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DETERMINANTS
1. MINOR AND COFACTOR OF AN ELEMENT
MINOR OF AN ELEMENT
Minor of an element of the determinants is obtained by leaving the row and column containing that
element and retaining rest of elements.
a11 a12 a13
a a23
If  = a21 a22 a23 , then minor of a11 is M11 = 22 .
a32 a33
a31 a32 a33

a21 a23
Similarly M12 =
a31 a33
Using this concept the value of Determinant can be
 = a11 M11 – a12 M12 + a13 M13
or  = – a21 M21 + a22 M22 – a23 M23
or  = a31 M31 – a32 M32 + a33 M33
2. COFACTOR OF AN ELEMENT
The cofactor of an element aij is denoted by Cij and is equal to (–1)i + j Mi j, where Mi j is a minor of
element aij.
a11 a12 a13
If  = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

a22 a23
then C11 = (–1)1 + 1 M11 = M11 =
a32 a33

a21 a23
C12 = (–1)1 + 2 M12 = –M12 = –
a31 a33
Note : (i) The sum of products of the element of any row with their corresponding cofactor is
equal to the value of determinant e.g.  = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13
(ii) The sum of the product of element of any row with corresponding cofactor of another
row is equal to zero e.g. a11 C21 + a12 C22 + a13 C23 = 0
(iii) If order of a determinant  is 'n' then the value of the determinant formed by replacing
every element by its cofactor is  n−1 .
3. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
P–1: The value of a determinant is unchanged if its rows and columns are interchanged. For
example

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a b c a p u
p q r =b q v
u v w c r w
P–2: The interchange of any two consecutive rows or columns will simply change the sign of the
value of the determinant. For example
a b c p q r
p q r =− a b c
u v w u v w
P–3: If any two rows or columns of a determinant are identical then its value is zero. For example
a b c
a b c =0
u v w
P–4: If each element of a row or column of a determinant be multiplied by a number, then its value
is also multiplied by that number. For example
ka kb kc a b c
p q r =k p q r
u v w u v w
P–5: If each entry in a row or column of a determinant is the sum of two numbers, then the
determinant can be written as the sum of two determinants. For example
a + b+ c +  a b c   
p q r = p q r + p q r and
u v w u v w u v w

a+ b c a b c  b c
p + q r = p q r + q r
u+ v w u v w  v w
P–6: The value of a determinant does not change if the elements of a row ( column) are added to or
subtracted from the corresponding elements of another row ( column). For example
a b c a + b + c b c
p q r = p + q + r q r
u v w u + v + w v w
P–7: If  = f (x) and f (a) = 0, then (x – a) is a factor of . For example in the determinant
1 1 1 1 1 1
= a b c if we replace a by b then  = b b c =0
a2 b2 c2 b2 b2 c2
 (a – b) is a factor of .

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P–8: If each entry in any row (or column) of a determinant is zero, then the value of determinant is
equal to zero.
4. MULTIPLICATION OF TWO DETERMINANTS
(i) Multiplication of two second order determinants is defined as follows
a1 b1 l1 m1 a1l1 + b1l2 a1m1 + b1m2
 =
a2 b2 l2 m2 a2l1 + b2l2 a2m1 + b1m2
(ii) Multiplication of two third order determinants is defined as follows
a1 b1 c1 l1 m1 n1
a2 b2 c2  l2 m2 n2
a3 b3 c3 l3 m3 n3
a1l1 + b1l2 + c1l3 a1m1 + b1m2 + c1m3 a1n1 + b1n2 + c1n3
= a2l1 + b2l2 + c2l3 a2 m1 + b2 m2 + c2 m3 a2 n1 + b2 n2 + c2 n3
a3l1 + b3l2 + c3l3 a3m1 + b3m2 + c3m3 a3n1 + b3n2 + c3n3
Note : (a) Here we have multiplied row by column. We can also multiply row by row, column by
row and column by column.
(b) If D is the determinant formed by replacing the elements of determinant D of order n
by their corresponding cofactors then D = Dn–1.
5. SYMMETRIC & SKEW SYMMETRIC DETERMINANT
(i) Symmetric Determinant: Elements of determinant are such that aij = a ji .

(ii) Skew Symmetric determinant: A determinant is called skew Symmetric determinant if for its
every element aij = − a ji .

