Module 2 RF Propagation & Multi-path ModelFree Space Propagation Model O The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight (LOS) path between them (satellite link, microwave link et.) The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is separated from a radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by the FRIIS free space equation, ; PCG P,(d) = (4n)'a'L GP, G, power transmitted and gain of the transmitting antenna and P,, G, are the power received and gain of the receiving antenna at a distance ‘d’ apart. ‘L’ is the system loss factor related to the propagation. Gain of the antenna has relation with effective aperture area A, as 4A. G=— ru OThe miscellaneous losses L (L 21) are usually due to transmission line attenuation, filter losses, and antenna losses in the communication system. A value of L = | indicates no loss in the system hardware.Free Space Propagation Model An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in all directions, and is often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems. The effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as EIRP = P, G, which represents the maximum radiated power available from a transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna gain, as compared to an isotropic radiator. The path loss for the free space model when antenna gains are included is given by P, PL (4B) = 1Ologe = , GFRIIS transmission formula is valid for far field (Fraunhofer zone). In mobile radio systems, it is not uncommon to find that may change by many orders of magnitude over a typical coverage area of several square kilometers.Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms O Reflection, diffraction, and scattering are the three basic propagation mechanisms which impact propagation in a ‘mobile communication system, UReflection: Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object which has very large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls. Diffraction: Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges). The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing surface are present throughout the space and even behind the obstacle, giving rise to a bending of waves around the obstacle, even when a line-of-sight path does not exist between transmitter and receiver. At high frequencies, diffraction, like reflection, depends on the geometry of the object, as well as the amplitude, phase, and polarization of the incident wave at the point of diffraction. Scattering: Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles per unit volume is, large. Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces, small objects, or by other irregularities in the channel. In practice, foliage, street signs, and lamp posts induce scattering in a mobile communications system.Lp rst boss Bee ee Teeeee ee eg .Log-distance Path Loss Model (Outdoor Propagation) O Both theoretical and measurement-based propagation models indicate that average received signal power decreases logarithmically with distance, whether in outdoor or indoor radio channels. UThe average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R separation is expressed as a function of distance by using a path loss exponent, n ay PLid) =( 2) 2 PL (ab) = FL (d,) + 1nog{ ) O Here, da is the close-in reference distance which is determined from measurements close to the transmitter, and dis the T-R separation distance. The bars in equations denote the ensemble average of all possible path loss values for a given value of d [Ensemble average is averaged quantity of a many identical systems at a certain time]. U The value of n depends on the specific propagation environment. For example, in free space, n is equal to 2, and when obstructions are present, n will have a larger value.Log-normal Shadowing ) es not consider the fact that the The log-distance path loss equation pr gp) = FL (a) + 10mg 4 surrounding environmental clutter may be vastly different at two different locations having the same T-R separation. U Measurements have shown that at any value of d, the path loss PL(d) at a particular location is random and distributed log-normally (normal in dB) about the mean distance dependent value, that is, @ PLid){dB) = PLid) +X, PLidy)+10ntg( 2) +X, dy, and P,(d)[dBm| = P(dBm|~ PL(d)I4B| (antennagainsincludedin PL(d)) where X,, is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB) with standard deviation o (also in dB). OThe log-normal distribution describes the random shadowing effects which occur over a large number of measurement locations which have the same T-R separation, but have different levels of clutter on the propagation path. This phenomenon is referred to as log-normal shadowing. Log-normal Shadowing is path loss formula in presence of clutter/shadowing.Outdoor Propagation