BASIC HEAT ( PHY 103)

BOYO A.O.
(ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR)
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITY
 COURSE CONTENT
• 1. HEAT
• 2. WORK
• 3. ENERGY
• 4. TEMPERATURE
• 5. THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
• 6. ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• 7. SPECIFIC HEAT OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES
• 8. LATENT HEATS
 HEAT
• Two bodies brought in thermal contact will
change their temperature until they are at the
same temperature. In the process of reaching
thermal equilibrium, heat is transferred from
one body to the other.
Heat
Heat is a form of energy that flows from hotter substance to colder
one.

We mean by hotter and colder substance, substance having high

temperature and low temperature with respect to a reference
matter.

There must be a difference in temperatures of the substance to

have heat or energy transfer. Heat is related to the quantity of
matter also. If the object has big mass it also has big thermal energy
and consequently amount of transferred energy increases. Since it is
a type of energy we use Joule or Calories as unit of heat.
 HEAT
• Suppose we have a system of interest at
temperature TS surrounded by an environment
with temperature TE.
• If TS > TE heat flows from the system to the
environment. If TS < TE heat flows from the
environment into the system.
• Heat, presented by the symbol Q and unit Joule,
is chosen to be positive when heat flows into the
system, and negative if heat flows out of the
system (see Figure).
• Heat flow is a results of a temperature difference
between two bodies, and the flow of heat is zero
if TS = TE.
 HEAT
• Heat is not the only way in which energy can be
transferred between a system and its
environment.
• Energy can also be transferred between a system
and its environment by means of work (W).
• The unit of work is the Joule.
• Another commonly used unit is the
calorie. The calorie is defined as the amount of
heat that would raise the temperature of 1 g of
water from 14.5 OC to 15.5 OC. The Joule and the
calorie are related as follows: 1 cal = 4.1860 J
 Heat Capacity
• When heat is added to an object, its
temperature increases. The change in the
temperature is proportional to the amount of
heat added

• The constant C is called the heat capacity of

the object. The heat capacity of an object
depends on its mass and the type of material
of which it is made.
 Heat Capacity

• The heat capacity of an object is proportional

to its mass, and the heat capacity per unit
mass, c, is commonly used.
• In that case where m is the mass of the
object.
 molar heat capacity
• The molar heat capacity is the heat capacity per
mole of material. For most materials the molar
heat capacity is 25 J/mol K.
• In order to determine the heat capacity of
a substance we not only need to know how much
heat is added, but also the conditions under
which the heat transfer took place.
• For gases, adding heat under constant pressure
and under constant temperature will lead to very
different values of the specific heat capacity.
 Heat of Transformation
• When heat is added to a solid or a liquid,
the temperature of the sample does not
necessarily rise.
• During a phase change (melting, boiling) heat is
added to the sample without an increase in
temperature.
• The amount of heat transferred per mass unit
during a phase change is called the heat of
transformation (symbol L) for the process.
• The amount of heat needed/released is given by

• where m is the mass of the sample.

 PROBLEM
1. What mass of steam of 100OC must be mixed
with 150 g of ice at 0OC, in a thermally insulated
container, to produce liquid water at 50OC

SOLUTION
We start with calculating the heat required
to transform 150 g of ice at 0OC to 150 g of liquid at
0OC.
The heat of transformation of water is 333 kJ/kg.
 ANSWER
• The transformation of ice into water therefore requires
a total heat given by

• The heat required to change the temperature of 150 g

of water from 0OC to 50OC is given by

• The total heat that needs to be added to the system is

therefore equal to 81.5 kJ. This heat must be supplied
by the steam.
• Heat will be released when the steam is transformed
into liquid, The heat of transformation for this process
is 2260 kJ/kg.
 SOLUTION
• Suppose the mass of the steam is m. The total
heat released in the conversion of steam into
water is given by

• The heat released when the steam cools down

from 100OC to 50OC is given by

• The total heat released by the cooling of the

steam is therefore equal to 2470 m kJ.
• The total heat required is 81.5 kJ, and we
therefore conclude that the mass of the steam
must be equal to 33 g.
 HEAT TRANSFER
• There are three ways to transfer heat:
• conduction
• convection
• radiation
 CONDUCTION
• Let’s consider what happens when you are cooking. You can’t find a wooden
spoon, so you grab a metal spoon to start stirring your dinner.

