UNIT 5 Memory

Memory, in a general sense, refers to the mental capacity to store, retain, and recall
information or experiences. It is a crucial cognitive function that allows individuals to
encode, store, and retrieve information for various purposes, such as learning, problem-
solving, and decision-making. In other terms it also refers to as processes of acquiring,
storing, retaining and later retrieving information.

How are memories formed?

Information must be transformed into a useful form before it can be stored in a new memory,
a process called encoding. After properly encoding, the data needs to be kept in memory for
subsequent use.

Scientists have long held the view that modifications to brain neurons, or nerve cells, are
what cause memories to form. According to what we now know, memories are formed via the
connections between these neurons, either by fortifying existing connections or by forming
new ones. Changes in the connection between the nerve cells known as synapse are
associated with the learning and retention of the new information. Strengthening these
connections helps commit information to memory. This is why reviewing and rehearsing
information improves the ability to remember it. Practice strengthens the connections
between the synapses that store that memory.

TYPES OF MEMORIES

Memory can be categorized into different types based on various factors such as duration,
nature, and information processing. Here are some common types of memories:

Sensory Memory
Iconic Memory: Involves the brief storage of visual information.
Echoic Memory: Pertains to the temporary storage of auditory information.
Short-Term Memory (STM):
 Involves the temporary storage of information for a short duration (around 15-
30 seconds).
 Limited capacity and susceptible to interference.
Working Memory
 An extension of short-term memory that involves actively manipulating and
processing information.
 Responsible for tasks like problem-solving and decision-making.

Long-Term Memory (LTM):

Explicit (Declarative) Memory:
 Episodic Memory: Recollection of specific events and experiences.
 Semantic Memory: Storage of general knowledge and facts.
Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory:
 Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and habits.
 Priming: Enhanced identification due to prior exposure.
Episodic Memory: Recall of specific events, experiences, and personal episodes.
Semantic Memory: Knowledge and facts not tied to specific events.
Procedural Memory: Memory for skills, habits, and motor movements.
Declarative Memory: Involves the conscious recall of facts and events.
Non-Declarative Memory: Unconscious memory, including skills and habits.
Flashbulb Memory: Highly vivid and detailed memory of a surprising or emotionally
significant event.
Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform planned actions in the future.
Autobiographical Memory: Recall of personal life events and experiences.
Source Memory: Remembering where or how information was acquired.
Spatial Memory: Involves the ability to remember and navigate through space.
Recognition Memory: Identifying previously encountered stimuli.
Recall Memory: Retrieving information without external cues.
Eidetic Memory (Photographic Memory): Exceptional ability to recall detailed images or
events with high precision.
Collective Memory: Shared memories and experiences within a cultural or social group.

Different types of LTM memories with examples- https://youtu.be/IL9Cr71r2oo?

si=U1OeDcHjEMoaKZfL

Copy the link and watch it in YT for more clear understanding.

Theories of forgetting

Hermann Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, is often associated with pioneering research

on memory and forgetting. He introduced the concept of the "forgetting curve" and conducted
influential studies on the nature of memory. Ebbinghaus defined forgetting as the loss or
decline of the ability to recall information over time. Ebbinghaus conducted experiments on
himself to study the memorization and forgetting of nonsensical syllables. He found that
forgetting follows a predictable pattern, represented by the forgetting curve. The curve
illustrates that most forgetting occurs shortly after learning, and the rate of forgetting
decreases over time. Ebbinghaus attributed forgetting to the natural decay of memory traces
over time when the information is not actively rehearsed or reviewed.

Definition of forgetting: Forgetting refers to the inability to retrieve or recall information

that was previously stored in the memory. It involves a failure in the process of remembering,
and it can occur for various reasons. Forgetting is a normal aspect of memory functioning,
and its mechanisms are complex, involving factors such as time, interference, lack of cues, or
deliberate suppression. While some forgetting is a natural part of memory processes,
excessive or persistent forgetfulness can be indicative of memory disorders or other cognitive
issues.

Forgetting Curve by Hermann Ebbinghaus:

The forgetting curve, first proposed by Hermann Ebbinghaus, illustrates how quickly
knowledge is lost over time if it is not reaffirmed or reviewed. Ebbinghaus studied the
process of learning and forgetting by conducting experiments on himself with nonsense
syllables. His groundbreaking paper "Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology"
contained his findings, which were released in 1885.

The forgetting curve is defined as a sharp drop in memory retention that occurs soon after
learning and then gradually declines over time. The following are the forgetting curve's main
points:
  Ebbinghaus noted that forgetting happens quickly, with most forgetting taking place
in the first hour following learning. Recall of the knowledge decreases significantly
over this period.

 Steep/Sharp Decline: The forgetting curve is steepest in the early phases, meaning that
the majority of forgetting occurs shortly after the knowledge is first acquired.

 Continued Decline: Memory retention continues to deteriorate gradually even when

the rate of forgetting declines with time.

 Stabilisation: The forgetting curve tends to stabilise and the rate of forgetting
decreases beyond a certain point.

