LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITY, EPE CAMPUS

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAMME
Department of Mechanical Engineering

INVARIANCE OF THE SECOND ORDER TENSORS:

Applications of Invariance of Second Order Tensors in Continuum Mechanics

ONYEBUCHI PETER OLISAELOKA

PG221688418620

ME825: THEORY OF PLASTICITY

DR. V.D. OBASA
NOVEMBER 03, 2023
Term Paper: Invariance of Second-Order Tensors

Table of Contents

Title Page

Abstract

Introduction

Basic Concepts in Tensor Algebra

Second-Order Tensors: Definition and Properties

Invariants in Mathematics

Invariants in Physics

Transformation of Tensors

Invariance of Second-Order Tensors

Engineering Applications

Invariance of Second Order Tensors in continuum Mechanics and Solid mechanics

The Jaumann rate of stress tensor

Geometrical Invariance

Invariance in Machine Learning

Challenges and Limitations

Conclusion

References
 Abstract
"In this study, we explore the use of the invariance of second-order tensors to establish
constitutive mathematical equations that describe the relationship between stress and strain in
plastic materials. By considering the Jaumann rate of stress tensor and incorporating the
plastic flow rule and yield criterion, we can derive constitutive equations that capture the
plastic behaviour of materials under different loading conditions. These equations take into
account factors such as the yield strength, hardening coefficients, and the stress-strain
relationship. Understanding the constitutive equations is crucial for analyzing and predicting
the deformation and failure of plastic materials. This research provides insights into the
fundamental mathematical framework that underlies the behaviour of plastic materials,
contributing to advancements in material science and engineering applications."
 Introduction

The invariant theory has a long history that dates back to the XIX century. The application of this
theory in continuum mechanics is due largely to the works of Reiner, Rivlin, and Rivlin and
Ericksen, who have used this theory to obtain constitutive relations of isotropic solid and liquid
materials. Since then, the invariant theory has been used to obtain constitutive relations of a wide
class of materials, such as ceramics (Schröder and Romanowski), polymers (Richards and Ode
gard), viscoelastic materials (Wineman), electroelastic materials (Bustamante and Rajagopal),
etc. The representation of a tensor as a matrix is prevalent in computer science and scientific
visualization. Tensors describes entities that scalar and vectors cannot describe sufficiently, for
example, the stress at a point in a continuous medium under load.

Recent mathematical developments of the theory are reported by Kemper, who have
worked on optimal homogeneous systems of parameters and separating sets, Olive and Auffray
and Chenet al., on isotropic invariants of third-order tensors, Olive et al., Desmorat et al.,
Desmorat et al., on minimal integrity basis and separating set for the fourth-order elasticity
tensor, and Olive and Desmorat, on effective rationality of second-order symmetric tensors.
However, the strength often so mathematics is that tensors are independent of specific reference
frames, that is, they are invariant under coordinate transformations. Invariance qualifies tensors
to describe physical processes independent of the coordinate system. More precisely, the tensor
components change according to the transformation into another basis; the characteristics of the
tensor are preserved. Consequently, tensors can be analyzed using any convenient reference
frame. In the following, we assume that a reference frame is given and use matrix notation.
The application of invariance principles in continuum mechanics leads to the proposition
of constitutive relations that depend on a list of invariants of physical variables, such as vectors
and second-order tensors. Given a group of transformations acting on these variables, the central
problem of the associated theory of invariants is to find a list of invariants from which all the
other invariants can be generated without having redundant members.

Second-order tensors are fundamental mathematical objects that find application in various
scientific and engineering disciplines. They have wide-ranging applications in physics,
engineering, and even machine learning. Understanding the invariance of second-order tensors is
crucial for the accurate representation of physical phenomena and the consistent application of
mathematical operations in different coordinate systems. In this term paper, we delve into the
concept of invariance, particularly focusing on second-order tensors.

This term paper aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of the invariance of second-order
tensors. We will begin by establishing a foundation in tensor algebra and the properties of
second-order tensors. The transformation of tensors will be discussed in detail, as it is crucial to
understand how tensors change under different coordinate systems.