Models Radio transmission, in a mobile communications system often takes place over irregular terrain. The terrain profile of a particular area needs to be taken into account for estimating the path loss. The terrain profile may vary from a simple curved earth profile to a highly mountainous profile. OThe presence of trees, buildings, and other obstacles also must be taken into account. A number of propagation models are available to predict path loss over irregular terrain, mainly based on measurements. Widely used propagation models are Okumura model and Hata model.Okumura Model QOkumura's model is wholly based on measured data and does not provide any analytical explanation. QOkumura's model is considered to be among the simplest and best in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction for mature cellular and land mobile radio systems in cluttered environments. QOkumura's model is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas. This model is applicable for frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920 MHz (although it is typically extrapolated up to 3000 MHz) and distances of 1 km to 100 km. It can be used for base station antenna heights ranging from 30 m to 1000 m. GOkumura developed a set of curves giving the median attenuation relative to free space (Am), in an urban area over a quasi-smooth terrain with a base station effective antenna height (h,.) of 200 mand a mobile antenna height (h,,) of 3 m. OThese curves were developed from extensive measurements using vertical omni-directional antennas at both the base and mobile, and are plotted as a function of frequency in the range 100 MHz to 1920 MHz and as a function of distance from the base station in the range 1 km to 100 km.Okumura Model Qin Okumura's model, the free space path loss between the points of interest is first determined, and then the value of Amu(f, d) (as read from the curves) is added to it along with correction factors to account for the type of terrain. The model can be expressed as Lyg(dB) = Lp + Agy(f.d) - Gly) - (hy) - Gara Ciwhere Lois the 50th percentile (j.e., median) value of propagation path loss, L; is the free space propagation loss, A,,,(f, d) is the median attenuation relative to free space, G(h,,) is the base station antenna height gain factor, G(h,,) is the mobile antenna height gain factor, and Gages is the gain due to the type of environment. The antenna height gains are strictly a function of height and have nothing to do with antenna patterns.Okumura Model Plots of Amu(f, d) & Gages for a wide range of frequencies are shown in Figures. Okumura found that G(h,,) varies at a rate of 20 dB/decade and G(h,,) varies at a rate of 10 dB/decade for heights less than 3 m. > Gh.) = 2010¢{ 35) 1000 m>h,,> 30m G(h,.) = 1oog(“*) hye s3m GOh,) = 20}oe(“!) 10m>h,_>3m TS eae eee BaeHata Model OThe Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data provided by Okumura, and is valid from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz. Hata presented the urban area propagation loss as a standard formula OThe standard formula for median path loss in urban areas is given by La(urban)(dB) = 69:55 + 26.16logf,,- 13 82logh,,-a(h,,) +(H9-6.5Slogh,,)logd is the frequency (in MHz) from 150MHz to 1500MHz, hy, is the effective transmitter (base station) antenna height (in meters) ranging from 30m to 200m, hi is the effective receiver (mobile) antenna height (in meters) ranging from 1m to 10m, dis the T-R separation distance (in km), and a(h,.) is the correction factor for effective mobile antenna height which is a function of the size of the coverage area For a small to medium sized city, mobile antenna correction factor a(h,,) = (I.llog/, 0.7), ~(1S6log/, 08) 4B (h,,) = 829(log1.54h,,)°= 1.1 dB for f, $300 MHZ For a large city it is given by (hy) = 32(log1175h,,)°~497 dB for f,2300 MH For path loss in suburban area standard Hata formula in equation is modified a8 1/48) « Liurban)-2lleg(f,/28)*-$4 For path loss in open rural areas, the formula is modified as LB) = Lylurbon) -478logf)~1833ogf, $098PCS Extension of Hata Model The predictions of the Hata mode! compare very closely with the original Okumura model, as long as d exceeds 1 km. This model is well suited for large cell mobile systems, but not personal communications systems (PCS) which have cells of the order of 1km radius. ‘The European Co-operative for Scientific and" Technical research (EURO- COST) formed the COST-231 working committee to develop an extended version of the Hata model. COST-231 proposed the following formula to extend Hata’s model to 2 GHz. The proposed model for path loss is Lg(urban = 46.3 + 33.9logf, ~ 13.82logh,, -a(h,.) + (44.9 -6.5Slogh,,Jlogd +Cy 0.dB for medium sized city and suburban areas 34B for metropolitan centers ‘The COST-231 extension of