The spacing effect, which contends that distributing learning sessions over time is preferable
to cramming for long-term memory, was also proposed by Ebbinghaus. The forgetting curve
emphasises how crucial it is to practice and review frequently in order to prevent memory
traces from naturally fading.

Theories of forgetting

Several theories have been proposed to explain why forgetting occurs. These theories provide
different perspectives on the mechanisms and processes involved in the loss of information
from memory. Here are some prominent theories of forgetting:

1. Trace Decay Theory:

 Proposed by: Edward Thorndike and William James.
 Key Idea: Forgetting happens because the memory trace (the physical or
chemical representation of a memory in the brain) naturally fades away over
time if the information is not rehearsed or used.
2. Interference Theory:
 Key Idea: Forgetting occurs due to interference from other memories during
encoding, storage, or retrieval.
 Proactive Interference: Previously learned information interferes with the
recall of newly learned information.
 Retroactive Interference: Newly learned information interferes with the
recall of previously learned information.
3. Cue-Dependent Forgetting (Encoding Specificity Principle):
 Proposed by: Tulving and Thomson.
 Key Idea: Forgetting is influenced by the availability of cues during encoding
and retrieval. If the cues present during retrieval do not match those at
encoding, forgetting may occur.
4. Repression:
 Proposed by: Sigmund Freud.
 Key Idea: Forgetting occurs as a defense mechanism to protect an individual
from distressing or traumatic memories by pushing them into the unconscious
mind.
5. Motivated Forgetting (Selective Forgetting):
 Key Idea: People may forget certain information intentionally due to
emotional or psychological reasons. This may involve suppression or
repression.
 6. Decay Theory (Ebbinghaus):
 Key Idea: Similar to trace decay theory, this posits that memories fade away
with time if they are not used or reinforced. It was initially proposed by
Hermann Ebbinghaus.
7. Mismatch Theory (Memory Mismatch Theory):
 Key Idea: Forgetting occurs when the context during retrieval does not match
the context during encoding. Contextual cues play a crucial role in memory
retrieval.
8. Biological Theories:
 Key Idea: Brain damage, injury, or disease can impact memory formation and
retrieval, leading to forgetting. Amnesia is an example of forgetting due to
biological factors.
9. Amnesia:
 Key Idea: Severe forgetting often resulting from brain injury or trauma.
Amnesia can be anterograde (inability to form new memories) or retrograde
(loss of memories before the onset of amnesia).
10. Prospective Interference Theory:
 Key Idea: Forgetting occurs when new information interferes with the recall
of planned future actions or intentions.

Various Memory Retrieval Problems

Memory retrieval problems can manifest in various ways, leading to difficulties in recalling
or accessing stored information. Some common memory retrieval problems include:

1. Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon:
 Description: The inability to recall a specific word or name, even though you
are aware that you know it.
 Cause: Often associated with interference or a temporary block in the retrieval
process.
2. Proactive Interference:
 Description: Previously learned information interferes with the recall of
recently learned information.
 Cause: The interference of older memories with the retrieval of newer ones.
3. Retroactive Interference:
 Description: Recently learned information interferes with the recall of
previously learned information.
 Cause: The interference of new memories with the retrieval of older ones.
4. Cue-Dependent Forgetting:
 Description: Forgetting occurs when retrieval cues present during encoding
do not match those available during retrieval.
 Cause: Inadequate or mismatched cues hinder the retrieval process.
5. Context-Dependent Forgetting:
 Description: The context or environment during retrieval differs from the
context during encoding, leading to difficulty in recall.
 Cause: The inability to recreate the original learning environment.
6. State-Dependent Forgetting:
 Description: Forgetting is influenced by the physiological or emotional state
during encoding and retrieval.
  Cause: Information may be better recalled when the individual is in a similar
state to the one during encoding.

7. Motivated Forgetting:
 Description: Deliberate suppression or repression of memories due to
emotional or psychological reasons.
 Cause: The individual may consciously or unconsciously choose not to recall
certain information.
8. Retrieval Interference:
 Description: Information is present in memory but is temporarily inaccessible
due to competing or overlapping memories.
 Cause: Difficulty in selecting the correct memory trace from a set of similar
or related traces.
9. Serial Position Effect:
 Description: Tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect)
and end (recency effect) of a list more effectively than those in the middle.
 Cause: Differences in encoding and retrieval processes for items in different
positions in a sequence.
10. Source Amnesia:
 Description: Forgetting the source or origin of a memory, leading to
confusion about whether the information was personally experienced or
learned from another source.
 Cause: Difficulty in attributing memories to their correct source.
11. False Memories:
 Description: Recalling events or details that did not actually occur.
 Cause: Misleading information, suggestion, or the blending of real and
imagined details during encoding or retrieval.
These memory retrieval problems highlight the complexity of the memory process and the
various factors that can impact the ability to recall information accurately.

https://youtu.be/pMMRE4Q2FGk?si=z9H2ABjD5SRYVBZ6 (Information-Processing
Model)

Memory assessments are tools or tests designed to evaluate an individual's memory function.
These assessments can be useful in diagnosing memory disorders, understanding cognitive
abilities, or monitoring changes in memory over time. Various memory assessments target
different aspects of memory, and they are often employed in clinical, research, or educational
settings. Here are some common types of memory assessments:

1. Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS):

 Description: A widely used neuropsychological test that assesses different
aspects of memory, including verbal and visual memory, working memory,
and immediate and delayed recall.
2. Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT):
 Description: A verbal memory test that involves the repeated presentation and
recall of a list of words to assess immediate and delayed recall, learning, and
recognition.
3. California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT):
 Description: A neuropsychological test designed to assess verbal learning and
memory, including free recall, cued recall, and recognition.
4. Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test (RBMT):
  Description: Assesses everyday memory function, including prospective
memory, recall of verbal and visual information, and memory for faces.