Note : (a) Every diagonal element of a skew symmetric determinant is always zero
(b) The value of a skew symmetric determinant of even order is always a perfect square
and that of odd order is always zero.
6. IMPORTANT DETERMINANTS (TO BE REMEMBERED)
1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) a b c = a b c = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
bc ac ab a 2 b2 c2

1 1 1
(ii) a b c = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)(a + b + c)
a 3 b3 b3

1 1 1
(iii) a2 b2 c 2 = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a )(ab + bc + ca )
a3 b3 b3

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7. DIFFERENTIATION OF A DETERMINANT
f1 ( x) g1 ( x) h1 ( x)
Let ( x) = f 2 ( x) g 2 ( x) h2 ( x) , then
f3 ( x) g3 ( x) h3 ( x)

f1 '( x) g1 '( x) h1 '( x) f1 ( x) g 2 ( x) h1 ( x) f1 ( x) g1 ( x) h1 ( x)

 '( x) = f 2 ( x) g 2 ( x) h2 ( x) + f '2 ( x) g '2 ( x) h '2 ( x) + f 2 ( x) g 2 ( x) h2 ( x)
f3 ( x) g3 ( x ) h3 ( x) f3 ( x) g3 ( x) h3 ( x) f '3 ( x) g '3 ( x) h '3 ( x)
8. USE OF SUMMATION
n n n

r r 2
r 3 r  r2  r3
n r =1 r =1 r =1
If f (r ) = p q r , where p, q, r are constants, then  f (r ) = p q r
r =1
1 2 3 1 2 3
9. SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS
(i) System of equations Involving two variables:

c1 b1 a1 c1 a1 b1 1 
If 1 = , 2 = , = , then x = ,y= 2
c2 b2 a2 c2 a2 b2  
(ii) System of equations Involving three variables
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
To solve this system we first define following determinants
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
 = a2 b2 c2 , 1 = d 2 b2 c2 ,  2 = a2 d2 c2 , 3 = a2 b2 d2
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
Now following algorithm is used to solve the system.

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Note: (i) Trivial solution: In the solution set of system of equations if all the variables assumes
zero, then such a solution set is called Trivial solution otherwise the solution is called
non-trivial solution.
(ii) If d1 = d2 = d3 = 0 then system of linear equations is known as system of
Homogeneous linear equations which always possess atleast one solution (0, 0, 0).
(iii) If system of homogeneous linear equation possess non-zero/nontrivial solution then
 = 0.
In such case given system has infinite solutions.

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MATRICES
1. DEFINITION
A rectangular arrangement of elements in rows and columns, is called a matrix. Such a rectangular
arrangement of numbers is enclosed by small ( ) or big [ ] brackets. Generally a matrix is represented
by a capital latter A, B, C......... etc. and its element are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y etc.
Following are some examples of a matrix :
a b 1 5 3  2
A= , B =   , C =   , D = [1, 5, 6], E = [5]
c d  4 0 1  0
2. ORDER OF MATRIX
A matrix which has m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n, and it is represented by
Am×n or A = [aij]m×n. A matrix of order m × n contains mn elements. Every row of such a matrix
contains n elements and every column contains m elements.
3. TYPES OF MATRICES
(i) Row matrix : If in a matrix, there is only one row, then it is called a Row Matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m × n is a row matrix if m = 1
(ii) Column Matrix: If in a matrix, there is only one column, then it is called a column matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a column matrix if n = 1.
(iii) Square matrix: If number of rows and number of columns in a matrix are equal, then it is
called a square matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a square matrix if m = n.
Note :
(a) The elements of a square matrix A for which i = j i.e., a11, a22, a33, ......ann are called
principal diagonal elements and the line joining these elements is called the principal
diagonal or leading diagonal of matrix A.
(b) Trace of a matrix : The sum of principal diagonal elements of a square matrix A is
called the trace of matrix A which is denoted by trace A. Trace A = a11 + a22 + .... ann.
(iv) Singleton matrix: If in a matrix there is only one element then it is called singleton matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a singleton matrix if m = n = 1.
(v) Null or zero matrix: If in a matrix all the elements are zero then it is called a zero matrix and
it is generally denoted by O.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a zero matrix if aij = 0 for all i and j.
(vi) Diagonal matrix: If all elements except the principal diagonal in a square matrix are zero, it is
called a diagonal matrix.
Thus a square matrix A = [aij] is a diagonal matrix if aij = 0, when i  j.
(vii) Scalar Matrix: If all the elements of the diagonal in a diagonal matrix are equal, it is called a
scalar matrix.

