Technical terms in fishing gear

materials and gear fabrication

Item Type article

Authors Eapen, P.K.

Download date 09/02/2024 23:10:54

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/1834/31976

Fishery Technology
Vol: I No. I. 1964

TECHNICAL TERMS IN FISHING GEAR MATERIALS

AND GEAR FABRICATION
P.K.EAPEN
(Dy. Director, Govt. of India, Off-shore Fishing Station,Cochin)

Papers dealing with technical terms in Fisheries Science are few.

This paper however, covers only one or two aspects of the subject,
namely fishing gear materials and fishing gear fabrication, Similar papers
on other aspects are also planned.
Attempt has been made to give the correct definition of each term.
Short explanations or descriptions are also given wherever considered
necessary. Due to the fact that publications on knots, ties, hitches, etc,,
are available, these items have been omitted in this paper.
It is hoped that this paper will be a source of help to the readers to
use the correct and the most commonly used terms at their correct place.
My grateful thanks are due to Dr. H. Miyamoto, FAO Gear
Technologist, formerly attached to the Central Institute of Fisheries
Technology, Cochin, for going through the manuscript and giving me
several suggestions. I am also thankful to Shri. S. Miskeith. Superintend-
ing Engineer, Deepsea Fishing Station, Bombay for encouraging me to
write this paper.

ACETATE: Artificial textile fibre and filaments composed of cellu-

lose acetate.
AGRILAN: A synthetic fibre belonging to the Acrylic fibre group.
Manufactured inths U.S. A.
A MILAN: Trade name for Nylon fibre manufactured in Japan.
ANCHOR: Any weight used to secure fishing gear in a stationary
position at sea.
An implement for retaining a ship in position at sea
by chaining it to the sea bottom.

5
ANCHOR BEND: An important knot known for its simplicity and great
strength. It \\ill not slip, chafe or jam and can be
easily untied. It is also known as "Fishermen's Bend".
APRON: Old pieces of thick netting attached below the cod-end
as a chafing gear. It is also called "Dress".
ASSEMBLING
THE NET: Joining the different sections of a net and combining
it into one net and then hanging it on the foot-rope,
head rope etc., so that the net is ready for use. This
process is also known as "Rigging the net''.
AYANA BARK: Bark of Ayana tree, widely used in India for tanning
nets.
Terminalia tomentosa is the commonly available species.
BABUL BARK: Bark of the Babul tree (Accacia arabica) used as a
source of tannin.

BAR: A knot along the edge

of a webbing, having
three legs, the other leg
cut away while shaping
the webbing to certain
design.

BAR CUT: Cutting only one leg at

each knot. All bars cut
gives a triangular webb-
ing where two sides are
equal in length.

6
BAR OF A MESH: A leg, strand or
side of a mesh.
A normal mesh ______
U_P_P_E_R_K_N_O_T_ _ ___,
has four bars of
equal length.
Therefore the SIDE SIDE
size of a mesh is, KNOT
sometimes expre-
ssed by the length
of a bar. Thus a
"two-inch bar" 90TTOM KNOT
means a four- a....;.f_I.;;.;G•;...3;;.,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~
inch stretched
mesh.
BARKING OF
NET: Soaking of net in a cold or hot water decoction of the·
barks of certain trees is called barking or tanning of
nets. This is done to reduce deterioration due to rot-
ting caused by various reasons. Synthetic fibres do·
not require barking.
BASKET: Basket made of cane, bamboo etc,, to store arid handle
fish.
Basket in which long line gear is arranged and kept.
The term "basket" is used to indicate a unit of long-
line which is comprised of one main line and five or
six or more branch lines with hook.
Basket hoisted during day time on a trawler to indi-
cate it is under operation.
BAST: Fibre obtained from the inner bark of plants such as
jute, flax, ramie etc.

BATING: (1) Decreasing or reducing the number of meshes in

successive rounds to alter the shape of a webbing.
It is.also called "stealing''. This is brought about
by picking up two half meshes of the previous
round and bringing them under a single knot of the
round that is being made. Bating is usually carried
out near the selvedge.

Bating in every round gives a deep slop to the·

webbing. Bating in every second, third, fourth
round etc., gives lesser slopes.
Some fishermen, especially in the states, use the·
term "Take up" or "Taking in" for bating.

7
 (2) The portion between
thesquare and cod-
end on the upper side
of a trawl net. It is
often called as "top
belly" or "top body".

'BEAM: A metal or wooden beam to which the upper edge of

the square of a beam trawl is hung,
l3ELLY: The section forming the body on the lower side of a
trawl. Also called as "lower belly" or ''lov. er body'\
-BELLY, FALSE: See False Belly.
DELLY LINE: The rope extending from the quarter junction over
the belly meshes to the cod-end of a tru wl net.
'BENDING THE
NET: Attaching the hanging line (with the net) to the head
rope or foot rope giving a slack to the hanging line.
'BIGHTS: See Hanging Mesh.
-BOARD, OTTER: See Otter board.
BOLCH LINE: See Hanging Line.
'BOSOM: The portiori of the top edge of the belly and square
between the wings of a trawl net.
·BoTTOM KNOT: See Knot, Bottom.
BOWLINE: A knot commonly used for making a non- slip loop on
the end of a rope.
BRAIDING: (1) Making of nets by hand.
(2) Weaving or plaiting fabric in flat, round or tubu ...
lar shap·e.
8
BRAIL: An old term for Spreader.
BRAIL NET: A dip net for transferring fish.
BREAKING
FORCE: See Strength, Breaking.
BREAKING
LENGTH: See Length, Breaking.
BREAKING
LOAD: See Strength. Breaking.
BREAKING
STRENGTH: See Strength, Breaking.

BRIDLE: Name given to the four short chains or iron bars that
hold an otter board at the proper angle or the short
pair of lines (legs) attaching the board to the wing of
the trawl or the short lines that hold the spreader in
position.
BUOY: A float with visible mark, and sometimes carrying a
flag or lamp, attached to a fishing gear to indicate the
presence of the gear or to help locating the gear.
BUOYANCY: Buoyancy or extra buoyancy df a float is its capacity
for floating lightly on water. Extra buoyancy of a
float should be as high as possible.
BURMA CUTGH: See Cutch, Burma.
BUTTERFLY: Iron spreader attached to the danleno bobbin:.
CABLE: Rope formed by twisting together three or more ropes.
CABLE. PURSE: See Purse, Cable.
CABLE,
TOWING: See Towing Cable.
CABLE, TWIST: See Twist, Cable.
CANADA
CUTCH: See Cutch, Canada.
CHAFING GEAR: See Gear, Chafing.
CHAIN,
TIGKLER: See Tickler Chain.
CHEMICAL PRE-
SERVATIVE: Chemicals such as copper compounds etc., used as a
preservative for fishing gear.
CHER: A mangrove tree (Avicinia alba or A. officinalis) bark
and fruits of which are used for the tanning of nets.
Common in Jamnagar area.

