URBAN PLANNING A CON CEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

IBRAHIM NGAH
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
Faculty of Built Environment
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Skudai, Johor

Abstract

This paper examines the concept a nd approaches in urban planning. Urban planning is
conceived as physical planning dea li ng with three key systems i.e. activity systems, land
development sys t e m and environme n t a l system. There has been shifting in emphasis in
the p ra c t ic e of urban planning from a purely urban design app roach to emphasis on
env iro nm e n t a l issues, planning methods and development of IT. This paper also touches
on the i mp o rtance of partne rs hip approach in plan making and implementation.

1. 0 Int ro duction

Urban planning either in th e form o f s tr ea ms a n d rivers. Degradation of the

designing new urban s ettlements , promoting e nviro n me n t is more serio us in larg e
urban g r owth o r as the regulation of urb an m etropolitan a reas s uch as t he Klang Valley
d evelopment is an a ctivity that h as existed r e gion, as a r e sult o f r apid urban
since the first civilisation. Although th e d evelopment.
n a ture, form a n d a p p r o a c hes to urb an
planning differ from pl a ce to pl a ce and a re The e nviro n ment in w h ic h pl anning operates
evo lvin g , the basic purpose of pl anning s till is b e c oming more co m p lex a n d d ynamic.
remains unchanged - to en s u re h ealthy, safe There is a lso an increasing a waren e ss a m on g
and e ffic ie n t urban environment for people to th e pu blic on th e issue s relat ed to
live in and perform their activi ties . e nvi ro n me nt a n d the n eed to m ana ge natu ra l
r e s ourc e s a n d to produ c e quali ty living
We a dop t pl anning b e cause of the belief that co n d it ions . Pressure for the preservation of
our a cti on s that are b a sed on pl anning will n atural en viro n ment has als o increas ed not
produce better results t h an withou t planning . o n ly fr o m within co u n t r ies b u t a lso fr o m
We pl an o u r ac tio ns beforehand to co nsid er inte rnat io nal o rganizatio ns.
various factors that affect the outcome and to
determine th e possible future impacts of our
current actions . Planning is also important to 2.0 Concepts Of Urban Planning
ensure that what w e h a ve d e cided will not
only fulfill the n eeds of the pres ent but a ls o T he co nce p t o f urban pl annin g v ary
comp atible with the need s o f futur e d epending o n the co n tex t , exp e r ie nce a n d
generation. practic e o f urb an pl anning in p articular
pl a ces and time. In Britain , fo r exam p le. until
Urban planning is b ecoming m ore vital as the the ea rly 19 60s u r b an planning was strongly
so ci ety become s more urbanized . The r apid in flu e nced by urb an design t r a d it io n t h a t
r ate of urban growth as th e result o f viewed planning as t h e thre e dimensional
concentration of economic activities in urb an d e sign of towns (He aley , 19 82) . U r ba n
a reas a n d rural -urban migration h a s c reate d pl anning was co nceived as a n ac tivity that
vario us pro blems du e t o lack of planned p roduced co m p rehensive m a s ter plans, design
d evelopment , such a s squatters, traffi c of neighbourhoods, gard en cities and utopian
congestion, s oil erosion, a n d en vir on menta l ideals for c itie s . La ter on as urb an pl anning
p olution. Extensive land clearing a n d s lope profe s sion d evel oped a n d with t h e in flue nce
c u ttin g h a ve n ot o n ly d am a g ed n atu r al of social scien ti fic meth od ology. the focus of
eco log ic a l s y stems bu t h ave also exp os ed vast urban pl anning shifted from a prominen try
are a s of land to erosion and s il t a ti o n of physic al d esign exe r c is e to the r ati onal

J URN AL ALAM B INA J[LID 1 NO .1: MAC 1998 1

urban planning shifted from a prominently Planning activities include the preparation of
physical design exercise to the rational development plans and the conducting of
procedure of producing plans and control over planning studies that can be used as gutdes
the development of the urban area . for planning decisions . The preparation of
development plans involves not only urban
This paper will focus on the basic concept of planners but also other various agencies and
urban planning from a systematic point of the public. The decision to adopt a particular
view developed by Chapin and Kaiser (1979). plan and approval of development proposal is
This approach is still relevant. since the made by the state or local authority
essence of urban planning is land use based. concerned. Development control is one of
although the approach of planning today has the important mechanisms in planning to
changed from producing 'blue print' to the ensure that the proposed urban development
more strategic approach of structure and local complies with planning guides.
planning.