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0 i  j
Thus a square matrix A [aij] is a scalar matrix is aij =  where k is a constant.
k i = j
(viii) Identity Matrix: If all elements of principal diagonal in a diagonal matrix are 1, then it is
called unit matrix. A unit matrix of order n is denoted by In.
1 i  j
Thus a square matrix A = [aij] is a unit matrix if aij = 
0 i = j
Note : Every unit matrix is a scalar matrix.
(ix) Triangular matrix: A square matrix [[aij] is said to be triangular if each element above or
below the principal diagonal is zero. It is of two types:
(a) Upper triangular matrix : A square matrix [[aij] is called the upper triangular matrix,
if aij = 0 when i > j.
(b) Lower triangular matrix : A square matrix [aij] is called the lower triangular matrix,
if aij = 0 when i < j.
(x) Equal matrix: Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if they are of same order and their
corresponding elements are equal.
(xi) Singular matrix: Matrix A is said to be singular matrix if its determinant |A| = 0, otherwise
non-singular matrix i.e., If |A| = 0  singular and |A|  0  non-singular.
4. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES
If A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]m×n are two matrices of the same order then their sum A + B is a matrix
whose each element is the sum of corresponding elements.
i.e., A + B = [aij + bij]m×n
A – B is defined as A – B = [aij – bij]m×n.
Note : Matrix addition and subtraction can be possible only when matrices are of same order.
5. PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION
If A, B and C are matrices of same order, then :
(i) A + B = B + A (Commutative Law)
(ii) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (Associative law)
(iii) A + O = O + A = A, where O is zero matrix which is additive identity of the matrix.
(iv) A + (–A) = O = (–A) + A where (–A) is obtained by changing the sign of every element of A
which is additive inverse of the matrix
(v) A + B = A + C  B = C (Cancellation law)
(vi) Trace (A ± B) = Trace (A) ± Trace (B)
6. SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
Let A = [aij]m×n be a matrix and k be a number then the matrix which is obtained by multiplying every
element of A by k is called scalar multiplication of A by k and it denoted by kA.
Thus A = [aij]m×n  kA = [kaij]m×n.
7. PROPERTIES OF SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
If A, B are matrices of the same order and m, n are any numbers, then the following results can be
easily established.

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(i) m(A + B) = mA + mB
(ii) (m + n)A = mA + nA
(iii) m(nA) = (mn)A = n(mA)
8. MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
If A and B be any two matrices, then their product AB will be defined only when number of column in
A is equal to the number of rows in B. If A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]n×p then their product AB = C = [cij],
n
will be matrix of order m × p, where (AB)ij = Cij =  air brj
r =1
9. PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
If A, B and C are three matrices such that their product is defined, then
(i) AB  BA (Generally not commutative)
(ii) (AB) C = A (BC) (Associative Law)
(iii) IA = A = AI I is identity matrix for matrix multiplication
(iv) A (B + C) = AB + AC (Distributive law)
(v) If AB = AC  B = C (cancellation Law is not applicable)
(vi) If AB = O It does not mean that A = 0 or B = 0, Also product of two non-zero matrix may be
zero matrix.
(vii) trace (AB) = trace (BA)
Note : (i) The multiplication of two diagonal matrices is again a diagonal matrix.
(ii) The multiplication of two triangular matrices is again a triangular matrix.
(iii) The multiplication of two scalar matrices is also a scalar matrix.
(iv) If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then
(a) (A + B)2 = A2 + B2 + AB + BA
(b) (A – B) 2 = A2 + B2 – AB – BA
(c) (A – B) (A + B) = A2 – B2 + AB – BA
(d) (A + B) (A – B) = A2 – B2 – AB + BA
(e) A (–B) = (–A) B = –(AB)
10. POSITIVE INTEGRAL POWERS OF A MATRIX
The positive integral powers of a matrix A are defined only when A is a square matrix.
Also then A2 = A . A, A3 = A . A . A = A2A
Also for any positive integers m, n
(i) Am An = Am+n
(ii) (Am)n = Amn = (An)m.
(iii) In = I, Im = I
(iv) A° = In where A is a square matrices of order n.
11. TRANSPOSE OF MATRIX
If we interchange the rows to columns and columns to rows of a matrix A, then the matrix so obtained
is called the transpose of A and it is denoted by AT or At or A'
From this definition it is obvious to note that

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Note: Order of A is m × n  order of AT is n × m.