9
COAL TAR: A preservative for heavy nets, ropes etc. Gives more
of a physical protection for the nets etc., against wear
and tear.
COD-BND: The narrow end section of the trawl net, usually of
heavy construction with small meshes, where the fish
is collected while the net is under operation-See Fig. 4.
COD-END KNOT: See Knot, Cod-end.
COD-END ROPE: Rope, usually of heavy Manila reeved through the
end-meshes of the cod-end, to tie (close) the cod-end.
When the net is hauled up and taken on board, this
rope is released to let the fish drop on the deck.
''Purse-line" is another term for cod-end rope.
COIR: Strong, thick fibre obtained from the husk of the coco-
nut fruit, with which ropes, cords, etc., are made.
COMBINATION
ROPE: ~abies of Manila, the cores of which are reinforced
with galvanised steel wires of great strength and flexi-
bility. The rope thus combines the strength of wire
with the flexibility of fibre. Generally constructed in
4 or 6 strands.
CORD: A flexible continuous, braided or twisted yarnstrand
structure generally of less than 3/16 inch dia.
CORK LINE: See Head rope.
CORK PURSE
LINE: Light line passed through rings on a head rope of the
Purse seine to hold the corks (floats)
COTTON: Seed-hair, fibre obtained from Cotton plant Gossy-
pium, grown in U. S. A , India, China etc., More
extensively used for netting purpose than any other
plant fibre.
COUNT: (1) A number indicating the size of yarn by a length-
weight relationship. It varies according to the
type of yarn. The system sometimes varies from
country to country also.
For Cotton, according to the English system, one
count indicates a yarn of such size that 840 yds.
(a 'hank') of it weighs one pound. 20 counts,
therefore indicated a thinner yarn of which 20
hanks (20 x 840 yds) would be required to weigh
one pound.
T hus, count No. Ne - Yards per pound
840
10
 In Metric system, count is the number of K. metres
per Kg. of a single yarn.
Metres per kg.
Thus count No. Nm =
1000
For Flax, court is the number of hanks ('lea') each
of 300 yards which will weigh one pound.
_ Yards per pound
L ea N o. - 300

Also see Yarn Numbering system.

(2) In cloth, count is the number of warp and filling
yarns per inch in the woven cloth.
COURLENE: A synthetic fibre belonging to the polyethylene fibre
group. Manufactured in U. K.
COURTELLE: A synthetic fibre belonging to the Acrylic fibre group
(U.K.)
~REA SING: Increasing the number of meshes in successive rounds
to alter the shape of a webbing.
CUPRINOL: A copper naphthenate solution, used as n preservative
for all kinds of twines and nets. Special net cuprinol
contains a certain amount of tar which acts as an
extra binding medium for the copper salt.
CURING: The process of fixing the tannin in the twine, after the
tanning of the net. Also see 'Pickle' and "Fixation of
Tannin".
CUTCH: Tannin or extract taken from the bark and wood of
certain trees used for the preservation ("tanning" or
"barking") of nets against rotting. Some fruits as
well as nuts are also used for tanning nets.
CUTCH, BURMA: Tannin from the wood of a tree called Acacia catechu
grown in Burma, Borneo, India etc.
CUTCH,
CANADA: Tannin from the Canadian pine, Abies canadensis.
CUTGH, RED: Ta1111in from the barks of Mangrove trees.
DACRON: A synthetic fibre belonging to the polyester fibre
group (U. S. A.)
DANLENO: See Spreader.
DARVAN: A synthetic fibre belonging to the Nitril fibre group
(U.S. A.)

11
DENIER: Unit weight per unit length of fibre or yarn showing
the size of silk and synthetic endless filaments or yarn.
It is the number of unit weights of 0.05 gm. per 450
metre length, equal to the number of grams per 9000
metre length. A low denier means a fine yarn.

Note: ''denier" was an old French coin which was

used in weighing silk yarns to ascertain its fineness.
Different yarns made from different materials have
different deniers. For Example:-

Amilan yarn: 60, 110, 210

Terylene: 125, 250
Ulstron: 190, 570
DEPTH OF THE
NET: It is the width of the net, indicated either by the
number of full meshes or by the number of rounds in
one vertical line from head to the foot of the net.
DIRECTION OF
TWIST: Twine is twisted either in 'Z' type or in 'S' type. A
twine has 'Z' (Right) twist when the strands are twisted
from right to left ~-----------=--'-­
about its axis and
has 'S' (left) twist
when twisted from
left to right.

Note:- In some
countries 'Z' twist
is called left twist
and 'S' twist is
called right twist.

The yarn and strands are twisted in opposite direct~

ions. That is to say, if the yarns are 'S' twisted to
make a strand, then the strands are twisted together
in 'Z' type to make the twine.

DOGEAR: A jib having all bars along the hanging edge and
points on the wings.

DOOR-END: Tip end of the wing of a trawl net.

DOOR -OTTER: See Otter Board.

DOUBLE
ENGLISH KNOT: See Knot, Double-English.

12
DOUBLE MESH: Menh with all the parts made of double twine. Certain.
portions of the net, namely the cod end fly meshes,
quarter junctions, upper portions of the square belly·
etc., require special strengthening, This strengthen-
ing is affected by braiding double meshes in these,
portions. Double meshes are made either by double
needle or by a single needle; in the latter case by the,
repetition of making half meshes in successive rounds.

DOUBLE
TRAWL KNOT: See Knot, Double English.
DOUBLING OF
YARN: Combining several strands to form a single strand.
without twisting.
DRESS: See 'Apron'
DYNELL: A synthetic fibre belonging to the Modacrylic fibre
group (U. S. A.)

ELASTICITY: Property of a material with which it returns to its.

original dimensions and shape on release of the de-
forming force.

ELONGATION: The extension in the direction of load, caused by a

tensile force and is expressed as a percentage of the
original length of the rna terial.
ENGLISH KNOT: Se~ Knot, English.
ENGLISH KNOT
DOUBLE: See Knot, Double English.