• After a few moments, you realize that your hand is getting very warm. But
your hand is not in contact with the food in the pot, or the pot, or the stove.
Why is your hand warm?

• This is the process of conduction. Let’s think about the spoon. One end of the
spoon is at a higher temperature than the other end of the spoon. So if this
end of the spoon is at a higher temperature, on average the molecules in this
end are moving faster than those in the other end.

• When the molecules move around, they engage in collisions. Momentum is

always conserved.

• In some collisions, the faster moving molecules will impart some of their
momentum to the slower moving molecules, causing the slower
• molecules to move around more. These in turn hit other, colder molecules,
and eventually, the whole spoon is heated up.
 CONDUCTION

• Conduction cannot occur

without a difference in
temperature.
In fact, the rate at which heat
flows is found experimentally
to be directly proportional to
the temperature difference.
∆Q = KA ∆T
∆t l
where l is the length of the object, A is the cross-sectional area and K is a
proportionality constant called the thermal conductivity. The units of k are kcal/s-
m-°C or J/s-m-°C.
 CONDUCTION
• ∆Q is a rate of energy transfer ∆t
• ∆T/l represents a temperature gradient – how the
temperature varies along the length of the
object.
• If one end is at a very high temperature and the
other is at a lower temperature, conduction will
occur at a higher rate than if the ends are at
similar temperatures.
• If the material has a large cross sectional area,
the rate is higher. K tells us that some materials
are better conductors than others.
DIRECTION OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat is the energy transferred to an object and is measured in joules. If two objects at
different temperatures are placed in contact, heat will flow from the higher to the lower
temperature object. This is called Conduction.

This is sometimes not obvious: Like when you shake hands with a person with cold hands. The
conclusion that many people make is that cold has travelled from that person to you. It is only
heat that travels. The coldness that you feel is simply the heat leaving your hand.

Simple Experiment: Put a block of wood and a bowl of water in the fridge. Allow the water to
freeze. Then take both of them out and feel them. Which feels "colder"? Most will say the ice.
So which has the lowest temperature. If you say the ice, then you are wrong! They both have
the same temperature. It feels colder because the ice conducts heat faster than wood. What
you feel as "colder" simply means there is more heat leaving your hand every second than
when touching the wood.

So our concept of hot or cold does not just depend on temperature but also on how fast heat
travels in different materials.
 SO HOW FAST DOES HEAT TRAVEL?
Heat travels at different rates in different materials. The quantity of heat transferred per
unit time (in other words the rate of heat transfer) is given by:

where k is the thermal conductivity, A is the cross-sectional area, L is the length of the
object, TH is the higher temperature at one end of the solid, Tc is the lower temperature at
the other end.

Demonstration: Three metal strips of the same length are heated by the same flame
at the same time. Matches placed at the end of these strips do not light up at the
same time. The reason is that the three metal strips are made from 3 different
materials: stainless steel (k=14 W/mK), copper (k=401 W/mK) and Brass 220 (W/mK).
Since copper is the most conducting, the match on it will light up first and so on.
WHEN IS SOMETHING NEITHER HOT NOR COLD?
Answer: When there is no heat transfer between you and the object. That is when H = 0 i.e
when the object is at the same temperature as your hand.

Example: The "Wonder Defrosting Board" is made of metal that conducts heat towards the
food faster than a block of wood.

Example: An aluminium pot contains water that is kept steadily boiling (100 ºC). The bottom
surface of the pot, which is 12 mm thick and in area, is maintained at a temperature of by an
electric heating unit. Find the rate at which heat is transferred through the bottom surface.
Compare this with a copper based pot. The thermal conductivities for aluminium and copper
are kAl = 235 Wm-1K-1 and kCu = 401 Wm-1K-1 respectively.
SOLUTION:
The following is a schematic diagram of the pot.

The rate of heat conduction across the base is given by equation 7.