Urban planning basically deals with the key 3. 0 Sh iftin g Themes In Urban Planning
systems that influence the physical structure
of the city . These are activity systems. 3.1 Master Plann ing
development systems and environmental
systems. Activity systems as concerned with Master planning is one of the earlier
how man. through his institutions such Is approaches to planning that is trying to solve
households. firms and governments. urban problems through the medium of the
organises his affairs in the pursuit of human plan or the blue print. Urban development
needs and how these institutions interact regulations are based on land use map,
with one another in time and space. Activity zoning, density control. building regulation
systems determine demands for various urban and planning standards. The approach
spaces such as housing. recreation. a ttempts to influence or direct all acti v it ie s
commercial. urban facilities and related to the physical environment for the
infrastructure (Figure 1). public benefit and amenity. Due to its
physical nature and rigidity. the master
The land development system focusses on planning approach is regarded as failing to
processes that convert space and adapt it for deal with various social issues such as urban
use of activitiy systems. The principal agents poverty. unemployment and urban
in the development systems include pre­ inequalities. and such unable to cope with
development landowners. developers. the rapid technological and economic change.
consumers, financial intermediaries and The master planning approach incorporated
public agencies. They relate to the supply side under Town Board Enactment or Cap 137
of the urban development process (Figure 2). was practiced in Peninsular Malaysia for at
least 50 years until the end of 1970s. before
The third class of systems that influence it was replaced by a development planning
urban development is the environmental system under the Town and Country
systems that provide the niche for human Planning Act of 1976.
existence and the habitat and the resources
to sustain man . These include plant. animal 3.2 Procedural Planning
life systems and the fundamental processes
relating to water. air and matter. Procedural planning emphasises on solving
Environmental systems function both to urban problems based on rational procedures
constrain and to enhance the functioning of and methods for decision making. The
the other two system classes (Figure 3) . procedures and methods basically focus on
the planning process that begins with the
Urban planning is viewed as the process of clarification of policy goals. systematic
intervention in the urban land use systems to analysis. logical generation of policy
achieve certain goals of urban development alternatives, systematic evaluation of these
that relate to public interest such as alternatives and monitoring performance.
sustainability. health safety. convenience. Urban planning is conceived as a continous
efficiency, energy conservation , environmental process of managing urban change. The plan.
quality. social equity and amenity (Figure 4). although in principle deals with land use
matters, incorporates elements of social and

2 JURNAL ALAM BINA JILID I NO . I : MAC 1998

 ACTIVITY SYSTEMS
Activity Agents Activity Systems

Household-sustaining activities
Individuals and Socialization activities
households - . Social interaction activities
Recreational activities
Rest and relaxation activities

Goods-producing activities
Firms ~ Service activities to individuals,
households, firms, and
institutions

I
Human development activities
Institutions~ Basic public service activities
-----~
I
Acti~ities for the welfare of
special groups

Source: Adapted fro m C ha pin a nd Kai se r (197 9:29)

FIGURE 1: ACTIVITY SYSTEMS

JURNAL ALAM DI NA J ILl D I NO. I : MAC 199 8 3

 I LAND DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS
I
Development Systems
[ Development Agents
I I I
Land marketing (assessment of
Predevelopment -~ utility of con tinuing land in
landowners present state vs. return from
I seIling or leasing it)

I
Developers I-J Land con~ersion or
Ireconversion

Consumers I_~ Purchasing or leasing locations

I I and facilities

Financial intermediaries ~ Acquisition and devel opme nt-

financing transactions

Public agencies f-~ Review an d approval of land use

land devel opment

So urce : Ada pted from C hapin and Kaise r ( 1979:30)