EXTENSION: See 'elongation'.

EXTRA
BUOYANCY: See Buoyancy.

13
:EXTRA HARD
LAID: Twine or rope twisted extremely hard.
FABRIC: Any kind of cloth, irrespective of its material, cons-
truction or manufacture.

·FALSE-BELLY: Old pieces of thick webbing or raw-hides etc., attach-

ed below the belly of trawl net as a chafing gear. It
is also known as 'Rubber'. It is not very common now.
FELLING: See 'Take up'.
FIBRE: The basic material used in the fabrication of yarns.
FIBRE,
CHEMICAL: Refers to Fibre Man-made.
FIBRE,
MAN-MADE: Fibre manufactured by chemieal or synthetic process.
Several kinds of synthetic fibres are produced under
different names and utilised in the fabrication of fish-
ing gear. These fibres can be classified into a fe'h
groups. The group names and names of a few fibres
in each group are given below.
Polyamide (PA) Nylon, Perlon, Kapron
Polyester (PE) Terylene, Dacron
Acrylic Acrilan, Orion, Courtelle
Modacrylic Dyne!, Verel
Nih·il Darvan
Polyvinlidene Chloride (PVC) Saran
Polyvinyl Chloride "Rhovyl, Vinycn HH
Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) Kuralon
Polyethylene Gourlene, Vynena.
Poly propylene Reevon, Ulstron .
.FIBRE.
NATURAL: Fibre obtained in the natural form from Animal (silk,
hair, wool) different parts of plants (Cotton, Kapok
from seed; Jute, Hemp, Linen, from bast; Manila,
Sisal from leaf; coir from fruit) and mineral (asbestos)

FIBRE, STAPLE: Any fibre of average length. Some of the man-made

fibres are manufactured in the staple form also.
FIBRE,
SYNTHETIC: Refers to Man-made fibre.

FILAMENT: Endless fibre. There are two kinds of filaments namely

monofilament and multifilament.
'FILLING: Yarn which runs cross-wise (from edge to edge) in a
fabric. Also called as "Weft".

14
FINISHING
THREE LEGGER: A knot having
three strands
(legs) in tact
and one strand
cut off (damag-
ed) In repairing
the damage of
the webbing !Jdl---_.!i!.-w,.,...a.~-.!lL-mo-m.......m.-'",_,,,l_....
mending is .__F_e6_.~'1-.;.,(A_l_______(.;.,~..;;,)_ _ _di!F
completed at this knot. See Fig. 7 Knots 4.
FISHERMEN'S
BEND: See Anchor Bend.
FISHERMEN'S
KNOT: See Knot, English.
FISHING GEAR: See Gear, Fishing.
FIXATION OF
TANNIN: Treating the tanned net in a solution of some chemi-
cals like Potassium bichromate etc., to make the tan-
nin insoluable in water so that it will stay longer in
the twines and. ropes. This process is also known as.
"curing'', "Pickling" etc.,
FIXING A NET: Affixing a piece of net to a line or rope around all or
some of its edges at any definite degree of closeness or·
openness of the meshes is termed as ''fixing" or "mo-·
unting" or "hanging" a net. Also see ''Setting''.
FLAPPER: A small piece of trapezium shaped or rectangular net-
ting attached just forward of the cod-end near to the
intermediate section, to act as a trap to prevent fish
from escaping once they have entered the bag. "Fun-
nel", "Pocket'', ''Valve''. etc., are some other names
for flapper.
FLAT KNOT:. See Reef Knot.
FLAX: A bast fibre obtained from the plant Linum usitatissi·
mum. Grown in U.S, S. R. and West Europe. Yarns.
and clothes made from flax are called Linen.
FLEXIBLE
WIRE ROPE: See Wire rope, Flexible.
FLEXIBILITY: Property of a material enabling it to be bent repeate-·
dly without causing breakage or rapture.
FLOAT: Materials like light wood, cork, glass, aluminium
alloy, steel, plastics, etc., in different shapes and size·
used for keeping the head line of a net upwards.

15
FLY -MESHES: Full sized meshes, but having only two knots instead
of the usual four knots. These are made on the edge
of the webbing by missing out the last mesh of the
previous round. Also called as "Dog ear".
FOOT OF A
NETTING: The edge of the net webbing where it was finished is
the foot of the webbing or lower edge of the netting.
FOOT ROPE: The rope to which the foot of the netting is finally
attached is called Foot Rope, Foot line, Lead line or
Ground rope,
The foot rope is usually of thick rope, and often car-
ries lead weights or iron chain or such other weights
to stretch the webbing downwards from the head rope.
FORGE,
BREAKING: Strength, Breaking.
'FOUNDATION
LINE: A strong but too thick twine, stretched between two
supports on which begins the making of a webbing.
The foundation line is removed after the completion
of the first few rounds and the first row of half meshes
are moved on to another line· or rod and the braiding
is continued.
FUNNEL: Another name for Flapper,
·GARNOL: A chemical preservative for fishing nets, used especi-
ally in Denmark.
·GUAGE, MESH: An imple- ---------------""~
ment used 1fA~~~~~~
in the brai-
ding of nets.
Made of
wood or~----------------------------·--1
some cheap a..:.'.::.1G;:.::.:.8::..,..._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~
metals, it regulates the size of the meshes of the web-
bing. The twine is would round the "Mesh-stick"
(Guage) and a knot is tied, thus making one round of
half meshes. Sometimes, espec~ally while mending
nets, expert net makers use their fingers as a guage.
,GUAGING MESH: Measuring the mesh of the webbing with mesh guage
or fingers
GEAR, CHAFING: Materials like old pieces of thick webbing, raw hides,
ropes etc., attached to different parts of traw'lnet, to
save wear and tear.