the Hata model is restricted to the following range of parameters: f 1600 MHz to 2000 MHz hy, :30m to200m he :1mto10m d:1km to20 km =Indoor Propagation Models UThe indoor radio channel differs from the traditional mobile radio channel in two aspects — the distances covered are much smaller, and the variability of the environment is much greater for a much smaller range of T-R separation distances. Ult has been observed that propagation within buildings is strongly influenced by specific features such as the layout of the building, the construction materials, and the building type. Ulndoor radio propagation is dominated by the same mechanisms as outdoor: reflection, diffraction, and scattering. However, conditions are much more variable. UFor example, signal levels vary greatly depending on whether interior doors are open or closed inside a building. Buildings have a wide variety of partitions and obstacles which form the internal and external structure. Hard partitions (part of building structures) & soft partitions (made of wood etc. with open ceiling) have different effects in wave propagation.Log-distance Path Loss Model (Indoor Propagation) indoor path loss has been shown by many researchers to obey the distance power law as PL (dB) = PL (d,) + 10nlog( 2) +x, 0 where the value of n depends on the surroundings and building type, and X, represents a normal random variable in dB having a standard deviation of o dB. Notice that equation is identical in form to the log-normal shadowing model.FadingLarge-scale Fading Fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio signal at the receiving end. Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions of the transmitted signal which arrive at the receiver at slightly different times. Large-scale Fading (Long-term Fading): Large- scale fading represents average signal power attenuation due to movement over large areas having irregular terrain configuration (mountain, valley etc.) between receiver and transmitter and it happens over a long distance (several hundreds meters). Under certain circumstances, the fluctuation of a large-scale fading, caused by the terrain configuration may cause log-normal distribution because of the statistical nature of fluctuation.Smal small-scale Fading (Short-term Fading): Small-scale Fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio signal over a short period of time or travel distance. These waves, called multipath waves, combine at the receiver antenna to give a resultant signal which can vary widely in amplitude and phase, depending on the distribution of the intensity and relative propagation time of the waves and the bandwidth of the transmitted signal The cause of small-scale fading is mainly due to local scatterers like, houses, flats and other human-made structures. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler sI different multipath signals. Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation delays. iMulti-path propagation occurs mainly in NLOS situations but even a line-of-sight exists, multipath still occurs due to reflections from the ground and surrounding structures. -scale FadingSmall-scale Fading OThe incoming radio waves arrive from different directions with different propagation delays. The signal received by the mobile at any point in space may consist of a large number of plane waves having randomly distributed amplitudes, phases, and angles of arrival. These multipath components combine vectorially at the receiver antenna, and can cause the signal received by the mobile to distort or fade. UThe physical factors in the radio propagation channel influence small-scale fading are Multipath propagation, ‘Speed of the mobile, Speed of surrounding objects, Transmission bandwidth of the signal. Doppler Shift: Consider a mobile moving at a constant velocity v, along a path segment having length ‘d’ between points X and Y, while it receives signals ; from a remote source S. The difference in path lengths traveled by the wave wt from source S to the mobile at points X and Y is Al= dcos® = vAtcos®. where At is the time required for the mobile to travel from X to Y, and @ is assumed to be 4 the same at points X and Y since the source is assumed to be very far away. UThe phase change in the received signal due to the difference in path lengths is therefore Ag=2rr AVA = 277 vAtcos 6 /A Apparent change in frequency or Doppler shift is given by 412m) Ap/At = (V/A) cos®Probability Density Functions (PDFs) = Ee mte miloua” Rayleigh POF u 4 5 TF Rician POFLevel Crossing Rate (LCR) & Average Duration of Fade (ADF)Flat-Flat Fading Chann T-Signal Duration W-Signal Bandwidth F-Doppler Spread &-Time SpreadSe, ae Time-Dispersive Channell/Frequency- Selective Fading Channeli/Time-Flat Fading Channel T-Signal Duration W-Signal Bandwidth F-Doppler Spread &-Time SpreadSk ekvemcr -DisPeRsipne co Hannes. Frequency-Dispersive Channel//Time- Be El ha ny lesan ys — na Selective Fading Channel//Frequency- - antiga aac Flat Fading Channel eee ae eed T-Signal Duration ¢ = wSignal Banawiath F-Doppler Spread 5-Time Sproad—Dintdly =Dyparbivs Chapa aad: sue fet welche bo gthe Eoei— A Bike tih pond Anrsn panne 2Ridiy te ee eel ee Doubly-Dispersive ChannelDelay Spread QWhen a signal is transmitted from transmitter, at the receiving end it reaches at different times due multiple reflections and the signal information reaches at the receiver over a time period instead of a particular time. This stretching of signal in time domain is known as Delay Spread resulting echo of signal Qin the mobile radio environment, as a result of the multipath reflection phenomenon, the signal transmitted from a cell site and arriving at a mobile unit will be from different paths, and since each path has a different path length, the time of arrival for each path is different. Delay Spread is a time dispersion parameter. GFor an impulse transmitted at the cell site, by the time this impulse is received at the mobile unit, it is no longer an impulse but rather a pulse with a spread width that we call the delay spread.Coherence Bandwidth Coherence bandwidth B is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the channel can be considered “flat” (i,e., a channel which passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase). Uin other words, coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which two frequency components have a strong potential for amplitude correlation. The coherence bandwidth is the defined as the bandwidth in wt received signals have a high degree of similarity. either the amplitudes or the phases of two UThe delay spread is a natural phenomenon, and the coherence bandwidth is related to the delay spread (A). A coherence bandwidth for two fading amplitudes of two received signals is Be = 1/211,Doppler Spread & Coherence Time Delay spread and coherence bandwidth are parameters which describe the time dispersive nature of the channel in a local area. However, they do not offer information about the time varying nature of the channel caused by either relative motion between the mobile and base station, or by movement of objects in the channel. Doppler spread and coherence time are parameters which describe the time varying nature of the channel in a small-scale region. Doppler spread By is a measure of the spectral broadening caused by the time rate of change of the mobile radio channel. When a pure sinusoidal tone of frequency f, is transmitted, the received signal spectrum, called the Doppler spectrum, will have components in the range f, — fy to f, + f where f, is the Doppler shift. The amount of spectral broadening depends on which is a function of the relative velocity of the mobile, and the angle 9 between the direction of motion of the mobile and direction of arrival of the scattered waves.Doppler Spread & Coherence Time If the baseband signal bandwidth is much greater than Doppler Spread Bp, the effects of Doppler spread are negligible at the receiver. This is a slow fading channel Q In a slow fading channel, the channel may be assumed to be static over one or several reciprocal bandwidth intervals. In the frequency domain, this implies that the Doppler spread of the channel is much less than the bandwidth of the baseband signal Coherence time Te, is the time domain dual of Doppler spread and is used to characterize the time varying nature of the frequency dispersiveness of the channel in the time domain. The Doppler spread and coherence time are inversely proportional to one another. That is, To = Ahn Where, fm is the maximum Doppler shift v/A _[ from fa =(W/A) cos8). Qin a fast fading channel, the channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration That is, the coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol period of the transmitted signal. OFast fading only deals with the rate of change of the channel due to motion.Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) Due to the Delay Spread when stretched signal ( in digital form symbol) reaches at the receiving end, it is possible that the next transmitted signal will also suffer Delay Spread resulting superposition of two symbols partially. This is symbol interference and is known as Inter Symbol Interference (ISI). Uinter Symbol Interference (ISI) is a distortion in communication and mainly happens due to time delay spread. OThere are several methods of m Interference, some of which are: * Control of transmitted symbol data rate. *Channel-based Adaptive equalization. “Use of effective error correcting codes. ation of Inter Symbol Transits sequence Reoshed sequence Le ltersyba Inlet Sarging instant