For the aluminium base:

TH = 102 ºC, TC = 100 ºC, L=12 mm = 0.012 m, k = kAl = 235 Wm-1K-1
Base area = A = = 0.015 m2.
Substituting these into the above equation:
For the copper base k = kCu = 401 Wm-1K-1. So the rate of heat conduction across the base is

Js-1 (or Watts)

So the copper based pot transfers 1.7 times more energy every second compared with the
aluminium pot. Generally copper bottom pots are more expensive.
 QUESTION
• What is the rate of heat flow along a copper
bar 1.5 m long having a cross sectional area of
0.50cm2 if one end of the bar is at 25°C and
the other is at 110°C?
Using K = 380 J/m-s-°C and applying the
equation
• ∆Q = KA ∆T
• ∆t l
 SOLUTION
• = (( 380 X J / msoC) (0.50cm2)) X ((110°C
− 25oC) /150 cm)

• =108 Jcm2°C/ ms°C cm

•
• = ( 108 Jcm/ ms) (1m/ 100cm)

• = 1 . 1 J/s
 CONDUCTION QUESTION
• Determine the heat transfer rate per unit area,
by means of conduction for a furnace wall
made of fire clay. Furnace wall thickness is 6"
or half a foot. Thermal conductivity of the
furnace wall clay is 0.3 W/m·K. The furnace
wall temperature can be taken to be same as
furnace operating temperature which is 6500C
and temperature of the outer wall of the
furnace is 1500C.
For heat transfer by conduction across a flat wall, the heat transfer rate is expressed
by following equation,
Large Rectangle

∆Q = KA ∆T
∆t l
Q = - KA dt/dx = KA (T1- T2)/ L

For the given sample problem,

T1 = 6500C
T2 = 1500C
L = 12" = 12 × 0.0254 m = 0.3048 m
k = 0.3 W/m·K

Hence,
Heat transfer rate per unit area of the wall is calculated as,
Q/A = k × (T1 - T2)/L
Q/A = 0.3×(650-150)/0.3048 W/m2 = 492.13 W/m2
This figure multiplied by the area of the furnace wall, will determine the total heat
transfer rate in Joules/sec i.e. Watt.
 WINDOWS
• Windows - There is cold air outside and warm air
inside. The glass conducts the heat to the outside
(or the cold to the inside, depending how you look
at it).
– What happens if we instead double the thickness of the
glass? The answer is that the heat flow will occur at half
the rate (∆Q/∆t proportional to 1/l).

• The difference in thermal conductivity also helps

explain things like why a tile floor is colder than
carpet - the tile has a higher thermal conductivity,
so it pulls the heat away from your foot faster than
the carpeting would.
 CLOTHING
• Clothing is also much more insulating than
just the effect of the material. Clothing can
trap air and prevent breezes. Layers of
clothing are especially good at this.
- Polar bears have – in addition to all the fat – an
underlayer of hollow hairs that are very good at
trapping air, thus keeping the bears warm.
– - This is similar idea to why women wear nylons in
the winter – the nylons keep you warmer than
slacks by trapping air close to your legs.
 Convection
• In conduction, heat is transmitted through a
solid (or a liquid or gas); however, there is no Other examples of
motion of the molecules themselves. In where convection
liquids and gases, the molecules themselves
can actually move, which we call convection. is important are in
forced-air heating
– One place in which convection occurs is in and cooling
heating water. The water molecules at the systems. IN a
bottom of the pan are heated by conduction
through the pan. refrigerator, the
coolant gas or
liquid moves
through the inside
– As they are heated, their density decreases
and the warm water becomes less dense than of the refrigerator
the colder water above it. The warmer
molecules rise and the colder molecules fall and removes
to the bottom of the pan where they are then
heated.

– This is the same phenomena responsible for

the phrases, "warmer near the lake" and
"cooler near the lake".
 CONVECTION
• heat from the inside of the refrigerator, transferring it
to the outside. The coolant must be colder when it
passes through the inside of the refrigerator so that
heat will flow from the inside of the refrigerator to the
coolant. Your blood cools your body the same way - it
moves heat from the inside of the body to the skin,
where it can be exhausted to the air.
• • Question: Air is a good thermal insulator; however,
you often find that a polymer foam insulation is blown
into the spaces between the walls of a house? Why
would you do this?
• Answer: Although air is a poor conductor, is it still
subject to heat transfer by convection. The polymer
foam is a solid and therefore doesn't transmit heat by
convection.
 TYPES OF CONVECTION TYPES OF
CONVECTION
• We can distinguish two types of convection :
• (a) Forced convection: This is a process in
which a material is forced to move by a blower
or pump leading to transfer of heat.
• (b) National or free convection:- this is a
process in which a material flows due to
differences in density.
•
RADIATION
Radiation often has a bad connotation; however radiation is a very important method of energy
transfer.
• Conduction and convection require the presence of a medium -solid, gas or liquid.
• Radiation is the method of energy transfer that can take place without a medium - in a vacuum.
• This is important because there is a vacuum between the sun and the Earth and if we could only get
heat from conduction and convection, we'd be in big trouble.
• If you stand in front of a fireplace, you feel heat through radiation. Although some of the heat is
• from visible radiation, quite a bit of the heat you feel is from infrared radiation. Infrared lamps are
• used to heat food in cafeterias.
• People emit infrared radiation and it turns out that the patterns of blood vessels in your face are
• very unique. Infrared cameras are being developed that use these patterns of blood vessels as a
means of identification.

• The rate at which an object radiates energy is determined by Stefan's Law:

• P = σAeT4
where P is the power (energy per unit time), σ is a constant, e is the emissivity (ranging from 0 to 1)
that tells you how efficiently the object radiates or absorbs. T is the temperature.
• • Microwave ovens use microwaves (a form of radiation) that are easily absorbed by the water in
the food. The metal walls have a high emissivity, so they reflect the microwaves, focusing them
back into the food.
RADIATION
Energy is transferred by electromagnetic radiation. All of the earth's energy is transferred from
the Sun by radiation. Our bodies radiate electromagnetic waves in a part of the spectrum that
we can't see called the infra-red. However, there are some cameras that can actually see this
radiation.
The colour and texture of different surfaces determines how well they absorb the radiation.
(1) Black objects absorb more radiation than white objects.
(2) Matt and rough surfaces absorb more than shiney and smooth surfaces.

If you are ever in the snow, take a black and a white piece of cardboard, both the same size. Lay
them down on the snow side by side. Over time you will notice that the black cardboard sinks
deeper into the snow because it absorbs more heat from the sun and therefore melts more
snow underneath it. You will notice this effect if you wear a black jumper and sit in the sun. You
become warm more quickly than if you wore other coloured jumpers.

Curiosity: It is interesting to note that aluminium foil has two different surfaces. One side is
shiney and the other is matt. If you want to heat something evenly and quickly then you wrap it
up with the matt side on the outside. If you want to keep something cold then the shiney side
must be on the outside to lessen the effect of heating by radiation. Do you think that's what the
manufacturers intended? Is it really that important, or is it a small effect?
Temperature All matters are formed from atoms and molecules. In microscopic view
we see that all particles in a matter are in random motion, they are
vibrating, colliding randomly

In an object all particles have kinetic energies because of their random

motions.

Temperature is the quantity which is directly proportional to the

average kinetic energy of the atoms of matter. it is not energy, it just
show the quantity of average kinetic energy of one atom or one
molecule.

In daily life we use some terms like hot, cold or warm. All these terms
are used with respect to another reference matter. For example, you
say that a glass of boiling water is hotter than the ice cream. Be careful,
ice cream is our reference matter.
 TEMPERATURE

• We measure temperature of matters with a

device called thermometer. There are three
types of thermometer, Celsius Thermometer,
Fahrenheit Thermometer and Kelvin
Thermometer. Look at the given picture to see
how we scale thermometer
In Celsius thermometer, lower fixed point is 0 ºC and upper fixed point is
100 ºC, in Fahrenheit thermometer lower fixed point is determined as 32 ºF
and upper fixed point as 212 ºF and finally, lower fixed point of Kelvin
thermometer is 273 ºK and upper fixed point is 373 ºK.

These temperatures are determined with considering the freezing point and
boiling point of water.

We can convert the measurements of Celsius to Kelvin or Fahrenheit to

Kelvin, Celsius by using following equations.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HEAT AND
TEMPERATURE
• Heat is a type of energy, but temperature is not energy.