16
 Netting or raw hides attached beneath the belly is
called "False Belly" or '·RubLer". Webbing attached
below the cod-end is called ''i!ress" or arpon". The
rope wrapped around the foot-rope (Wire rope) is
known as· 'Rounding''.
GEAR, FISHING: A general term for equi.pmeut antl implements exclud-
ing boats to catch fish etc .. Several kinds of matenals
are sometimes employed to fabricate a smgle gear.
ROUND ROPE: See Foot rope.
HALF MESH: Upper or lower half (\f a full mesb
HALVERS: A straight side, length of which i(~ equal to two bars.
with a knot in th~;.· c.~ntre, nf a broken mesh, caused by
the breaking of a 1 · ::;.
There are £our ..--,,..-.,.......,r--v--r"''l'"'~.---..r-._""
typ~s of halvers
uamely left
hand and right
hand upper
halvers and left
hand and righi
hand lower hal-
vers. All holes ~~~..11.-.llil........lll~oo&.&._...lil...-.),:r-...l!ILo--t
whether _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __.
large~~.;..;..

or small, in the w d) bing should have two and only

two halvers .
•iANGOF A
· NET: It is the ratio between the length (1) of the line or rope
to which the webbing is hung, and the orignallength
(L) of the webbing. Hang of a net or hanging is,
therefore: 1/L.
HANGING A NET: See Fixing a Net.
HANGING LINE: The line or thin rope to which the webbing is first
hung, before attaching to the head rope or foot rope
is known as hanging line or "Bolch line". See Fig. 10.
HANGING MESH: The loops, or ''bights" which are reefed through the
upper or l o w e r . . , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
end meshe~ fLV MEStiiE$ OR fJELLV MESti~S
and fastened
to the hanging
line are called
hanging mes-
hes. These
are made with
double twine
or Manila
Twine.
]"
HANGING
TWINE: Twine used to secure the end meshes to the hanging
line. See Fig, 10.
HANK: A unit of length (840 yards) used to determine the size
(count number) of the cotton yarn.
HARD LAID: Twine or rvpe twisted hard.
HAUL UP LINE: Rope fastened to the splitting strap (sling) for hauling
up of the bag (cod-end). The rope is given sufficient
slack and the other and is fastened to the head rope
or some times to the otter board. Some fishermen
call it "Lazy line" or "Pull-rope".
HEAD LINE: See Head Rope.
HEAD OF A
NETTING: The upper edge of the webbing where the braiding was
started.
HEAD ROPE: The rope or line to which the head of the net is finally
attached is called "head rope", "head line", "float
line'', or "cork line". Head rope is provided with cork
or other floats to keep the net upwards.
HEAT SETTING: Process of stabilizing the fibres by subjecting them to
heat. This improves its resistence to creasing.
HEMP, ITALIAN: Refers to true hemp.
HEMP, TRUE: Fibre obtained from the bast of the hemp plant, ·Can-
nabis Sativa grown in Italy and U. S. S. R.
HEMP, SUN
(SUNN, SANN): Bast fibre got from the Leguminous plants (Crotalaria.
juncea) grown almost all over India. Hence it is also
known as Indian Hemp or by local names like Benarese
Hemp, Bengal Hemp, Travancore Flax etc.
HOT STRETCH: Stretching under heat to increase the modulus of elas-
ticity of twine, thread etc.
ITALIAN HEMP: Refers to true hemp.
JIB: Triangular pieces of webbings, attached to both sides
of upper and lower edges of the mouth portion of the·
trawl net. Due to its triangular shape, it is also
called as "Wedge".
JUTE: A rather weak fibre obtained from the bark of Corcho-
rus capsularis or C. olitorius plants. Grown abundantly
in India and Pakistan.

18
KALASAM BARK: Bark of the Kalasam tree (Odina wodier) well known in
India as a source of tannin.
KAPOK: White fibre attached to the seeds of Kapok tree, (Ceiba
pentandra. Not used for spinning.
KAPRON: A synthetic fibre belonging to the Polyamide fibre
group (USSR).
KINK: A twisted loop in the rope or wire-rope.
KNOT: A tie made by two ends of a twine or rope, etc., to
join the ends or a tie made by one end at some part of
its own body to make a loop or over some;·other object
to get it fastened to it.
The Knots used in making a fishing net are English
Knot and Double English knot. Reef knot (square
knot) is used for some small nets where it is found
convenient to use this knot instead of the English knot.
English knot is known by different names such as Fish-
ermen's knot, mesh knot, sheet knot, ~standard knot,
trawl knot etc.
Other knots c-Dmmonly U5ed in net fabrication are
ring hitch, clove hitch, rolling hitch, reef knot, etc,

DOUILIE IENGUIH
kNOT

KNOT, BOTTOM: Knot at the bottom of a mesh. See Fig. 3

KNOT, COD-END: Knot tied to fasten· the cod-end rope, after closing the
tail of the cod-end·
KNOT, DOUBLE
ENGLISH: A type of knot used in making a webbing. This knot
is employed especially when synthetic twine is used for
the braiding of the webbing. Also called as ''Double
trawl knot", See Fig. 11.

19
KNOT,OOUBLE
TRAWL: See Knot, Double English.
KNOT, ENGLISH: Most common knot in the making of webbing. Known.
by many other names, such as sheet, bend, standard
knot, trawl knot, fishermen's knot, mesh knot etc,..
see "Knot''. See Fig. 11.
KNOT, FISHER-
MEN'S: Another name for English Knot.
KNOT, FLAT: Another name for Reef Knot.
KNOT, MESH: Knot made to make a half-mesh, therefore, it is also
called "half mesh knot", Knots made in the subsequ-·
ent row of half meshes create full meshes. Some times
referred to as ''English Knot''.
KNOT. PICK-UP: A knot tied to a pick-up mesh. See Fig. 7 (b) Knot 5.
KNOT, REEF: A very common knot used by fishermen in net
making. Though it is used for uniting ends of threads.
twines, ropes, etc., of the same size, it is not used for-
joining the twines in ne't making since it is very slip-
pery. Flat knot, square knot, etc., are the other
names for Reef Knot. See Fig. 11.
KNOT, SETTING: Fixing the knot of the webbing by heat treatment or
tightening it by stretching the webbing to avoid stop-
page.
KNOT, SHEET
BEND: Another name for English knot.
KNOT, SIDE: Knot on either side of a mesh. See Fig. 3.
KNOT, SIDER: Knot of two separate strands found on the sides of a
damage in the webbing.
There are two types of sider knots, namely "sider on
the right'' and "sider on the left" depending on which
side of the damage they are located. See Fig. 7 (A)
Knots 2 and 3.
KNOT,
SLIPPAGE: Sliding or slipping of the knots of the webbing, caused.
by bad workmanship or by the smoothness of the
material with which the webbing is made.
KNOT, SQUARE: Reef Knot.
KNOT,
STANDARD: Another name for English Knot.
KNOT,
STRENGTH: See Strength, Knot.

