces acting
upwards on the aileron is behind the flexural axis of the wing, it will cause a
nose-down twisting moment on the wing structure.
• This will reduce the angle of attack of the wing which will reduce its lift.
• If the twisting is sufficient, the loss of lift due to decreased angle of attack
will exceed the gain of lift due to increased camber, and the wing will drop
instead of lifting.
• High speed aileron reversal can be delayed to a speed higher
than VD/MD by having inboard and outboard ailerons and/or
roll control spoilers.
• The inboard ailerons are mounted where the wing structure
is naturally stiffer and work at all speeds.
• The outboard ailerons work only at low speed, being
deactivated when the flaps are retracted.
• On most high speed jet transport aircraft roll control spoilers assist the
ailerons.
• They are mounted further forward and on a stiffer part of the wing.

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