• Heat depends on mass of the substance, however; temperature

does not depend on the quantity of matter. For example,
temperature of one glass of boiling water and one teapot of boiling
water are equal to each other; on the contrary they have different
heat since they have different masses.

• You can measure temperature directly with a device called

thermometer but heat cannot be measured with a device directly.
You should know the mass, temperature and specific heat capacity
of that matter.
• If you give heat to a matter, you increase its temperature or change
its phase.
•
1. Two thermometer X shows boiling point of water 220X and freezing
point of water 20X and Y shows boiling point of water 120 Y and
freezing point of water -40Y. If thermometer X shows 100X, find the
value that thermometer Y shows.

(X-20)/200=(Y-(-40))/160
(X-20)/20=(Y+40)/16
Y=240Y
2. If Celsius thermometer shows the temperature of air 300C, find the
temperature of air in Fahrenheit thermometer.

T(K)=T(C)+273
T=30+273=3030K
C/100=(F-32)/180
30/100=(F-32)/180
F=860F
3. Find heat required to make 5g ice at -200C to water at 300C. (cice=0,5cal/g.0C,
Lice=80cal/g, cwater=1cal/g.0C)

Heat required to make ice at -200C to ice at 00C ;

Q1=m.cice.ΔT=5.0,5.20
Q1=50cal.
Heat required to make it melt;
Q2=m.Lice=5.80
Q2=400cal.
Heat to make it water at 300C;
Q3=m.cwater.ΔT=5.1.30
Q3=150cal
Qtotal=Q1+Q2+Q3=50+400+150=600cal
4. Two taps fill the water tank with different flow rates. Tap A fills the tank in 1 hour and
tap B fills the tank in 3 hour If we open two taps together, find the final temperature of
the water in the tank.

Flow rates of taps; VA=3VB

3m.c.(T-10)=m.c(50-T)
T=200C
Calculation with Heat Transfer with Examples

Calculations of Heat Transfer

Conservation of energy theorem is also applied to heat transfer. In an isolated system, given
heat is always equal to taken heat or heat change in the system is equal to zero. If two objects
having different temperatures are in contact, heat transfer starts between them. The amount of
heat given is equal to the amount of heat taken. Object one has mass m1, temperature t1 and
specific heat capacity c1, object two has mass m2, temperature t2 and specific heat capacity c2.
Calculation with Heat Transfer with Examples
Example: Find the final temperature of the mixture, if two cup of water having masses
m1=150g and m2=250g and temperatures T1= 30 ºC and T2=75 ºC are mixed in an isolated
system in which there is no heat lost. (cwater=1cal/g.ºC)
Example: Temperature of the iron block decreases from 85 ºC to 25 ºC. If the mass
of the block is 1,2kg, calculate the heat lost by the block. (ciron=0.115cal/g.ºC)
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM

Thermal equilibrium is simply another way of saying that two or more objects are at the
same temperature.

Example: You and I have never met. Not even shaken hands. Yet if we are in good health you
can bet that our body temperatures are at 37 ºC. We are both in thermal equilibrium.
Ignoring the fact that our extremities (e.g hands, feet and nose!) may be colder than the rest
of our body.

This is sometimes called the zeroth law of thermodynamics. The reason for this is that
physicists first found the first and second laws, then realised that there is a more
fundamental law so they decided to give it the number zero. More formally the law can be
quoted as follows:

zeroth law of thermodynamics: If object A and object B are in thermal equilibrium with
object C, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
1) Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of the particles (atoms or molecules).
(2) Heat is the amount of energy transferred to a system of particles
1 calorie is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree
Celsius.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

If two objects are in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

Absolute Temperature scale

There is a physical lower temperature limit of matter. Nothing can be cooled below -
273.15 ºC. So for convenience, scientists have devised the absolute temperature scale
which starts with -273.15 ºC and called it 0 Kelvin (not degrees Kelvin!). So the
relationship between Celsius and Kelvin is:

TK=TC+273.15 (1)
where TK is the temperature in Kelvin, and TC is the temperature in Celsius.

Example: Ice freezes at 0 ºC or TK= 0 +273.15= 273.15 Kelvin.

Normal room temperature is at 20 ºC or TK = 20 + 273.15 = 293.15 Kelvin