20
KNOT, THREE
STRAND: Knot on a broken mesh where three strands are
in tact.
KNOT, TRAWL: Refers to English Knot.
KNOT, TWO
STRAND: Knot on a broken mesh where two strands are in tact.~

KNOT, UPPER: Knot at the head of a mesh. See Fig. 3.

KNOTLESS NET: Netting with no knots. Made by an interlacing of the
two twine strands. The twine in the knotless net has
'S' twist of two strands of 'Z' twist.
KURALON: A synthetic fibre belonging to the Polyvinyl Alcohol
fibre group; (Japan).
LAGEAGE: Laced edge or the seam formed by the meshes of the
two webbings gathered and laced together.
LACING: Seaming or joining the upper and lower halves of a
trawl net by winding a twine around a few meshes
gathered from the edge of each half, and fastening at
intervals with a jam hitch or stop hitch.
Reeving a line or rope through meshes is also called
lacing.
LAYING: Refers to twisting of twine, cable etc. See "Twist''
LAZY LINE: See Haul-up line.
LEA: Unit of length (300 yards) used to determine the size
number of linen yarn.
LEAD: Often said to mean lead sinkers which are very
common, and widely used by fishermen.
LEG: 1) Bar or a side of a mesh.
2) Extension of the head and foot ropes of the trawl
net beyond the end of the wing, to connect the
trawl with the otter board.
LENGTH,
BREAKING: Length of a specimen whose weight is equal to the
breaking load.
LENGTH OFA
NET: Indicated either by the number of meshes or by Metre
or fathoms of stretched webbing.
LINE: A rope, usually of prescribed length, for a wei!
defined use.

21
LINE, BELLY: See Belly line.
LINE, BOLCH: See Hanging line.
LINE, CORK: See Head Rope.
LINE,
FOUNDATION: See Foundation line.
LINE, FOOT: See Foot Rope.
LINE, HANGING: See Hanging Hne.
LINE, HAUL UP: See Haul-up line.
LINE, HEAD: See Head Rope.
LINE, LAZY: See Lasy line.
LINE, LEAD: See Foot Rope.
LINE, PURSE: See Purse line.
LINE, RIB: See Rib line.
LINE, SNAG: See Snag line.
LINE, SWEEP: See Sweep line.
LINEN: Yarns and cloth made from Flax.
LOAD,
BREAKING: See Strength, Breaking,
MAN-MADE
FIBRE: See Fibre, Man-made.
MANILA: Hard fibre taken from the leaf stem of Abaca Plant-
Musa textilis gro\\ n abundantly in the Phillipine Islands .•
Strong twine (for heavy nets) cord, ropes, etc., are
made from abaca fibre.
MEDIUM LAID: Twine or rope twisted in Medium strength.
MENDING THE
NET: Repairing the holes or other damages in the net.
MESH: Interspaces of a fixed dimension formed by a sequence
of loops or bights (half-meshes) which are inter-woven
by knots.
MESH GUAGE: See Guage, Mesh.
MESH GUAGING: See Guaging mesh.
MESH, HALF: See Half mesh.

22
MESH. HANGING: See Hanging mesh.
MESH, PICK-UP: The half mesh on the base or lower part of the damage:·
in a net. See Fig. 7 (B), mesh No. 5.

MESH SIZE: See size of mesh.

MESH SIZE,
SQUARE: See Square Mesh Size.
MESH SIZE,
STRETCHED: See Stretched Mesh Size.

MESH, SQUARE: Mesh of the net when it is fully opened so that it

looks like a square, since all the bars are of equal size •.
MESH, STICK: See Guage, mesh.
MESH,
STRETCHED: Mesh of a net when it is pulled shut.
MOBILKOT: A petroleum by-product used as a net preservative.
MONOFILAMENT: A single continuous filament which can be considered
as yarn.
MOUNTING A
NET: See Fixing a Net.
MULTIFILA-
MENT: Filament yarn having several number of individuaL
filaments.
NATURAL FIBRE: See Fibre, Natural.
NEEDLE,
DOUBLE: See Needle, Net.
NEEDLE, NET: Implement which acts as a shuttle in the braiding or
mending of a net. It is made of wood, metal, plastic
or even ivory.
When a needle is filled with single twine it is known
as "single needle" and when filled with double twine
(twine once folded) it is known as "double needle"
NEEDLE, SINGLE: See Needle, Net.
NET, FISHING: A fishing gear of definite design, made from net webbing.
with or without ropes, floats, sinkers, etc.,
NET, K1\jOTLESS: See Knotless net.
NET NEEDLE~ See Needle, Net.

23
NETTING: Fish netting or webbing is a fabric of thread. twine or
cord formed by a sequence of loops or half meshes of
uniform size which are interwoven by knots. Knotless
net has no knots. (See Knotless Net). lt is exclusive
of lacings, ropes, floats etc.,

NORSELS: See Ossels.

NORSELLING: See Osselling.

NYLON: A synthetic fibre belonging to the Polyamide fibre

group (USA)

Note: Unfortunately though, it is often misused to

denote 'synthetic :fibre' as a whole.

OMFAR: System of measuring the size o£ mesh, practised in

' '

Sweden and Norway. Omfar is indicated by the num-

ber of half meshes in one 'alen' (0. 594 Mtrs. in Sweden
and 0. 628 Mtrs. in Norway)

ORLON: A synthetic :fibre belonging to the Acylic Fibre group

(USA)

OSSELS: Short piece of

twine or line,
about a foot
long, used to
attach the
hanging line to
the head line at ~~~~~;~~
regular inter-
vals of meshes.
It is also called
"N orsel".

OSSELLING: The method of attaching the hanging line to the head

line by Ossols is ca1led Osselling or norselling.

OTTER BOARD
(DOOR): Board made of planks and steel plates in rectangular
or oval shape used for keeping the mouth of trawl net
open whlle in operation. Also called as 'BDard' or
'Door'.
PANICHIKKA: Fruit uf a tree, used in the tanning of fishing nets.

PERLON: A synthetic fibre belonging to the Polyamide fibre

group (Germany).

24
PICK-UP KNOT: See Knot, Pick-up.
PICK-UP MESH: See Mesh Pick-up.
PICKLE: Solution used for the fixation of tannin in twine after
the tanning of net, since tannin dissolves in water.
Copper sulphate and Potassium dichrom~te are comm-
only used to make the pickle.
Linseed oil (raw or· boiled) is also used as a pickle.
PLY: Number of yarns in a strand or total number of yarns
in a twine. 20/4/3 means twine consisting of 3 strands,
each strand having 4 yarns (plys) of 20 counts. This
can also be written as 20/12 ply.
POCKET: See Flapper.
POINT: A knot with one or two legs, along the edge of a web-
bing. See Fig. 1.