FIGURE 2: LAND DEV ELOPMENT SYST EMS

4 J U RNAL ALAM BINA JILID 1 NO.1 : MAC 1991

 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
Agents of Nature Environmental Systems

Ecosystem processes (energy

flow from sun to plants,
through the food chain to
Biotic-the plant and herbivores to carnivores and
animal communities ~ . dissipation; nutrient cycle from
pool to plants, through the food
chain and back to the nutrient
pool)

I Hydrological system
Abiotic-wa ter , air and -~ Aerological system
matter Geological system

Sou rce : Ad ap ted from C hapin and Kaiser ( 1979 :30-31 )

FIGURE 3: ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS

JURNAL ALAM BINA J I LID 1 NO . 1 : MAC 198 8 5

 GOALS OF URBAN PLANNING
r - - - -- - - ----

Sustainability, Health & Safety, Convenience, Efficiency &

Energy Conservation, Environmenta l Quality, Social
Equity, Amenity

KEY URBA N LAN D USE SYSTEMS

Aspatial Spatial

/ Land Use Pallern

Economic
and
Population
Growth
Systems
....
Activity Systems t--~
...
__r=~
Development
S
ystems
~
1_
Environmental
Systems

.---- - - - - - - - - _ ._­
URBAN PLANNING AND
GUIDANCE SYSTEM

.
(decision guides and action
instruments)

--~ '----/- - - - - ,-
. ;~,
,---- / .............' ...... ..............,

Planning Activities Political Activities

Source: Ad apted from Chapi n and K aiser ( 1979:65)

FIGURE 4: URBAN PLANNING FRAMEWORK

6 J URNAL ALAM BINA JILID 1 NO.1 : MAC 19 9 8

economic plannin g . Tile policies and of the s u s ta in a b le development concept that
proposals in the plan are constantly reviewed drew global attention was the declaration of
to m on itor its performan ce a n d to m a k c the UN's Co n fe re nc e on Environment a n d
a dj u s t m e n t whenever necessary. The Development at Rio de Jeneiro in 1992 which
procedural plan ning approach wa s q u it c issued Agenda 21 . The conference marks the
dominant in the UK until 1970s . t u r n in g point for a more deliberate
integration o f environmental factors in
This approach is incorporated in the c u rre n t planning and development. The following are
development plan syste m in Peninsular s om e of the principles from Rio Declaration
Ma la ys ia u n d e r t h e Town a n d Country on Environment and Development (Selman,
Pla n n ing Ac t of 19 7 6. The preparation of 1993) :
Structure Plan a n d Local Plan is supposed to
follow the rat ional p r oced u r e s and methods • Sustainable con s u m p ti o n of resources
such as the system atic analysis of strategic (environmentally sound use of new and
sectors. identification of prob lems and issues. renewable sources of energy and natural
and the derivation of proposals on the basis resources. purchasing policies etc.)
of th e findings. The p ublic is also given • Su stainable human s e t tl e m e n t s
opportunities to com m ent on the findings of (innovative planning strategie s, gUiding
the Report of Survey and also propos als in cities along sustainable paths etc.)
the Draft Plan wh ich are exhibited. • Integration of environment and
development in de cision making (in
In reality the implementation of procedural planning. EIA, data management etc) .
planning is basically too ideal given limited • Su stainable Resource Management
information available to fulfil the requirement (prote ction of mountain areas,
for rational model. The politi cal s u s t a i n a b le agriculture and rural
circumstances also inhibit the application of development, conservation of biological
the rational model. The preparation of the div ersity, protection of marine resources,
plan was also time consuming because of the including the integrated management and
various procedure s that needed to be s u s ta in a b le development of coastal areas).
followed before the plan could be gazetted. • Envtrorimenta lly s ou n d m anagement of
Given the rate of growth of the Malaysian s olid wastes.
economy and the rate of urban development,
changes have occured too quickly for the plan In respon se to the global issues of the
to cope. Although Structure Plan is claimed environment, including the Agenda 21, as
to be flexible. most of the plan that had been well a s the few incidents on environmental
prepared are already outdated and some of disasters that have occurred within the last
them become obsolete even before gazetted. few years. some measures considering
In addition. the development plan system had environmental fa ctors in development h ave
been too focused on th e proces s and been taken by the Malaysian government in
procedures of the preparation. with less the planning process . In relation to urban
thought given to developing proposals . As a planning in Peninsular Malaysia. the recent
result poor quality plan have in some cases 1996 amendment of the Town a n d Country
been produ ced and many policies have not Planning Act of 1976 includes measures for
been implemented (Abdul Munit Kasimin, the provision of adequate open spaces . the
1996). preservation of the n atural topography, the
protection of trees . the conservation and
r ehabilitation of b u i ld i ng s of historical
3.3 Th e 1990s-Sustainable Development s ign tfica n ce , architectural merit and cultural
heritage. and the needs to prepare and submit
Sustainable development emerged as a result a Dev elopment Proposal Report whi ch
of the increase awareness among the public indi cate the impact of the propos ed
on the issue of the environment, particularly development on the surrounding areas . when
in r elation to problem of urbanization, s u b m ittin g application for a p p r ova l of the
degradation of the environment and depletion d evelopment (Zainuddin. 1996) . The impact
of resources. Earlier concern on of the new requirements in planning is yet to
environmental sustainability was expressed be s e e n , but basically its effectiveness
at the Biosphere Conference in Paris in 1968 d epends not only on the co m m it m e n t of
which called for the conservation of natural planners but more importantly. the decision
resources in the interest of sustainable future makers who approve the d evelopmen t and
use by mankind. However. the s ta r ti ng point the developers who are directly involved in