The paper will then explore practical applications in various fields. Solid mechanics, a branch of
engineering that deals with the behaviour of materials under mechanical loading, relies heavily
on tensor invariance. We will examine how the invariance of second-order tensors is essential in
describing stress and strain in materials. While the invariance of second-order tensors offers
numerous advantages, it is not without its challenges and limitations. We will discuss these
challenges, such as computational complexity and data representation issues, and explore
potential future directions and advancements in the field.

This term paper aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the invariance of second-
order tensors, its mathematical and physical significance, and its applications across different
engineering disciplines. Understanding these invariants is fundamental to making accurate
predictions, solving complex problems, and advancing our knowledge in various engineering
fields.

Basic Concepts in Tensor

Tensors are mathematical objects that have components and transform according to certain rules
under coordinate transformations. Tensors can be classified based on their order, which
represents the number of indices they possess. Tensors of order zero are often referred to as
scalars.

Tensors in mechanical engineering

Stress tensors describe internal forces or stresses that act within deformable bodies as reaction to
external forces Figure 1.
  Strain tensors are related to the deformation of a body due to stress by the material’s
constitutive behaviour. Together, they specify the behaviour of a continuous medium
under load, which allows one to deduce information about a strength of a technical part.

 Stress tensors convey information about the stresses acting on cutting planes through the
material: their direction, their magnitude, their anisotropy and whether stresses are
compressive (negative eigenvalues) or tensile (positive eigenvalues).

Figure 1: Stress tensor. (a) External forces f is applied to a deformable body. Reacting
forces are described by a three-dimensional stress tensor that is composed of three normal
stresses # and three shear stresses.

The deformation gradient tensor is defined as the gradient of displacements of material points.
Since no cell inversions are allowed inside the material, the tensor is invertible
and has positive eigenvalues. It quantifies shape changes as well as overall material rotation and,
thus, is not symmetric. The Cauchy–Green tensors are positive definite and symmetric. The
determinant of the deformation gradient tensor is the ratio of the deformed to the initial
infinitesimal volume elements.
Orders of Tensors

Tensors can be of different orders – zeroth order tensors, first-order tensors, second-order
tensors, and so on. Thus, a first-order tensor (vector) maps a first-order tensor into a zeroth-order
tensor (scalar), whereas a second-order tensor maps a first-order tensor into a first-order tensor. It
will be seen that a third-order tensor maps a first-order tensor into a second-order tensor, and so
on.

Apart from the zeroth and first order tensors (see below), the second-order tensors are the most
important tensors from a practical point of view, being important quantities in, amongst other
topics, continuum mechanics, relativity, electromagnetism and quantum theory.

1. Zeroth and First Order Tensors: A tensor of order zero is simply another name for a
scalar, tensors of order one as vectors. A first-order tensor is simply another name for a
vector
2. Second Order Tensors:

Definition of Second-Order Tensors

In tensor algebra, a second-order tensor is a mathematical object that has two indices and can be
represented by a matrix. These tensors play a crucial role in various fields, including physics,
engineering, and mathematics.

The definition of a second-order tensor involves its transformation properties under coordinate
transformations. A tensor is said to be of second order because it has two indices, which allows it
to represent relationships between two vectors or two sets of vectors.

In Cartesian coordinates the stress tensor is represented by matrices.

[ ]
❑xx ❑xy ❑ xz
❑ij =¿ ❑xy ❑ yy ❑ yz
❑ xz ❑ yz ❑zz
 More precisely, a second-order tensor T is defined as a bilinear for our topic, we specifically
deal with second-order tensors, which are represented by matrices. These tensors have two
indices and can describe quantities like stress and strain. The relationship between stress and
strain in plastic materials can be expressed using tensor equations. By considering the
invariance of second-order tensors, we can derive constitutive equations that capture the
behaviour of plastic materials under different loading conditions.

The constitutive equations involve operations on tensors, such as tensor products,

contractions, and index manipulations. These operations allow us to express the relationship
between stress and strain in a concise and mathematically rigorous manner. Understanding
tensor algebra is fundamental for formulating and solving problems related to stress and
strain in plastic materials. It provides a powerful mathematical framework for analyzing and
predicting the behaviour of these materials.