POINT OUT: Gutting of two

legs in each
knot. All points
out gives a right
angle webbing.

PRESERVATION
OF NET: Treatment of the net with pres~rvatives to reduce
deterioration caused by rotting, mechanical wear and
tear, heating etc. Cutch extracts, tar, copper com-
pounds etc., are used as net preservatives.
PULL ROPE: Rope tied to the splitting strap at one end and fast-
ened to the head rope or Otter bo~rd at the other end.
Also see Haul Up Line.
PURSE CABLE: Manila or wire rope employed to purse (close) the
purse-seine.
PURSE-LINE: 1) See Cod end rope.
2) Refers to Purse Cable.
PURSE-LINE
CORK: See Gork Purse line.
PURSE RINGS: Iron or brass rings attached along the foot rope of
purse-seine.

25
PURSE SEINE: Movable nets, employed to catch fish by impounding
(surrounding) the school of fish.
QUARTER
JUNCTION: Place where the wing of a trawl net meets the bc>som.
QUARTER
ROPES: Ropes used for hauling the trawl net into the vessel.
Standing from the quarter junctions, they pass thro~
two baskets (eyes) on the head rope and are tied at the
door-ends.
RAMI (RAMIE): A plant of the nettle family, Its pure-white, glittering
fibre is used for making cloth, paper etc.
RATIO OF
TAKE UP: See Take Up, Ratio of.
RED CUTCH: See Cutch, Red.
REDUCING
MESHES: See Bating.
REEF KNOT: See Knot, Reef.
REEL: The equipment on which yarn is wouud to turn into
hanks or spindle etc.
REEVON: A synthetic fibre belonging to the Polypropylene fibre·
group (U. S. A.)
REEVING: Setting a wall n e t - - - - - - - - - - - - _ . . , .
on its head line
by spreading the
meshes evenly lt-A-..6-4..A-4.,A..~..,A....Ac+~-+--4
along the head
line and hitching
every sixth or
eighth or twenty-
fifth mesh
desired. _ _ -~--
Though it is the easiest and quickest method of setting
the net, it is the most unsatisfactory method.
RHOVYL: A synthetic fibre belonging the Polyvinyl chloride fibre
group (France).
RIB-LINE: Rope or line that runs along the Seam (where the
upper and lower halves of a trawl net are joined) from
the wing tip to the far end of the cod-end, as a rein-
forcement to take strain on the net while trawling,
RIGGING
THE NET: See Assembling the net.
RINGS, PURSE: See Purse-Rings.

26
ROPE: A flexible continuous twisted yarn-strand structure of
fibre generally greater than 3/16 inch diameter.
ROPE, COD-END: See Cod-end Rope.
ROPE,
GOMBINATION: See Combination Rope.
ROPE, FOOT: See Foot Rope.
ROPE, GROUND: See Foot Rope.
ROPE, HEAD: See Head Rope.
ROPE, PULL: See Pull Rope.
ROPE, QUARTER: See Quarter Rope.

ROPE, SIZE OF: See Size of Rope.

ROPE, TOWING: See Towing Rope.
ROPE, WIRE: See Wlre Rope.
ROTTING: Deterioration in the strength of the net due to the
action of moulds and bacteria in water. High water
temperature quickens rotting,
ROUND: A horizontal line of half meshes. Also referred as dis-
tance between consecutive rows of knots, when the
meshes are fully stretched.
ROUNDING: Rope, usually of low quality, wrapped over wire-rope
used as foot rope, as a chafing gear,
ROVING: The process of giving the first twist to the yarn.
RUBBER: See False Belly.
RUNNAGE: Length of twine per unit weight expressed as:
Metre per kg, (M/kg)
Yards per lb. (yds/lb)
Feet per lb. (ft/lb)
'S' TWIST: Left twist. See Direction of twist.
SARAN: A synthetic fibre belonging to the PoJyvinlidene Chlo-
ride fibre group (Japan).
SEAM: Laced edge of a net. See 'Laceage'.
SEAMING: See Lacing,
SEAM LINE: Line laced along with the seam,

27
SEINE, PURSE: See Purse-seine.
SELVAGE: The two sides (length-wise) of a netting are called sel-
vages or selvedges.
SELVEDGE: See Selvage,
SETTING: The method of spreading or spacing the meshes of the
netting on the head lines, to give a definite degree of
openness to the meshes.
When three meshes are spread to occupy the ~pace of
two fully stretched meshes on the line, the hanging is
called 'setting in by the third'. When five meshes are
made to occupy the space of four it is called 'setting
in by the fifth'. 'Setting in by the half' is termed when
two meshes are made to occupy the space of one.
SETTING KNOT: See Knot, Setting.
SETTING UP: Starting or commencing of the braiding of the webbing.
SHEET BEND
KNOT: See English Knot.
SHELLMACE: A by-product of petroleum used as a net preservative.
SIDE KNOT: See Knot, Side.
SIDER KNOT: See Knot, Sider.
SILK: A lustrous fibre produced by the larva of silk worm.
SILK, RAW: Silk as reeled out from the cocoon of a silk worm.
SILK, SPUN: Silk yarn made of short filaments obtained from silk
waste.
SINGLE YARN: See Yarn.
SISAL: Fibre obtained from the leaves of a sisal plant, Agave
sisalana. Fibre used for making thick twine, cord and
ropes.
SIZE OF MESH: Size of mesh is widely expressed as the distance bet·
ween two diagonally opposite knots of a mesh, meas·
ured from centre to centre of the knots, when the
mesh is fully stretched lengthwise of the net. eg. 2"
mesh (Practised in America, Canada, England, Africa
etc.) It is also expressed as (1) the length of any bar.
eg. 1" bar (Practised in Europe excepting England). (2}
the number of rounds per yard of fully stretched net-
ting. eg. 36 rounds (3) the number of knots in a unit

28
 length. eg. in
6 inches (p1·a ·
ctised in Ja-
pan, Korea (!.@
~
Formosa ~
:::ll
Phillip pines -':J 0
~
etc.) (4) The
number of ....0
knots per
metre or 'Pa-
sada' (Knots~----------------------~----;
per 20 cm)L....;Ii;..;1;..:6;.:.·...;.1..;..
5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--=--=-..,g
practised in Portugal and Spain.