JU RNA L A LAM BINA J ILl D 1 NO.1 : MA C 1998 7

the implemention of development projects on public sector should play an important role as
the ground . facilitator and enabling agent in the
development process, providing an
environment and mechanisms for the
performance of the private sector to achieve
the overall vision of development. The
3.4 Information Technology (IT) and involvement of the private sector in urban
Urban Planning developmen t should begin from the
formulation of the urban plan. This is
The period of the 1990s has seen rapid important because the outcome of planning
technological development. in particular the has important implications for future private
growth of information and telecom­ investment. The involvement of the private
munication technologies . As mentioned by sector will ensure that the plan fonnulated
Peter Dicken (1992), the advances that have will not only consider the general interest of
had great impact on development involve the public but also economic and financial
convergence of computer and telecom ­ implications of the plan. At the same time
munication technologies into a single system those in the private sector will be able to
of information processing and exchange. This understand better the planning process and
enables global comunication to take place procedures for development and provide
easily and cheaply thus facilitate the firms to greater certainty in investment decision.
organise their activities across international
boundaries and create a complex of inter Under the current planning system in
linkages across nations that has been termed Peninsular Malaysia, the framework for public
"glob aliza ti on ". Communication system have participation (including private sector) in the
been transformed radically with the preparation of Structure and Local plans is
development of satellites technology and provided under the Town and Country
optical fibre networks linking together with Planning Act of 1976. The participation of
computer technology. The impact of the IT the public in the formulation of the Structure
has begun to take place as more people, firms Plan is mandatory at two stages:
and institutions are using the technology
including personal computer, internet, fax a. After survey and analysis had been
and cellular phone for communication. It is completed and the report of survey is
too early to assess the impact on the behavior ready for the public .
of the society although Alvin and Heidi Tofler
(1994) did suggest some of the probable b. When the draft structure plan is ready
consequences to the society. for public inspection at which time the
public is allowed to make objections.
In urban planning, some ideas of integrating
IT have been developed . The concepts such as In the case of Local Plan only the draft plan
an "Intelligent City ", "Mu lti-m ed ia Super is required to be made availabe for public
Corridor", "Eco- Media City" are some of the inspection and comments.
emerging themes in urban development and
planning. The planning of the future city The experience of Structure Plan shows that
needs to incorporate the development of an IT the participation from the public was not
infrastructure linking the global IT networks encouraging even in large metropolitan areas.
to individual units in urban centres. The number of people visited the plan
exhibition was relatively very small, and not
many memoranda were received by the local
authorities (Goh Ban Lee, 1991) . The real
4.0 Towards Partnership Approach In reasons for the poor participation from the
Urban Planning public are not known but it is obvious that
the mechanisms of public participation
The effective implementation of planning adopted which allow participation only after
strategies and vision for the city depend on the documents are completed is not effective.
the actions of various actors in the urban
development process . Within the context of In the process of plan formulation there is a
liberalization, the role of the private sector need for supporting mechanisms , other than
will become more important in providing inviting participation through exhibition, for
infrastructure and services to the public . The an effective involvement of the private sector,