Properties of Second Order Tensors

i. An important property of second order tensors is that they are linear in their components.
This means that if you scale the components of a tensor by a constant factor, the resulting
tensor also scales by the same factor.

ii. Another property is the invariance of tensors under coordinate transformations. This
means that the components of a tensor may change, but its overall nature and behaviour
remain the same. This property allows us to work with tensors in different coordinate
systems and still obtain consistent results.
 Tensor Physical Meaning Symmetric Definiteness Examples of
Application Areas

Stress Material reaction (in terms of yes indefinite Continuum

stress) due to external forces. Mechanics

Deformation Deformation of a volume no positive Continuum

Gradient element (partial derivative definite Mechanics
with
respect to material
coordinates). Describes
rotation and
distortion.
Infinitesimal Infinitesimal deformation yes indefinite Continuum
Strain gradient of a body due to Mechanics
stress.
Metric Relates a direction to Yes Positive Differential Geometry
distances and angles. semidefinite
Curvature Change of surface normal in yes indefinite Differential Geometry
any given direction.

Table 1: Examples of second-order tensors. Common properties of all of tensors are: they are the
independent of their describing reference frame, they linearly relate vectorial quantities and they
encode a quantity that inherently exhibits anisotropic behaviour. They differ in their physical
meaning and characteristic properties. If tensors contain rotational information, they are not
symmetric. If anisotropy of the encoded quantity is the same in directly opposing directions, they
are symmetric.
Feature Descriptors for Second-Order Tensors

The extraction of relevant features, that is, quantities that describe characteristic properties of the
tensor, is crucial to effective utilization. The definition of features is strongly related to the
applications and their questions as well as to the tensor properties
and their decomposition. For second-order tensors, scalar- and vector-related features are used.

Invariance of Second-Order Tensors

Second-order tensors are objects that have two indices and describe various physical
quantities, such as stress and strain. The invariance of second-order tensors refers to the property
that certain combinations of these tensors remain unchanged under coordinate transformations.
In other words, the underlying physical meaning of these tensors is preserved regardless of the
coordinate system used to represent them. To understand the invariance of second-order tensors,
we need to consider their transformation properties. Second-order tensors transform according to
a specific rule, known as the transformation law. This law allows us to relate the components of
the tensor in one coordinate system to the components in another coordinate system.

Invariance comes into play when we consider certain combinations or operations

involving second-order tensors. For example, the trace of a second-order tensor, which is the sum
of its diagonal elements, remains the same under coordinate transformations. This means that the
trace is an invariant quantity. Similarly, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a second-order
tensor are also invariant. These quantities characterize the behaviour of the tensor and are
independent of the coordinate system chosen. Understanding the invariance of second-order
tensors is crucial in many areas of physics and engineering. It allows us to formulate and solve
problems in a coordinate-independent manner, making our analysis more robust and applicable
to different situations. By recognizing the invariance of certain combinations of second-order
tensors, we can identify physical properties that are independent of the coordinate system and
focus on the fundamental aspects of the problem at hand.

Invariance of Second Order Tensors and Continuum Mechanics, Solid

Mechanics

In solid mechanics studis the behaviour of solid materials under different loads and
deformations. This field helps us understand how materials like metals, ceramics, and composites
respond to forces and how they can be designed to withstand various conditions. Tensor
invariance comes into play here because it allows us to describe and analyze the stress and strain
tensors, which are essential for studying the behaviour of solids. Continuum mechanics, on the
other hand, is a broader field that deals with the mechanics of continuous materials, such as
fluids and solids. It provides a mathematical framework to describe the behaviour of these
materials using tensors. Tensor invariance is crucial in continuum mechanics because it ensures
that the laws of physics remain consistent across different coordinate systems, allowing us to
make accurate predictions and calculations. Having expressed tensor property of tensors
remaining unchanged under certain transformations, such as rotations or coordinate system
changes.