SIZE OF NET: Size of a webbing is designated by the number of mes-

hes in length and depth, But, when a large quantity
is involved' the length is expressed in feet or metres
of stretched webbing.
SIZE OF ROPE: Size (thickness) of rope, cable etc. is expressed by its-
diameter or circumference.

SIZE OF TWINE: Size (thickness) of twine is expressed by the size of

yarn with which it is made and total number of yarns
in the twine or number of yarns in each strand and the
number of such strands.
eg, Cotton Twine: 20/12 or 20/4/3
Nylon Twine: 210/12 or 210/4/3
SIZE OF YARN: Expressed by count, number, denier etc., See "Count'J
SIZE,-
SQUARE MESH: See Square Mesh Size.
SIZE, STRE-
TCHED MESH: See Stretched Mesh Size.
SLING: Refers to splitting strap.
SLIPPAGE KNOT: See Knot slippage.
SLIVER: A continuous strand of loose untwisted fibre, some-
what uniform in thickness.

SNAG LINE: Wi1·e rope which drags ahead of the trawl net to catch
any obstruction in the path of the net, thus preventing·
damage or loss of the gear. Each end of the wire rope·
is attached to an otter board on its inner side.
SOFT LAID: Twine or rope twisted soft.

29
:SPINNING: Process of making yarns or twine from fibre.
SPLICING: Joining two ends of yarn or twine or rope by inter-
weaving of its strands.
SPLITTING
STRAP: See Strap, Splitting.
·SPREADER: Short stick or flat iron piece attached to the outer end
of a trawl net wing to keep it stretched vertically or-
spread. It is also called as "Dhanleno", ''Danleno" or
''Brail"etc.,
SPUN YARN: Yarn spun from staple fibre.
·SQUARE: The front portions of the upper said of a trawl net
(between Batting and Head rope) which overhangs the
lower part of the net.
·SQUARE KNOT: Refers to Reef Knot.
SQUARE MESH: See Mesh, Square.
·SQUARE MESH
SIZE: Size of a mesh expressed as the length of a bar see
"Size of mesh" and "Mesh. square". It is also termed
as ''bar" or "bar measure". See Fig. 15.
·sTABILISING: Process by which shrinking and stretching of the twine
is prevented. Such twine is called "stabilised twine".
·STABILISED
TWINE: See stabilising.
STANDARD
KNOT: Refers to English Knot.
STAPLE FIBRE: Any fibre of average length. Some of the man-made
fibre are manufactured in staple form also.

:STAPLING: Fastening the webbing to the head rope by the stapl-

ing line, which has been rove through the top meshes
and taken up at regular intervals of meshes after giv-
ing the desired setting on the stapling line and allow-
ing a little slack to form a loop or staple.

30
STARTER.
THREE LEGGER: A knot having three strands or legs in tact and one·
strand cut off (damaged). Mending of the damage is.
started at this knot.
STEALING: Another term for bating, See 'Bating' (1)
SEIFNESS: Resistance to deformation.
STRAND: (1) An assembly of a number of yarn, kept .together·
by twisting them about its axis. Strands are·
twisted together (more often in the opposite dire-
ction) to form the twine.
(2) A bar or leg of a mesh. A mesh has four strands.
of equal lengths.
STRAP,
SPLITTING: Rope fastened loosely around and more or less at the
middle of the cod-end.
At the time of very heavy catch, the fish is unloaded
in two or three parts and this is made possible by
tightening this strap (thus splitting the catch).
The splitting strap, otherwise known as 'sling' is con--
nected to head rope by another rope called ha1,1.l up·
line.
STRENGTH.
BREAKING: Minimum load required to rupture a specimen length.
of fibre or yarn.
Also termed as 'Breaking Load' or 'Breaking Force'.
STRENGTH.
KNOT: It is the tenacity of a single fibre or yarn in which a
simple knot has been tied.
STRENGTH,
TENSILE: Breaking force in terms of unit area expressed in
grams per sq. mm. Tensile strength of the twine de-·
pends on the tensile strength of the material (fibre)
and on the twist given to the strand and twine.
STRETCHED
MEASURE: Size of a mesh, measured when the mesh is pulled
shut.
STRETCHED
MESH: See Mesh, stretched.
STRETCHED
MESH SIZE: Size of the mesh expressed as the distance between
two diagonally opposite knots of fully stretched mesh.
See Fig. 15.
SUN (SUNN)
HEMP: See Hemp, Sun.

31
SWEEP LINE~ Single line which connects the wing on either side of a
trawl net to the otter board. It is much longer than
the bridles.
SYNTHETIG
FIBRE: See Fibre, Man-made.
TAKE UP: (1) Hanging a piece of a webbing on a rope (L') whose
length is shorter than the stretched length of the
webbing (L), thereby shortening the length of the
webbing to some extent (L-L'), giving a certain
degree of opening to the meshes. This process of
shortening the total length of the webbing, while
hanging is othenvise called "Felling".
(2) The term used by the fishermen in the States for
bating. See ··Bating" (1).
TAKE-UP,
RATIO OF: Relation between the length reduced (L-L') while hang-
ing, and the original length of the webbing (L). Thus
· L·L'
the ratio of take up S = L··. Also see 'Take up'.

TAKING IN: Refers to Bating, Stealing or Take up.

TAMARIND
SEED: Seed of tamarind fruit used in the tanning of fishing
nets as a source of tannin.
TANNIN: Gutch extract used for tanning of nets, etc. See
'Cutch'.
TANNIN,
FIXATION OF: See Fixation of Tannin.