8 JURNAL ALAM BINA J ILID 1 NO . 1 : MAC 1998

d ep artm ents and ag en ci e s . se lec t e d 5. Healey. Patsy e t al (1982). Planning
repre s entatives from th e private sec to r a n d Theory : Prospect for the 1980s .
ot her s ta ke holders to provid e c on t in u o u s Oxfo rd: Pergamon Press .
input to th e process o f pl an preparation .
Th is c o re g ro u p might function in a m ann er 6. S elman. P (1993 ). Planning Post-Rio.
si m ilar to a s teeli ng co m m ittee. The Planner. May 1993, pp 17 - 19.

For wid er p articipation a ser ies of workshops 7. T offl er , Aa n d Toffler, H ( 1994) .

a nd brainstorming sess io ns co u ld b e Creating A New Civilization. Atlanta:
c ondu ct ed to discu s s lo c al issu es, Turner Publishing.
fo r m u la ti o n of vision. o b jec t ives and
propos als. 8. Z ainu d din Muhammad (1 996) .
Pindaan Akta Perancangan Bandar
dan Desa dan Implikasinya Terhadap
5.0 Conclusion Aktiviti Perancangan dan
Pembangunan .
Planning is n eeded much m ore today than in
the p a s t b ec au s e we are d e aling with m ore 9. Planning Me thods : T owa rds Achieving
pe ople . with di fferent needs a n d ex p ectatio ns . Su stain abl e C o m m u n i t y . P ap er
The r ap id a dva n c e me n t in te chnol ogy n ot Pre s ented a t 15th. Earoph W orld
on ly increa ses th e complexity of the urban Congres s on Sustainable Communitie s .
sit ua tio n but also incre a s e s the r ate of Au ckland . 3 - 7 Sep t 1996.
c ha nge a n d magnitud e o f imp a cts.
Urbanization also results in pre s sure for the
r a p i d e x p lo it a t io n of natural re sourc es;
without proper management of resources
there is a tendency toward s d egradation of
the environment.

The p artnership between public a n d private

s ec to r s in urb an planning is one of th e
m echanism s for a n effective implementation
of u rban d evel opment programs to achieve
urban visions in the future.

Bibliography

1. Abdul Munit Kasmin (199 6 ). Ke Arah

Pembangunan Suatu Kerangka
Keberkesanan Pelaksanaan Dasar
Rancangan Struktur Yang
Melibatkan Sektor Awam Pada
Peringkat Awal Keputusan Dasar.
T e sts Ph. D Perancang an Bandar &
Wil a yah. Skudai: UTM .

2. C ha p in . F .S a n d Kais er, E. J (1 979 ).

Urban Land Use Planning. Th ird
E dition. Urbana: University of Illinois
Pres s .

3. Dicken. P (1992). Global Shift. S econd

Edition . London: Paul Chap man .

4. Goh Ban Lee (1991). Urban Planning

in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur : Tempo
Publishing.

J U RN AL ALAM BINA J I LI D 1 N O.1 : MAC 1998 9