This property is vital in many areas of engineering, including solid mechanics and
continuum mechanics. It allows us to express physical quantities, such as stress, strain, and
material properties, in a manner that is independent of the coordinate system used, ensuring
consistent and reliable analysis. Understanding tensor invariance helps engineers develop
accurate mathematical models, predict material behaviour, and design structures that can
withstand different conditions. It's a powerful tool that allows us to delve deeper into the
mechanics of solids and continua. In solid mechanics, the behaviour of solid materials under
different loads and deformations. This field helps us understand how materials like metals,
ceramics, and composites respond to forces and how they can be designed to withstand various
conditions. Tensor invariance comes into play here because it allows us to describe and analyze
the stress and strain tensors, which are essential for studying the behaviour of solids. Continuum
mechanics, on the other hand, is a broader field that deals with the mechanics of continuous
materials, such as fluids and solids. It provides a mathematical framework to describe the
behaviour of these materials using tensors. Tensor invariance is crucial in continuum mechanics
because it ensures that the laws of physics remain consistent across different coordinate systems,
allowing us to make accurate predictions and calculations. Understanding tensor invariance helps
engineers develop accurate mathematical models, predict material behaviour, and design
structures that can withstand different conditions. It's a powerful tool that allows us to delve
deeper into the mechanics of solids and continua.

The Jaumann Rate of Stress Tensor

In plasticity, we can use the invariance of second-order tensors to derive constitutive equations
that describe the relationship between stress and strain. One commonly used approach is the use
of the Jaumann rate of stress tensor, which is an objective measure of stress rate. Jaumann rate of
the stress tensor is a mathematical formulation used in the context of continuum mechanics to
describe the evolution of stress in a material undergoing plastic deformation. It accounts for the
plastic flow rule and the yield criterion, which are fundamental concepts in plasticity theory. Its
components and concepts include the following:

By considering the plastic flow rule and the yield criterion, we can relate the stress rate to the
strain rate. The strain rate tensor,
ε ij, can be related to the stress rate tensor through a constitutive equation, such as the isotropic
hardening model or the kinematic hardening model.

These constitutive equations allow us to describe the plastic behaviour of materials under
different loading conditions. They take into account factors such as the yield strength, hardening
coefficients, and the relationship between stress and strain.
 Stress Tensor (σ):
The stress tensor is a second-order tensor that describes the distribution of internal forces
within a material. It is usually represented by a 3x3 matrix in three-dimensional space.
The stress tensor is typically divided into two parts: the elastic part and the plastic part.
 Dσ
 Jaumann Rate of Stress :
dt
Dσ
The Jaumann rate of the stress tensor (often denoted as ) describes how the stress
dt
tensor changes over time. It includes both the elastic and plastic components of the stress
change and is given by the following equation:
Dσ ∂σ ∂σ
=( + (ε: )
dt ∂ε ∂ε

- The first term (∂σ/∂t) represents the change in stress due to time-dependent effects
(like thermal expansion or viscoelastic behaviour).
∂σ
- The second term (ε: ) represents the change in stress due to plastic deformation. ε
∂ε
∂σ
is the plastic strain rate tensor, and is the derivative of the stress with respect to the
∂ε
plastic strain, which is determined by the material's constitutive equations.
The Jaumann rate of stress tensor can also be defined as:
∂ σ ij
Dσ ij= + (ω ij × σ kj × σ ik × ω kij)
∂t
Where Dσ ij is the Jaumann rate of stress tensor, σ ij is the stress tensor, t is time, ω ijk is the
spin tensor, and the repeated indices imply summation.

 Plastic Flow Rule:

The plastic flow rule relates the plastic strain rate to the stress tensor (σ) and the yield
criterion. It is a crucial part of plasticity theory and is represented mathematically as:
∂f
ε = γ.
∂σ
 γ is the plastic multiplier, representing the rate of plastic deformation.
∂f
 is the derivative of the yield function (f) with respect to the stress tensor, which
∂σ
determines when yielding or plastic deformation occurs.

 Yield Criterion:
 The yield criterion is an equation that defines the conditions under which a material starts
to undergo plastic deformation. It is typically a function of the stress tensor and must be
satisfied for yielding to occur. Common yield criteria include the von Mises criterion,
Tresca (maximum shear stress) criterion, and others.