TANNING: Soaking of net in a solution of cutch extract (tannin)

in water, to prevent, or .at least to reduce rotting of
the net. Synthetic fibres do not require tanning.
TAR: See Coal tar.
TEAR: Cut or damage on the webbing of a net. When the cut
occurs vertically on the webbing, causing sider knots,
it is called a 'tear on the siders'. See Fig. 7 (A).
When the tear occurs horizontally, causing pick. up
mesh and half meshes, it is called a 'tear along the
meshes' See Fig. 7 (B).
TENAGITY: Breaking force in terms of the fibre or yarn denier
expressed in grams per denier.
TENSILE
STRENGTH: See Strength, Tensile.
TERYLENE: A synthetic fibre belonging to the Polyester fibre
group (U. K)

32
TEXACOAT: A patroleum by-product used as a net preservative.
THREAD: Strand or strands of yarn twisted into a fine line of
twine.
THREE LEGGER
STARTER: See Starter three legger.
TICKLER CHAIN: Iron chain attached ahead of the foot rope of a trawl
net to disturb the bottom fish to ind"\lce them to enter
the net.
TOUGHNESS: The ability of a material to absorb work.
TOWING CABLE: Long wire rope by which the vessel drags the trawl
net along the ocean floor.
TOWING ROPE: Thick Manila rope by which the vessel drag~ the trawl
net along the ocean floor.
TRAWL KNOT: See Knot, Trawl.
TRAWL KNOT,
DOUBLE: Refers to Double English Knot.
TWINE: An aggregate of fibre or yarns compacted into a parti ..
ally or completely balanced twisted structure of con-
tinuous length, used mainly for tying or binding.
TWINE,
STABILISED: See 'Stabilising'.
TWIST: Turns about the axis of the fibre, yarn or twine etc.,
to keep them together to the desired per inch or meter.
Twine is twisted (laid) in soft, medium, hard and ex-
tra hard varieties according to their use.
TWIST, CABLE: A kind of twist in which the individual yarns in the
strand are ,-------------------~
twisted m
the opposite
direction to
the twist of
the strand.
Most of the
twines have FIG.1'1
cable twist. ~-------------------------------------------~
TWIST,
DIRECTION OF: See Direction of Twist.
ULSTRON: A synthetic fibre belonging to the Polypropylene fibre
group (Italy).
VALVE: Another name for Flapper.

33
VEREL. A modacrylic fibre (USA).
VINYON HH: A polyvinyl chloride fibre (USA).
VYNENEI
(WYNENE I): A polyethylene fibre (USA).

VvALL NETTING: A single piece of webbing hung from a rope along its
upper edge,
VvARP: (1) The yarn running length-wise in a woven fibre at
right angles to the wafts.
(2) The line usually of wire rope or thick Manila
rope by which the vessel tows or drags the trawl
along the ocean floor. Also called as "Towing
Cable" or "Towing Rope".

WEAVING: (1) Process of making a fabric by warps and wefts.

(2) Joining the sections of a net by a half mesh row
of double twine so that it can be easily identified
for repairing or replacing damaged portions.

VvEBBING: A sheet of netting used for fabricating fishing nets.

See ''Netting".
WEDGE: See Jib.
WEFT: See Filling.
WINGS The two end sections o£ the bag net, shore seine, boats
seine, etc. In the case of the trawl net they project
or extend forward from either side of the mouth, more
or less in a tapering shape, the upper edges of the
webbings attached to the head rope and the lower
edges to the foot-rope.

WIRE ROPE: Rope made by twisting together several strands of thin

steel wires, used as towing warp, foot rope, bridles,
sweep lines etc., and also used for several other pur-
poses on fishing vessels. Wire rope having a constru-
ction of six strands, each of 19 to 24 wires with hemp
twine cores is usually used for fishing purpose.
WIRE ROPE,
FLEXIBLE: Wire rope having a core of hemp twine in the centre.
If there is a core of hemp twine in each of the strand
in addition to the centre core, it is called a "Special
flexible" wire rope,

WYNENE. 1: See Vynene.

34
YARN: A number of fibres twisted together or a number of
filaments laid together with slight twist or without
twist to form a single thin continuous line.

YARN COUNT: See Count.

YARN, FOLDED: The product formed by twisting together two or more

single yarns or strands in one operation.
YARN, NUMBER: Count number of the yarn, indicating the size of the
yarn.
YARN NUMBER
SYSTEM: Numbering of yarn differs according to the material~.
and also according to different system.
Cotton: English:
(Count or Number, Ne)
It is the number of 'hanks' (of 840 yds. each,.
per pound, in the t!otton system)
Continental or Metric:
(Count Number, NM)
It is the number of 'hanks' of 1000 metres.
per kg.
Hemp: (Number)
It is the number of leas of 300 yds. each per·
pound.
Jute: (Spyndle or Pound)
The weight in pounds of a 'spyndle' of 14,400'
yds of yarn, expressed as pounds per spyndle.
Linen: (Lea Number)
The number of 'leas' of 300 yds each per
pound.
Silk, Raw: (Denier)
The nnmber of unit weights of 0.05 gms/450.·
metre length.
Silk, Spun: (Count)
The number of 'hanks' of 840 yds. each per
pound.
Synthetic fibre: Staple and continuous filaments.
(Denier) The number of unit weights of 0.05 gms
per 450 metre length. This is equal to the·
number of grams per 9000 metre length.
Tex System: The number of grams per kilo metre length.
of yarn (N)
YARN, PLY: Folded Yarn.
YARN, SINGLE: See Yarn.

35
YARN, SPUN: Yarn made from staple fibre.
'Z' TWIST: Right twist. See Direction of Twist.

I am indebted to Dr. A. N. Bose, for kindly communicating the

paper for publication.

REFERBWES
Rourgois, Francois. Fishery leaflet 389. Fish and Wild Life Ser-
vice, U.S. Department of the Interior. (1951}
BRANDT, A. Von. FAO Fisheries Bulletin X (4,) 182-210. (1957)~
Bulli~. Harvey R. Fishery leaflet 294. Fish and Wild Life Ser-
vice, (1951).
Carroll-Porczynski, C. Z. Manual of Man-made Fibres. The New Book
Co. Bombay (1961)
Clauge, John A &
Da tingaling, B. Research Report 22, Fish and Wild Life
Service (1950).
·Graumont, Faoul and
Wenstrom Elmer Fishermen's Knots and Nets. Gornell Maritime
Press, New york (1948)
Himmelfarb, D The Technology of Cordage, Fibres and Rope.
Leonard Hill Ltd., London,
Knake1 Boris 0 Fisheries leaflet 241. Fish and Wild Life
Service, (1947)
Fishery leaflrd 347. Fish and Wild Life
Service, (1956).
Press, J. J. Man-made Textile Encyclopedia. Textile Book
Publishers, N~w York (1959)
·Scofield, W. L. Fish Bulletin No. 66, California Div. of Fish
and Game, (1947).
Fish Bulletins No. 72. California Pivision of
Fish and Game, (1948).
Fish Bulletin No. 81. Galifornia Division of
Fish and game, (1951).
Shapiro, Sydney. Fishery leaflet 317. Fish and Wild Life
Service, (1950).
'Steven G. A. Nets, How to make, Mend and Preserve them.
Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London
(1960)