12. PROPERTIES OF TRANSPOSE
If A, B are square matrices of same order then
(i) (AT)T = A (ii) (A + B)T = AT + BT
(iii) (A – B)T = AT – BT (iv) (kA)T = kAT
(v) (AB)T = BTAT (vi) (A1A2 ... An)T = AnT .... A2TA1T
(vii) (An)T = (AT)n, n  N
13. SYMMETRIC AND SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX
Symmetric matrix : A square matrix A = [aij] is called symmetric matrix if aij = aji or AT = A.
Skew-symmetric matrix : A square matrix A = [aij] is called skew-symmetric matrix if aij = – aji for
all i, j or AT = –A.
Note :
(i) All principal diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are always zero.
(ii) Trace of a skew symmetric matrix is always = 0
(iii) Determinant of a skew symmetric matrix of odd order = 0
14. PROPERTIES OF SYMMETRIC & SKEW SYMMETRIC MATRIX
(i) Let A be any square matrix then, A + AT is a symmetric matrix & A – AT is a skew symmetric
matrix.
(ii) The sum of two symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix and the sum of two skew symmetric
matrix is a skew symmetric matrix.
(iii) If A & B are symmetric matrices then,
(a) AB + BA is a symmetric matrix.
(b) AB – BA is a skew symmetric matrix.
(iv) Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum or difference of a symmetric and a
skew symmetric matrix.
1 1
A= ( A + AT ) + ( A − AT )
2 2
symmetric skew symmetric

15. PROPERTIES OF THE DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX

(i) |A| exist  A is a square matrix
(ii) |AB| = |A| |B|
(iii) |AT| = |A|
(iv) |kA| = kn |A|, if A is a square matrix of order n, where k is a scalar.
(v) If A and B are square matrices of same order then |AB| = |BA|
(vi) If A is skew symmetric matrix of odd order then |A| = 0
(vii) If A = diag (a1, a2, .... an) then |A| = a1a2 .... an
(viii) |A|n = |An|, n  N

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16. ADJOINT OF A MATRIX

If every element of a square matrix A be replaced by its cofactor in |A|, then the transpose of the matrix
so obtained is called the adjoint of A and it is denoted by adj A.
Thus if A = [aij] be a square matrix and Cij be the cofactor of aij in |A|, then adj A = [Cij]T
T
 a11 a12 ... a1n  C11 C12 ... C1n 
a a22 ... 
a2 n  C C22 ... C2n 
Hence if A =  , then adj A = 
21 21
... ... ... ...  ... ... ... ... 
   
 an1 an 2 ... ann  Cn1 Cn 2 ... Cnn 

C11 C21 ... Cn1 

C C22 ... Cn 2 
=  12
... ... ... ... 
 
C1n C2 n ... Cnn 
17. PROPERTIES OF ADJOINT MATRIX
If A, B are square matrices of order n and In is corresponding identity matrix, then
(i) A (adj A) = |A| In = (adj A) A (Thus A (adj A) is always a scalar matrix)
(ii) |adj A| = |A|n–1
(iii) adj (adj A) = |A|n–2 A
( n –1)2
(iv) adj ( adjA ) = A

(v) adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A)

(vi) adj (kA) = kn–1 (adj A), k  R
18. INVERSE OF A MATRIX
If A and B are two matrices such that AB = I = BA
then B is called the inverse of A and it is denoted by A–1. Thus A–1 = B  AB = I = BA
1
Also A−1 = adj A, | A |  0 .
| A|
Thus A–1 exists  |A|  0.
Note : (i) Matrix A is called invertible if A–1 exists.
(ii) Inverse of a matrix is unique.
19. PROPERTIES OF INVERSE OF A MATRIX
(i) (A–1)–1 = A (ii) (AT)–1 = (A–1)T
(iii) (AB)–1 = B–1A–1 (iv) (An)–1 = (A–1)n, n  N
1
(v) adj (A–1) = (adj A)–1 (vi) A–1 = =| A |−1
| A|
(vii) A = diag (a1, a2, ...., an)  A–1 = diag (a1–1, a2–1, ....., an–1)
1 −1
(viii) (kA)−1 = A , where k is a scalar.
k

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20. ORTHOGONAL MATRIX

A square matrix A is called orthogonal if AAT = I = ATA; i.e., if A–1 = AT
21. SYSTEM OF EQUATIONs & CRITERIA FOR CONSISTENCY
Consider: a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
 a1x + b1 y + c1z   d1   a1 b1 c1   x   d1 
  a2 x + b2 y + c2 z  =  d 2    a2 b2 c2   y  =  d 2 
 a3 x + b3 y + c3 z   d3   a3 b3 c3   z   d3 

Adj A
 AX = B  A−1 AX = A−1B  X = A−1B = .B
| A|
Note: (i) If |A|  0, system is consistent having unique solution
(ii) If |A|  0 & (adj A). B  O (Null matrix), system is consistent having unique non-
trivial solution.
(iii) If |A|  0 & (adj A) . B = 0 (Null matrix): system is consistent having trivial solution.
(iv) If |A| = 0, then matrix method falls

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