Incorporating the Jaumann rate of stress into a plasticity model involves solving a system
of differential equations that describe the evolution of stress and strain in a material during
plastic deformation. The specific form of these equations depends on the chosen yield criterion
and the material's constitutive behaviour (e.g., isotropic or kinematic hardening). The Jaumann
rate of stress, plastic flow rule, and yield criterion are essential components of plasticity theory,
helping us understand how materials respond to external loads and how they undergo plastic
deformation. The choice of specific models and equations will depend on the material being
studied and the context of the analysis.

Engineering Applications

By leveraging the invariance of second-order tensors, engineers can develop more

accurate models, optimize designs, and predict the behaviour of complex systems. It provides a
solid foundation for analyzing and understanding various physical phenomena in engineering.
One key application is in the study of material deformation and the prediction of plastic
behaviour. By understanding the invariance properties of second order tensors, we can analyze
how materials respond to external forces and predict their plastic deformation. This is crucial in
fields like engineering, where we need to design structures that can withstand different loading
conditions. Additionally, the invariance of second order tensors helps us establish constitutive
equations that describe the relationship between stress and strain in plastic materials. These
equations are fundamental in modelling and simulating plastic behaviour.
By studying the invariance of these tensors, we;
 Understand how materials respond to external forces and predict their plastic behaviour.
Plastic deformation occurs when a material undergoes permanent changes in shape or
size due to applied forces.
  The invariance of stress tensors allows us to analyze how materials respond to different
loading conditions. We can determine the principal stresses, which are the maximum and
minimum stress values experienced by the material. This information helps us identify
critical regions where plastic deformation is likely to occur.
 Similarly, the invariance of strain tensors helps us quantify the amount of deformation a
material undergoes. We can calculate the strain components in different directions and
determine how the material deforms under various loading scenarios.
 Using the invariance properties of stress and strain tensors, we can establish constitutive
equations that describe the relationship between stress and strain in plastic materials.
These equations, such as the famous von Mises yield criterion, help us model and
simulate the plastic behaviour of materials.

The invariance of second-order tensors has significant practical engineering applications include:
1. Structural Mechanics: In engineering structures, such as bridges and buildings, the invariance
of second-order tensors allows us to analyse stress and strain distributions. By considering the
invariance properties, we can accurately predict how these structures will behave under different
loading conditions.
2. Fluid Dynamics: The invariance of second-order tensors plays a crucial role in fluid flow
analysis. Tensors like the stress tensor and velocity gradient tensor help us understand the
behaviour of fluids and their interactions with solid surfaces. By considering the invariance
properties, we can accurately model fluid flow and optimize designs for better performance.
3. Material Science: In material science, second-order tensors are used to describe material
properties like conductivity, elasticity, and thermal expansion. The invariance of these tensors
allows us to study the behaviour of materials under different conditions and accurately predict
their response to external stimuli.
Overall, the invariance of second order tensors plays a crucial role in understanding
material deformation and predicting plastic behaviour. It provides us with valuable insights into
how materials respond to external forces and helps us design structures that can withstand
different loading conditions.
Challenges and Limitations

When it comes to working with invariance of second-order tensors, engineers face

several challenges and limitations. One of the main challenges is determining the appropriate
transformations that preserve the desired invariance properties of the tensor. It requires a deep
understanding of the underlying mathematical principles and the specific problem at hand.
Another challenge is the computational complexity involved in handling second-order tensors.
These tensors have multiple components and indices, making the calculations and manipulations
more complex compared to simpler data structures. Engineers need to develop efficient
algorithms and techniques to handle these tensors effectively.

Additionally, there may be limitations in terms of available data and resources. Invariance
requires a diverse and representative dataset that captures the variations and transformations
relevant to the problem. Gathering and curating such datasets can be time-consuming and
resource-intensive. Despite these challenges and limitations, engineers continue to push the
boundaries of working with invariance of second-order tensors. They develop innovative
techniques, algorithms, and frameworks to address these challenges and unlock the potential of
invariance in the engineering.

Conclusion

References