5. Digit Span Test:

 Description: A subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) that
assesses working memory by requiring individuals to repeat sequences of
digits in forward or reverse order.
6. Spatial Span Test:
 Description: A test of visuospatial working memory, where individuals are
required to recall sequences of spatial locations.
7. Trail Making Test:
 Description: A cognitive test that assesses visual attention and task-switching
abilities. It consists of two parts (A and B), with Part B incorporating elements
of working memory and executive function.
8. Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE):
 Description: A brief screening tool used to assess overall cognitive function,
including aspects of memory, orientation, attention, and language. It is
commonly used for detecting cognitive impairment.
9. Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA):
 Description: A cognitive screening tool that assesses various cognitive
domains, including memory, attention, language, and visuospatial abilities. It
is often used to detect mild cognitive impairment.
10. Paired Associates Learning (PAL):
 Description: Part of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated
Battery (CANTAB), this test assesses visual memory and learning by requiring
individuals to remember and match pairs of stimuli.
11. Delay Discounting Tasks:
 Description: Tasks that assess the ability to delay gratification and the impact
of time on decision-making, providing insights into working memory and
impulse control.
12. Autobiographical Memory Interview (AMI):
 Description: An assessment that explores an individual's ability to recall and
describe personal events and experiences from their own life.

Methods of improving memory- Mnemonics are memory aids or techniques that help
individuals remember information more easily. These techniques involve organizing and
encoding information in a way that makes it more memorable and easier to retrieve.
Mnemonics leverage associations, patterns, or familiar concepts to enhance the encoding and
retrieval of information in memory.
The term "mnemonic" is derived from the Greek word "mnēmonikos," meaning "of memory"
or "relating to memory."
Common types of mnemonics include acronyms, acrostics, rhymes, jingles, chunking, the
method of loci (also known as the memory palace), the keyword method, and various other
memory-enhancing strategies.

The goal of using mnemonics is to make information more meaningful or to create

associations that trigger recall. By linking new information with pre-existing knowledge or
by employing creative and memorable connections, individuals can improve their ability to
remember and retrieve information.
Mnemonics are widely used in educational settings to assist students in memorizing facts,
lists, or concepts. They can be applied in various contexts, such as learning a new language,
studying for exams, remembering names and faces, or recalling sequences of information.
Overall, mnemonics provide practical and effective tools for enhancing memory by
leveraging cognitive processes that make information more accessible and memorable.

Commonly used Mnemonics in day-to-day life are-

1. Acronyms:
 Create a word or phrase using the initial letters of the items you want to
remember.
 Example: HOMES to remember the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan,
Erie, Superior).
2. Acrostics:
 Form a sentence or phrase where the first letter of each word corresponds to
the initial letters of the items to be remembered.
 Example: "Every Good Boy Does Fine" to remember the musical notes on the
lines of the treble clef (E, G, B, D, F).
3. Rhymes and Jingles:
 Create rhymes or catchy jingles to remember information.
 Example: "Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November" to recall
the number of days in each month.
4. Chunking:
 Break down large amounts of information into smaller chunks.
 Example: Grouping a long string of numbers into smaller segments (e.g., 5432
987 123 becomes easier to remember as three chunks).
5. Loci Method (Memory Palace):
 Associate each piece of information with a specific location or place in your
mind.
 Imagine walking through a familiar place and placing items along the way to
remember a list.
6. Keyword Method:
 Associate new information with familiar words or phrases.
 Create a mental image that connects the new information with a keyword that
sounds similar.
 Example: Associating the French word "pain" (pronounced like "pan") with
the image of a bread pan to remember that "pain" means bread.
7. Method of Association:
 Create associations between new information and pre-existing knowledge or
experiences.
 Use vivid mental images or create a story that links the new information with
familiar concepts.
8. Number/Rhyme Technique:
 Assign a rhyming word to each number and use those rhyming words to create
associations.
 Example: To remember the number 8, associate it with the rhyming word
"gate."
9. Alphabet Technique:
 Create associations by connecting items to each letter of the alphabet.
 Example: To remember a list of items, associate each item with a word that
starts with the corresponding letter of the alphabet.
10. First-Letter Technique:
 Focus on the initial letters of each word in a list to create a sentence or phrase.
 Example: ROY G. BIV to remember the colours of the rainbow (Red, Orange,
Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet).