Wave Propagation - (Wave Propagation (1957) - A.Schure)

ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY SERIES
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WAVE
PROPAGATION
Edited by
Alexander Schure, Ph.D., Ed. D.
JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, INC.

116 West 14th Street • New York 11, N. Y.
Copyright March 1957 by
JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, INC.
All rights reserved. This book or parts thereof may

not be reproduced in any form or in any language
without permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 56-11339
Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE
A thorough understanding of the basic principles of wave propa-

gation is a most useful tool for the electronic technician, engineer
or amateur. Much of the satisfaction of transmitter work arises from
the awareness and best possible use of propagation variations occa-
sioned by natural phenomena. A working knowledge of essential
wave propagation factors is not too difficult to attain. This book
has been organized to accomplish this aim by helping the student
understand the more important ideas pertaining to wave propa-
gation.
Specific attention has been given to the nature and use of the
electromagnetic wave in such areas as wave motion, frequency-
wavelength relationships, radiation, field intensity, wave fronts and
polarization. Analyses are given of the natures of sky waves, ground
waves, wave reflection, refraction and diffraction as they pertain to
the propagation of electromagnetic waves. A general discussion of
the effect of atmosphere on radio transmission includes details of
the regions which exert different influences on the passage of an
electromagnetic wave, namely the ionosphere, stratosphere, and
troposphere. In addition to an explanation of ground wave and
sky wave propagation, some details are given dealing with scatter
propagation.
The total materials presented are sufficient to give an interested
reader the essential elements of wave propagation theory. Specific
discussions of antennas or transmission lines as they relate to and
affect wave propagation have not been included here, since these
are the subjects of separate review books in this series.
Grateful acknowledgment is made to the staff of the New
York Technical Institute for its assistance in the preparation of the
manuscript of this book.
New York, N. Y. A. s.
March 1957
V
CONTENTS
Chapter Page
1 Nature and Use of Electromagnetic Waves
2 How Electromagnetic Waves are Propagated 12
3 Effect of Atmosphere on Radio Transmission 18
4 Normal Tropospheric Propagation 31
5 Scatter Propagation . 37
6 Special Ionospheric Effects at VHF and UHF 47
vii
Chapter 1
NATURE AND USE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
1. lntrocludion
Propagation is the process of sending or transmitting energy

from one place to another. When applied to radio waves, it desig-
nates the conditions and methods governing the progress of these
waves from the time they leave the transmitting antenna until they
are intercepted by a receiving antenna. Quality and dependability
of radio transmission vary widely with such factors as time of day,
time of year, sunspot cycle, frequency, polarization, and the radio
path.
A knowledge of wave propagation is essential in understanding
the operation of radio communicaion, television, radar, and other
electronic systems.
All such systems use a transmitter to produce a signal, which
is then applied through a transmission line to a transmitting an-
tenna. The signal is radiated from this antenna in the form of
electromagnetic waves. A portion of the energy carried by these
waves may be absorbed in a given receiving antenna, from which it
is applied through another transmission line to the receiver. The
energy absorbed by each receiving system is so small that any
number of receiving antennas may intercept the transmissions
from one transmitter.
Figure 1 is a representation of a simple radio communication
system. Note that in this system the electromagnetic wave travels
2 WAVE PROPAGATION
(is propagated) through the earth's atmosphere, although this is

not a requirement for the utilization of electromagnetic radiations.
Radiations from distant galaxies reach the earth through a vir-
tually perfect vacuum.
The successful use of a radio communication system depends
primarily on the distance between the transmitter and the re-
ceiver, the sensitivity of the receiver, and the power and efficiency
of the transmitter. However, other factors such as atmospheric
noise, changes in the humidity and temperature of the air, and
RECEIVING
ANTENNA
RADIO
RECEIVER
Fig. 1. Radiation of spherical waves in a simple communications system.
the nature of the terrain between the receiver and transmitter can
modify signal transmissions even though the distance, transmitter
power level, and receiver sensitivity are all conducive to satisfactory
results under normal conditions. In order to understand and evalu-
ate these factors, it will be necessary to examine the nature of the
electromagnetic wave.
2. Wave Motion
An electromagnetic wave travels through space in much the

same manner as a wave in a pond of water. Consequently, the action
NATURE AND USE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 3
of waves in water can be used as a physical illustration of these

aspects of electromagnetic wave motion. When a stone falls into
a pond, ripples are formed, as shown in Fig. 2. These waves consist
of a series of regularly spaced crests and troughs, which move out-
ward in concentric circles from the point at which the falling
stone disturbed the water. The radii of these circles increase as
the distance from the point of disturbance increases. Therefore,
these waves are said to travel or propagate radially outward from
the point of disturbance.
The distance or separation between any two adjacent troughs
or crests is always the same. Since each crest and its adjacent trough
CRESTS OF
WAVE
TROUGHS OF
WAVE
POINT AT WHICH
FALLING STONE
STRIKES WATER
CREST
TROUGH
WATER
FRONT VIEW
Fig. 2. Waves in water.
form a single wave, the separation between two adjacent troughs

or crests is equal to the wrwelength and is designated as ,\ (lambda) .
The crest and trough of a water wave are at different vertical levels.
The difference between the crest (or trough) level and the average
level (level in absence of waves) is a quantity known as the wave
amplitude.
When a stone is dropped into a pond, the amplitude of the
first wave is larger than that of the second wave, the amplitude
4 WAVE PROPAGATION
of the second wave is larger than that of the third wave, and so
forth. Thus, the waves produced gradually diminish in amplitude
and ultimately disappear.
This action, of course, cannot be directly compared to that
of electromagnetic waves, because the electromagnetic wave is
produced continuously as long as a radio signal is being transmitted.
When the rate or frequency (times per second) at which waves
are produced has the value f, the waves will travel outward at a
velocity (V) equal to the product of the frequency (f) and the
wavelength (A) . Thus
V ,\f (I)
V
,\ -f-
V
f = ,\
The velocity of an electromagnetic wave in air is the same

for all frequencies and is nearly equal to 300,000,000 meters (186,
000 miles) per second.
Thus a wave alternating at a frequency of 500 kilocycles per
second (500,000 cycles per second) has a wavelength
,\ = ~ - !~~:~~~ = .372 miles or about 1964 feet
3. Radiation
Radio waves represent a form of electrical energy predicted

by James Maxwell nearly a century ago. Basically, they are made
up of constantly changing electric and magnetic fields, with the
total energy of the wave divided equally between the two.
Michael Faraday proposed a useful method of mapping an
electric field to show its direction and magnitude at a given point.
Once the intensity and direction of the field were known, he im-
agined a unit square drawn perpendicular to the field at that point
(Fig. 3A), and a sufficient number of lines cutting through the
square to represent the magnitude of the electric field at that point.
These lines of force are said to exist in the direction of the field
(note arrowhead) . Faraday explained the attraction and repulsion
between charged bodies by assuming that the lines of force are in
a continual state of tension (like rubber bands) , and that they

tend to repel each other laterally.
In Fig. 3B it can be seen that the lines of force leave the
negatively charged body perpendicular to the surface and enter the
positive body perpendicular to its surface. Since the lines are re-
pelled from one another and tend to contract, the bodies tend to
attract each other. In Fig. 3C the lines emerge from the two posi-
(A) (B)
(C)
Fig. 3. {A) Faraday's method of mapping field strength based upon the
number' of electric lines passing through a unit square normal to the surface.
Electric lines of force between (8) oppositely charged bodies and (C) bodies
having a like charge.
tive bodies shown and go to a negative body (too distant to show in

the illustration). Mutual repulsion between these lines tends to
create repulsion between the two bodies. It should be mentioned
that the lines of force are not physical realities, but are used only
to illustrate a somewhat elusive concept.
An electric field may be defined in another way. Assume that a
capacitor having a plate separation of five meters is charged to a
potential of 100 volts (Fig. 4) . Electric lines of force permeate the
volume between the plates, and will be everywhere constant in
density, save for an insignificant distortion at the ends. It is obvious
6 WAVE PROPAGATION
that if the potential at one plate is zero with respect to - IOO

volts at the other plate, there is a change of IOO volts in a
distance of 5 meters (or an increase of IOO volts/5 meters = 20 volts
per meter) . It should be understood from this that a difference in
potential exists between any two different points on a given electric
line of force. There need not be a physical source of voltage in the
region under consideration; reference to electric lines of force in
"free space" specifies their magnitude as a given voltage difference
per meter. Electric lines of force are vectors having direction and
ZERO VOLTS
l
20 VOLTS
PER METER 5 METERS
l
-100 VOLTS
____ l
Fig. 4. The electric fleld of a capadtor.
magnitude. They also represent the direction of force applied to a

small positively charged body placed in that field, in accordance
with the equation:
F (dynes)
E (statvolts per cm)
Q (Statcoulombs)
Now if the 100-volt source we have been considering were alter-
nating, a current would flow through the wires connecting the
capacitor with the source. The current would charge and discharge
the capacitor, causing a polarity reversal during each cycle in ac-
cordance with basic theory. What happens inside the capacitor,
however, cannot be completely described in terms of elementary
electron theory. The idea that a kind of current flows from plate to
plate inside the capacitor must be introduced.
It is a physical reality that an alternating voltage applied to
a capacitor produces a current that flows into one plate and out of
the other. This happens only when the voltage across the capacitor
is changing; i.e., when the electric field between the plates is varying
in magnitude. James Maxwell proposed that under these condi-

tions, the current entering one plate did not stop, but continued
to flow across the space between the plates. Indeed, one of Maxwell's
original assumptions (upon which his famous theory of electro-
magnetism was based) is that a change in an electric field is
equivalent in its electromagnetic effects to an actual flow of cur-
rent. Maxwell called this current a displacement current; today the
term space current is often applied.
Clearly then, a changing electric field always gives rise to a
type of current, or equivalent current, that actually flows through
space. In accordance with basic theory this space current - as well
as the actual current in the wires - leads the applied voltage of
the electric field in phase by 90 degrees. This concept is important
for a mature understanding of the propagation of radio waves.
4. The Magnetic Field
Magnets that are free to move in space behave very much like
electric poles in the sense that attraction and repulsion both occur,
depending upon the orientation of the poles of the magnets. More-
over, the magnitude of these forces, like those in an electrostatic
field, depends upon similar constants such as pole strength, separa-
tion, and the character of the medium in which the magnets are
immersed.
The parallelism between electric and magnetic poles immedi-
ately suggests that there is a magnetic field in existence in the vi-
cinity of magnetic poles. A magnetic field is often represented by
lines of force pointing in the direction of the field, or in the di-
ection of the force exerted upon a unit north pole placed in
the field
As we shall show later, electric and magnetic fields produced
by electric potentials and their accompanying currents are always
perpendicular to each other with respect to direction; this inflexible
"partnership" is one of the prime tenets of Maxwell's theory of
electromagnetic radiations, and has been amply proven in both
physical and mathematical terms by countless experiments.
5. Electromagnetic Waves
On the basis of classical theory, it can be shown that an ac-

celerating electric charge will always radiate energy in the form of
8 WAVE PROPAGATION
electromagnetic waves. In an antenna, electronic charges (elec-

trons) are made to accelerate, and this is what causes radiation.
If these radio waves arc emitted from a point source (a source
so small as to have only mathematical significance) they will ex-
pand spherically like a balloon being inflated. (See Fig. 5.) An
increment of energy in a specific direction is called a ray. The rays
Fig. 5. Spherical propaga,

tion from a point source.
are always perpendicular to the surface of the imaginary balloon,

and thus diverge as the balloon increases in size. As the energy
expands, its intensity per cubic unit of space must diminish, since
the total energy is spread over a larger total volume. At a great
distance, the surface of each successive "balloon" is nearly parallel
to those of its neighbors. (This explains why radio waves are usu-
ally considered parallel to one another, except near the source.)
This "surface" is called a wave front, and in relation to any point
through which it passes, it may be regarded as a plane surface.
If we examine a ray of a radio wave, we find that it is made

up of electric and magnetic fields. The fields are perpendicular
to one another and to the direction of travel (propagation) . The
fields vary sinusoidally at the frequency of the source.
The simplest type of electromagnetic wave is shown in Fig. 6.
Such a wave is a polarized wave; that is, the magnetic and electric
Eo
DIRECTION
OF PROPAGATION
( B)
Fig. 6. (A) E and H components of the eledromagnetlc wave. (B) Vedor

equivalent.
components do not oscillate in random directions, but are fixed. The

polarization of a radio wave is taken as the orientation of the
electric vector with respect to the earth. Thus a vertically polarized
10 WAVE PROPAGATION
wave (as shown in Fig. 6) possesses a vertical electric field (E)

and a horizontal magnetic field (H) . The vectorial method of
illustrating this is shown in Fig. 6B. For most communication pur-
poses, the radio wave is either horizontally or vertically polarized.
A fundamental relationship showing the instantaneous value
of the magnetic and electric fields as a function of velocity of
propagation, distance from the source, and frequency of oscillation
in terms of practical mks (meter-kilogram-second) units is:
Honst.) = H 0 sin 27rf (t - : ) (2)
E (Inst.) =E 0 sin 271'f ~- : ) (3)
Where: H(lnst.) = Instantaneous value of the magnetic vector in

amperes per meter.
E (Inst.) = Instantaneous value of the electric vector in
volts per meter.
H .. = Maximum value of the magnetic vector.
Eo = Maximum value of the electric vector.
t = Time (in seconds) required for the wave to
reach a determined point in space.
f = Frequency in cps.
X = Distance in meters.
C = Velocity of electromagnetic radiation.
(300,000,000 meters per second) .
The peak amplitude of either field at a given distance from
the source may be given as a function of the radiated power:
E0 = 120H0 = -60P
r2 (4)
Where: P = Radiated power in_ watts (joules/sec) .
r = Distance from the source in meters.
12071' and 60 carry the dimensions of ohms.
6. Review Questions
(1) What factors affect the successful use of a radio communication system?
(2) Explain the nature of electromagnetic wave motion.
(3) What is a wavelength?
(4) Explain the meaning of the formula V >. f. =
(5) What is an induction field?

(6) How is electromagnetic wave energy radiated?·
(7) Define: volts per meter; space current.
(8) Give the fundamental relationship expressing the peak amplitude of
either field at a given distance from the source as a function of the
radiated power.
(9) The electromagnetic wave is composed of E and H field components.
What is the phase and amplitude relationship between these components?
(10) How does a horizontally polarized wave differ from a vertically polarized
wave?
Chapter 2
HOW ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ARE PROPAGATED
7. Sky Waves
Electromagnetic waves can travel between a transmitter and

a receiver in two principal ways. The first of these, known as sky
wave propagation, is used primarily for long distance radio trans-
mission.
In sky wave propagation, as described in more detail in Chaps.
3 and 5, the electromagnetic waves do not travel directly between
the transmitter and receiver. Instead, these waves travel from the
antenna up into the earth's atmosphere until they strike electrified
regions (these regions are described in more detail in Chap. 3) ,
where their direction is then changed downward toward the re-
ceiving antenna.
Since the electrical characteristics of these regions change from
day to day and even from hour to hour, sky wave propagation
is variable. At times the sky wave is reflected downward at such
an angle that it will not strike the receiving antenna, and thus no
sky wave reception can occur.
8. Ground Waves
The second method by which electromagnetic waves travel

from transmitter to receiver is known as ground wave propagation.
Short distance radio transmission (for example, where a radio
12
HOW ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ARE PROPAGATED 13
broadcast originating in a city is received in the same city) takes

place primarily by means of ground waves.
In ground wave propagation, as described in more c.letail in
Chap. 3, the electromagnetic waves travel along the earth directly
from the transmitter to the receiver. Propagation of the ground
wave is determined by the electrical characteristics of the earth
(note that a portion of the path can be over land and another
DIRECTION OF
DIRECTION
E FIELD FOROF/ E FIELD FOR
I NCI DE NT WAVE REFLECTED Q
WAVE -<_'(;
~"-'c, 0
~·l
~\,,~
\ ::(!~
Fig. 7. Wave Reflection.
portion over water) and by the manner in which the wave is bent
or refracted because of the curvature of the earth. These electrical
characteristics differ from place to place, but do not change with
time. Consequently, ground wave propagation between a given
transmitter and a given receiver generally remains constant.
9. Combination of Sky and Ground Waves
Occasionally, a transmitter and receiver will have to be placed

in a location where reception is difficult. In a typical situation of
this kind, ground wave reception by itself is not satisfactory, while
the sky wave reception is too erratic.
When sky wave and ground wave transmission are used to-
gether, however, the received signal resulting from this combination
can be of sufficient quality to provide adequate reception under
average conditions. Unfortunately, the combination of sky waves
and ground waves is often troublesome, because they get out of
phase with each other and cause selective fading, as explained in
Chap. 5.
14 WAVE PROPAGATION
10. Wave Reflection
Electromagnetic waves can be reflected from certain surfaces as

light is reflected from a mirror.
Large smooth surfaces of good electrical conductivity, such as
copper plate, are good reflectors for electromagnetic waves. The
surface of the earth can be a good reflector, and (as will be shown
in Chap. 3) the electrically conductive layers of the earth's at-
mosphere are also good reflectors.
Figure 7 shows an electromagnetic wave being reflected from
a smooth electrically-conductive surface. As in the case of light
waves, the angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of re-
flection. Note also the change of phase of the E field.
11. Combined Refraction and Reflection
For reasons that will be analyzed in the next chapter, dif-

fe,ent regions of the upper atmosphere are subject to electrical
REGION OF
LOWER ELECTRICAL
ACTIVITY
Fig. 8. Reflection and refraction of an electromagnetic wave as It passes

the boundary between two media of different electrical density.
disturbances of various intensities. Although the velocity of an

electromagnetic wave is generally considered constant in a vacuum
- that is, in a medium such as "empty" space - the presence of
electrical particles in varying states of excitation produces changes
in the wave's velocity. In highly electrified regions, the velocity of
propagation is greater than in a space where little or no electrifi-

cation exists. As the medium changes its character due to the ac-
tion of the sun or of cosmic rays, boundaries between regions of
A~
NON ·ELECTRIFIED
REGION
/4 ~ ~
:fjjf WAVEFRONTS
~
~
~
Fig. 9. Refraction due to change of velocity.
differing electrification make their appearance; these are not sharply

defined because, by the very nature of the causative agents, the
variations in wave-carrying ability are inevitably gradual. For the
purposes of this preliminary discussion, however, we shall assume
a sharp separation between media of different atmospheric char-
acter and call this the boundary, as in Fig. 8.
An electromagnetic wave, rising from the earth and striking
the boundary at an angle of 90 degrees, is slowed down uniformly
all along its wave front. However, if the wave meets the boundary
at an angle other than 90 degrees, as in Fig. 8, one portion of the
wave is reflected and another portion penetrates the boundary.
As it emerges on the other side, its direction is no longer the
same as that of the incident wave. This bending process is called
refraction and may be explained by referring to Fig. 9 and the
following text.
Consider wave front A-B. Since the speed of the wave front is
greater in the electrified than in the nonelectrified region, point
A of the incident wave front advances over distance A-A' in the
same period of time in which point B moves through the smaller
distance B-B'. B-B' is a smaller distance because the velocity is lower
in this region.
16 WAVE PROPAGATION
As a result of the inequality of the distances covered in a unit

time, the wave front no longer presents the same angle to the
boundary as it did in the incident wave. Hence the direction of
propagation has been altered.
Refraction always occurs when an electromagnetic wave passes
from one medium to another at an angle other than 90 degrees,
provided that the two media have different intensities of electrifica-
E FIELD BUILDING
-...._ - ..,_ -..1. _ ...1.----AREA OF

_,--.:::.--DIFFRACTION
_.....,.-..,.- I
WAVE PROPAGATION DIRECTION
Fig. 10. Wave diffraction.
tion. The extent to which refraction occurs is dependent upon the

ratio of velocities in the two media. This ratio is called the re-
fractive index and may be used to compute the amount of bending
that may be expected at any angle.
12. Wave Diffraction
When a light wave in an otherwise dark room shines on the

edge of an opaque object, it will be found that the object will not
cast a sharply outlined shadow; the shadow will be somewhat
fuzzy, because the light waves are bent or diffracted around the
edge of the object and decrease the area of total shadow. The dif-
fraction of light waves is very small.
Electromagnetic radio waves are diffracted in the same man-
ner, but to a greater extent, as shown in Fig. 10. Thus they can be
received even when there is an obstruction such as a building be-
tween a transmitter and a receiver.
Diffraction can be an important consideration for long distance
reception, because the earth, due to its curvature, can obstruct waves
travelling directly from a transmitter to a receiver. To a small
degree, diffraction overcomes this obstruction. This effect is de-

scribed in more detail in Chap. 4.
13. Review Questions
(1) What are the two principal ways in which waves can travel between a
transmitter and a 1·eceiver.
(2) Wave propagation over short distances normally invoh·es sky wave propa-
gation. True or False?
(3) Is sky wave propagation more useful than ground wave propagation?
Explain.
(4) Does wave refraction always occur when a wave passes from one medium
into another?
(5) Define refractive index.
(6) Can radio waves be received when there is an obstruction between the
transmitter and the receiver?
(7) What is the difference between refraction and diffraction?
(8) The refractive index of water determines the amount of refraction of a
wave passing from air into water at an angle of 90 degrees. True or False?
Chapter 3
EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERE ON RADIO TRANSMISSION
14. General Discussion
The atmosphere of the earth is not uniform. Moisture content,

density, and temperature changes in the atmosphere occur erratic-
ally at various times. Moreover, the composition of the atmosphere
is affected by geographical location. This lack of uniformity in-
fluences the passage of electromagnetic waves through the atmos-
phere in many ways. A knowledge of the composition of the earth's
atmosphere is essential to an understanding of the effects of at-
mosphere on the uniformity of wave propagation. As will be ex-
plained in more detail in the remaining sections of this chapter,
the atmosphere can be regarded as being formed from three separate
adjacent regions, each of which exerts different influences on the
passage of an electromagnetic wave. These regions are known
respectively as the troposphere, the stratosphere, and the iono-
sphere.
An understanding of the effects of these regions is further
complicated by variations in the frequency of the transmitted
waves; low frequency waves behave differently from high frequency
waves. For ease in identification, radio frequencies are normally
classified in ranges as shown in Table I.
15. Wave Types
There are a number of paths by which a radio wave may reach

a receiving antenna. Waves traveling these paths are generally
18
EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERE ON RADIO TRANSMISSION 19
given specific names. By far the most important ones are the ground
wave, the sl,y wave, and the space wave.
The term ground wave is generally applied to waves that travel
from the transmitting to the receiving antenna with the bottom ot
the wave front touching the ground, as illustrated in Fig. 11. The
wave is always vertically polarized, because any horizontal compon•
ent existing in the wave is essentially shorted by the earth.
As the ground wave progresses outward from the transmitting
antenna, it sets up a minute electrical current within the earth
directly beneath the wave. The energy for this earth current is
always supplied by the wave above; the two are inseparable. In
addition to creating this current, the wave will continue to supply
energy in order to lessen inherent power losses within the earth.
These power losses are determined by the frequency of operation
and the conductive properties of the ground. Clearly, then, the
ground wave will suffer less attenuation over salt water than over
dry, sandy soil. The power losses, however, are not purely resistive,
but significantly reactive. For this reason the frequency of the wave
is the primary determinant in ground wave propagation.
As the frequency is increased, earth losses increase, so that for
frequencies much above one megacycle the ground wave is virtually
useless, except for local coverage. As a matter of fact, at television
frequencies, the attenuation becomes so great that the ground wave
is essentially useless at distances as short as one mile from the
transmitter.
The energy that reaches the receiving antenna by virtue of
reflection from or refraction by an ionized layer of air encircling
Table I
Frequency Range
below 30 kc very low frequency (vlf)
30 kc to 300 kc low frequency (If)
300 kc to 3 me medium frequency (mf)
3 me to 30 me high frequency (hf)
30 me to 300 me very high frequency (vhf)
300 me to 3000 me ultra high frequency (uh£)
3000 me to 30,000 me super high frequency (shf)
30,000 me to 300,000 me extremely high frequency (ehf)
20 WAVE PROPAGATION
the earth is called the sky wave. Most of the long distance com-
munication carried on below a frequency of 30 me is accomplished
by means of this sky wave. (Sec Fig. 12.)
16. The Ionosphere
The upper regions of the earth's atmosphere absorb a large

amount of radiant energy from the sun, which produces significant
ionization of the air molecules. It is this region that reflects or
MANY WAVELENGTHS AWAY

FROM POINT SOURCE, ANY
SEGMENT OF WAVEFRONT
IS CONSIDERED AS A
PLANE WAV~
Fig. 11. Propagation of ground waves.
refracts the sky wave back to earth. Because of the variation in at-
mospheric properties at different altitudes, the ionosphere tends to
form in layers, the properties of each layer being dependent upon
the specific type of radiation reaching it from the sun and the
atmospheric characteristics of a given altitude.
The mechanism by which radiation from the sun produces
ionization cannot be adequately described by classical theory. In
terms of modern quantum mechanics, photons1 of different ener-
gies (but all traveling at the speed of light) strike these molecules
and produce a number of effects, depending upon specific photon
t Planck (18.~8-1948) introduced the idea that light was made up of ele-
mental particles called photons or quanta; this explains numerous phenomena
that could not then be justified by the classical wave theory of light. Planck
stated that the energy (in ergs) contained in a photon of light was propor-
tional to its frequency, with a constant of proportionality known as Planck's
constant.
E = hf
Where: E Energy of photon in ergs.
h
f
=
= Planck's constant = 6.56 X I0-27 erg sec.
Frequency of light in cycles per second.
energies. (Gas molecules normally exist in their lowest rotational

and vibrational states.) Photons of definite kinetic energy excite
the molecules to higher states of rotation and vibration, and are
absorbed in the process. Other photons of different kinetic energy
ionize individual atoms, and are also absorbed in the process. It
is this latter phenomenon in which we are most interested.
An ionized atom, by definition, is one that has lost or gained
one or more orbital electrons. Since the negative electrons and
positive protons cancel each other in a neutral, un-ionized atom, the
removal or gain of an electron leaves the remaining atom with a
net positive or negative charge.
Ionization by virtue of photon collision can occur in any
atmospheric density, but only in the rarefied atmosphere existing
above 50 miles from the earth can the ionization, once produced,
Fig. 12. Sky wave propagation.
exist for any appreciable time. This is possible because of the near-
vacuum that exists at these altitudes. Free electroris and ion density
are so low that the chances of their collision (and consequent re-
combination into neutral atoms) are relatively small. This is not,
however, a hard and fast rule, since the ionosphere is over one
hundred miles thick. The ionization of its lower levels is keyed
directly to the amount of sunlight, whereas the air density of the
upper extremities is sufficiently low to allow residual ionization to
last throughout the night, when the sun's radiation is absent.
If a sky wave enters the ionosphere, the electric field of the
wave exerts a physical force upon the free electrons and ions
22 WAVE PROPAGATION
existing in this region. The amount of force may be calculated by

means of equation I. The electric field of any radio wave varies
sinusoidally, and therefore the force exerted will tend to make
both electrons and ions oscillate sinusoidally, in unison with the
applied field. Since an ion has more than 1800 times the mass
of an electron, ionic movement may be neglected; only the electrons
are appreciably affected by the electric field. The distance over which
an unimpeded electron moves varies inversely as the frequency ol
the wave; i.e., at a low frequency there is more time, and thus
the electron moves a greater distance before the electric field
reverses.
As mentioned previously, any accelerating charge radiates elec-
tromagnetic waves. Thus these electrons, which absorb energy when
set in motion, reradiate it by virtue of that same motion. Because
of a phase difference between the oscillating electron current and
the original electric field, the direction of re-radiated energy is
not the same as that of the incident wave. The direction is de-
pendent upon the electron density; it always takes the path toward
lower electron density. The effect is analogous to having the inci-
dent wave bent as it travels through a portion of the ionosphere.
For this reason the bending of the wave is best described with
optical analogies.
An electric field in the ionosphere forces the free electrons to
oscillate sinusoidally. Without regard to their reradiation, these
moving particles constitute an electron (or actual conductive)
current - similar to the type that exists in a wire - whose magni-
tude is proportional to the instantaneous velocity of these electrons.
The motion of the free electrons lags the applied field in phase
by 90 degrees, in accordance with the laws of simple harmonic
motion. This means that the electron current also lags the applied
field by 90 degrees.
It should now be clear that the current flowing through a
given portion of space in the ionosphere is made up of two com-
ponents: the previously described space current, which leads the
electric field by 90 degrees, and the electron current, which lags
the electric field by 90 degrees. The two currents tend to subtract,
resulting in a net reduction in the space current. The net space
current flowing between any two points in a medium is directly
proportional to the dielectric constant of that medium, hence any
reduction in the space current is equivalent to a reduction in the
dielectric constant below what it would have been had the electron
current not been present. Since the dielectric constant for air is
essentially I, it follows that it is less than l in the ionosphere,
where there is an electron current. The extent of the reduction is
principally dependent upon the electron density.
The optical analogy may now be introduced, because the re-
fractive index of any portion of the ionosphere is equal to the
square root of its dielectric constant; that is,
n=yk (5)
Where: n = refractive index
Where: k = dielectric constant
Moreover, the phase velocity of any wave is inversely propor-
tional to the refractive index. That is, phase velocity = c/n
where c is the velocity of light in a vacuum. Putting equation 5
in reciprocal form we have:
1 1
(6)
"=v"°k
Multiplying both sides of the equation by c, the velocity of light
in a vacuum:
C C
(7)
n y7c
But c/n is equal to the phase velocity, hence
phase velocity = _c_ (8)

yk
The most significant part of the above is that the wave's phase
velocity will be greater as the dielectric constant is reduced. In
fact, since the dielectric constant is less than I, the phase velocity
will actually exceed the speed of light.
Imagine a wave front entering the ionosphere at an angle (J.
Since the top part of the wave front will enter the ionosphere
first, its velocity will be greater than that of the lower part of
the wave front, which has not yet entered. Under the above condi-
tions one of two things must happen: either the wave front breaks
up, or it bends in the direction shown. The latter happens, and
this may be justified by using classical Huygen constructions. As
the wave front continues in its penetration of the ionosphere, the
top part of the wave front will always be in contact with a region
24 WAVE PROPAGATION
of higher electron density, and will thus have a greater velocity,

causing a continual bending (or refraction) of the wave. The exact
direction the wave takes is governed by Snell's law. (See Fig. 13~
n = s!n<f>1 ( 9)
sm4>,
Where: 4>1 The angle that the direction of propagation makes
with the normal to a unit volume of space in the
ionosphere containing a particular electron densi-
ty (labeled B). The wave front enters this unit
volume of space from a different unit volume of
space, containing a different electron density (lab-
eled A).
ef>r = The angle that the wave front makes with the
normal as it proceeds through this unit volume (B)
of space in the ionosphere.
n = The relative index of refraction between the two
unit volumes being considered (A and B).
This is shown in Fig. 12. Note that, since the ionosphere varies
in electron density (becoming progressively greater as the middle is
approached) , the wave continues to suffer a refraction as it pro-
gresses in the medium. If the electron density is sufficient, or the
ionosphere thick enough, the wave is returned to earth as shown.
17. Layers or Regions of the Ionosphere
The term ionosphere was first applied broadly to an ionized

region above the earth. Upon investigation, however, it was found
that the ionosphere was split into a number of layers or regions,
corresponding to altitudes where ionic density was at a maximum.
Layers are formed because at different altitudes there are dif-
ferent atmospheric properties, and differences in the sun's radiation.
As an example, the highest regions are produced principally by
ultraviolet radiation. On the other hand, cosmic rays, with their
greater penetrating power, are responsible for some of the lower
region ionization. During sun-spot disturbances, when cosmic ray
radiation is at a maximum, the lowest region is often intensely
ionized, bringing about communication failure at certain fre-
quencies.
The regions vary in ionic density and height above the earth,
depending upon whether or not the area is in daylight - and, with
some regions, depending on the time of day or night. The four

principal daytime regions are called the D, E, Fl, and F2, regions,
as illustrated in Fig. 14.
The lowest of these regions is the D region. It is at such a
low altitude (30 to 55 miles) that the molecules, once ionized,
quickly recombine because of the higher air density. For the same
reason, the degree of ionization at any time is governed by the
amount of sunlight. Far from being a good reflector of radio waves,
the D region is responsible for most of the low frequency sky wave
INOIIMAL
Fig. 13. Angles between

Incident and emerging wave-
fronts and the normal to
adjacent volumes of differ-
ent electron densities In the
Ionosphere.
attenuation. Much of the energy absorbed by the free electrons

from an incident wave is lost in the form of heat through collision
of these electrons with un-ionized air molecules.
The collisions may wholly or partially impede the re-radiation
of the wave as it passes through the region, depending on the num-
ber of molecules present, the amount of ionization of the medium,
the frequency of the incident sky wave, and the distance the wave
travels through the medium. During the middle of the day, when
the D region ionization is at a maximum, the effect is particularly
evident.
D region absorption varies inversely as the frequency squared.
It becomes an increasing deterrent to daytime communication as
the frequency dips below 6 or 7 me - and absorption reaches a
26 WAVE PROPAGATION
maximum at about me. Below this frequency, D region penetra-

tion decreases, and so does the absorption.
The E region is the lowest region that is effective in returning
the sky wave to earth, and thus affording long distance communica-
tion. In many respects, however, it resembles the D region. Its
height (about 65 miles) is sufficient to insure that a relatively low
amount of electron collision with air molecules will occur, except
for periods of high ionization. Its height, however, is not sufficient
NIGHT DAY
F2
...t
Fig. 14. Variation of Ioni-
zation {electron density) for
the Ionospheric layers under
:c
Cl) daytime and nighttime con-
iii ditions.
:c
IONIZATION -
to allow much residual ionization. Therefore, at noon, when the

ionization is most intense, E region absorption becomes pronounced.
Another important region for communication is the F2 region.
The F2 region is the most prominent, and the most intensely io-
nized region of the ionosphere. The rarefied atmosphere at its
height (150 to 250 miles) is sufficient to allow a high degree of
residual ionization. The ionization is most intense at about noon;
then it gradually decreases, reaching a minimum just before sun-
rise. Its height varies with sun-spot activity, season, and even time
of day.
The F2 region often splits into two distinct regions during
the day. The new region is termed the Fl region, while the original
main region retains the F2 designation. The main effect that the
Fl region has on sky wave communication is to introduce some
additional absorption. Thus, during the night the over-all ioniza-
tion of the atmosphere is lower than during the day. The Fl layer
rejoins the F2 layer, making a single F2 layer; the E layer almost
completely disappears.
The extent to which a given wave is refracted in the ionosphere
is a function of the refractive index. The refractive index is a func-
tion of the number of free electrons per cubic centimeter and the
frequency.
(10)
Where: n the index of refraction.

N the number of free electrons per cubic centimeter.
f the frequency of the sky wave in kilocycles.
From examination of the above formula, it can be seen that
n must always - for all real values - be less than 1 (or zero). The
ratio 81 N /f2 is the factor that determines whether the wave will
be returned to earth because of refraction in a region, or whether
the value will be attenuated when passing through the region. If
the ratio is less than 1, n is real and the wave is refracted without
significant attenuation. If the wave's angle (unless angle from
normal is specified, the angle is measured with respect to the earth
or the tangent to the ionosphere) of penetration in the region is
low enough, and the region thick enough, the wave will be re-
turned to earth. If the ratio is greater than one, n is imaginary and
the wave is attenuated. The attenuation would be linear with dis-
tance of penetration if the layer were homogeneous. Because of
the concentration of free electrons at the center, the attenuation
is more exponential in nature. Attenuation under these circum-
stances is roughly analogous to a waveguide that is operating below
the cutoff frequency - the phase velocity approaches infinity and
the group velocity approaches zero.
18. Angle of Incidence
If a wave enters a region perpendicularly, there obviously

can be no refraction. What does happen is that the wave will
penetrate the layer until N increases to the point at which the
refractive index is zero (or the ratio of 81N/f2 is I). If there is
sufficient electron density within the region, or if the frequency is
low enough, this value of refractive index can be achieved - and
the wave is reflected and returned to earth. Of the two variables
(electron density and frequency) the only one we have any control
over is the frequency, and thus the highest frequency that can be
returned at an incident angle of 90 degrees is called the critical
frequency. If the frequency is increased above this critical value,
28 WAVE PROPAGATION
the wave can only be returned to earth if the incident angle with
the tangent to the region is less than 90 degrees.
19. Critical Angle
If a wave above the critical frequency is to be returned to

earth it must be radiated at a sufficiently low angle with respect
to the earth's surface to insure refraction. The highest angle of
radiation that permits the radio waves of a given frequency to be
returned to earth by a region is called the critical angle for that re-
gion. Examples of this are shown in Fig. 15. Because radio waves
Fig. 15. The effect of the angle of radiation on sky wave transmission.
travel in an approximately straight line from the transmitter to

the ionosphere, the angle of incidence to the ionosphere is 90
degrees minus the radiation angle from the transmitting antenna
to the ground.
Clearly, as the frequency is increased, increased attention must
be paid to the angle of radiation if penetration of the ionosphere,
and subsequent loss of the signal, is to be avoided. Each region has
a critical frequency and a critical angle for frequencies above the
critical value. Often one region will be penetrated (because the
sky wave may exceed either or both values) and still the signal
may be refracted from a higher region, if it has sufficient electron
density. This is shown in Fig. 15, where ray I is easily refracted
by the E region because it enters below the E region critical
angle. Ray 3 penetrates the E region but is returned to earth by
the F2 region because it is below the F2 region critical angle. Ray
4 also penetrates the E region. It enters the F2 region at its critical
angle and is returned to earth. Ray 5 penetrates both regions and
is lost in space. This diagram applies 'for one frequency only. It
a lower frequency is used, higher critical angles for both regions
are present; conversely, if the frequency is increased, both regions
have lower critical angles. If the frequency is increased sufficiently,
there comes a time when, even if a wave is emitted from the trans-
mitter parallel to the earth, it will exceed the critical angle for
any region. This condition is reached at about 30 me. Above it, the
sky wave cannot be used for reliable communication.
20. Skip
If the critical frequency of the ionosphere has been exceeded,

and hence there exists a critical angle, there is a minimum ground
distance from the transmitter at which the sky wave will be re-
turned to earth. Note that in Fig. 15 Ray 2 is incident to the E
region at its critical angle. Note where the refracted wave reaches
the ground. If the critical angle is exceeded, the signal is lost -
yet the distance between the transmitter and the point where the
sky wave returns to earth is too great for communication with the
ground wave. This is a "silent" zone that encircles the transmitter
from the point where the ground wave fades out to the point where
the sky wave is first heard. The skip distance is denoted by the
minimum terrestial distance from the transmitter to the point of
sky wave return.
As the frequency is raised the skip distance increases, because
of a lowering of the critical angle. For communication to a point
at a certain distance from the transmitter, and at a certain time
of day, and season, there exists a maximum usable frequency (ab-
breviated MUF) that may be used for sky wave communication.
Each ionospheric region has is own MUF for communication over
a given distance from the transmitter. This information is made
available in chart form for commercial services.
30 WAVE PROPAGATION
21. Sporadic E Reflection
In addition to the regular E region ionization there often

exists within that region a thin intensely ionized region called a
sporadic E "cloud." Sporadic E clouds vary in size from one to
several hundred miles across. They usually drift from place to place,
and appear and disappear in a most unpredictable manner, during
both day and night.
A sporadic E cloud has a rather well defined boundary, and
as a rule, waves are reflected from its surface, rather than refracted.
They have no critical frequency. As the frequency of a vertical
wave is increased, the returning signal dissipates to a non-usable
value. The clouds have no critical angle either, although again, if
the sky wave is of a high enough frequency and strikes the cloud
at too high an angle, little of the signal will be returned.
Because of their intense ionization, sporadic E clouds are often
able to return to earth waves of much higher frequency than 30 me.
If the cloud is correctly situated between transmitter and receiver,
it can greatly enhance normal E region communication. Great dis-
tances have been covered on frequencies up to 50 me and higher
by using sporadic E reflection. The great disadvantage inherent in
this type of communication is that it is unreliable. Cloud·s appear,
vary in ionization intensity and location, and then disappear with
an utter lack of regularity. The source of sporadic E ionization is
not fully understood.
(1) Why does the composition of the atmosphere affect wave propagation?
(2) Define the three regions of the atmosphere.
(3) What is the frequency range of medium frequency waves?
(4) What is the primary determinant in ground wave propagation?
(5) Describe the four ionized layers of the atmosphere.
(6) Explain the process of ionization.
(7) Define critical frequency.
(8) How does the critical angle control wave reflection?
(9) Define "skip"; "silent zone"; "skip distance".
(IO) What is sporadic E reflection?
Chapter 4
NORMAL TROPOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
23. Space Waves
To distinguish it from the ground wave and sky wave, propa-

gation in the lowest region of the Earth's atmosphere is often
called tropospheric propagation or s,pace wave propagation. This
type of wave transmission relies on neither ground currents nor
ionospheric refraction or reflection. It is the wave used in "line of
sight" communication (when transmitting and receiving antennas
are within sight of one another).
The space wave commonly consists of two components: the
direct ray and the ground reflected ray, as illustrated in Fig. 16A.
If the antennas are sufficiently close to each other, both of these
rays usually reach the receiving antenna, although in different
proportions. The ground reflected ray is usually the weaker of the
two because of the losses suffered during reflection from the earth.
The direct ray suffers about the same attenuation as a wave in
free space. At the receiving antenna, the total signal is the vector
sum of these two components.
The transmitting and receiving antennas are usually quite far
apart in relation to their elevation above the ground, so that the
length of the path of the reflected ray deviates little from that of
the direct ray. The reflected wave suffers a 180-degree phase shift
when it rebounds from the ground, and so (neglecting earth losses
during reflection), if the two rays traveled the same distance, they
would add vectorially to zero, resulting in complete cancellation
at the receiving antenna.
31
32 WAVE PROPAGATION
Fortunately, the reflected ray does travel a slightly greater dis-

tance, hence the net phase difference at the receiving antenna is
never 180 degrees. In this idealized case, the actual phase difference
is determined purely by the path difference in terms of wavelength,
not linear units. In other words, the net signal received under
(A)
(B)
Fig. 16. {A) The direct and reflected ray components of the space wave.
(B) The shadow zone.
these conditions is dependent largely upon the frequency used.

For example, if the wavelength of operation is 360 meters, and if
the path difference is 2 meters, the phase shift away from 180 de-
grees would be only 2 degrees. This would still allow a 178-degree
phase differential to exist between the direct and the reflected
rays, resulting in almost complete cancellation at the receiving an-
tenna. If, however, the wavelength of operation is 4 meters, the
same 2 meters of path difference would produce a phase difference
of 180 degrees, completely cancelling the reflective phase shift of
180 degrees. The two rays would, in this case, add algebraically at
the receiving antenna and result in a signal nearly double the
strength of either ray.
NORMAL TROPOSPHERIC PROPAGATION 33
It should be clear from the above that at low frequencies, the

space wave is of little use because of this cancellation; only at
higher frequencies where the path difference becomes a significant
proportion of the wavelength used does the space wave become an
important means of communication. Above 30 me, where the
ground wave is quickly attenuated and the sky wave is not returned
to earth, the space wave is often the only means of communication
between two points.
24. The Radio Horizon
The theoretical conditions presented above are usually com-

plicated by practical limitations. For instance, the earth is not a
perfect conductor, hence some of the ground reflected signal is
lost in the process of reflection. For the same reason, the phase
shift of reflection is never exactly 180 degrees. In addition, the
curvature of the earth causes the reflected ray to change from a
plane to a divergent wave. This last factor in itself is sufficient at
low grazing angles to reduce significantly the reflected signal
strength at the receiving antenna. Because of these losses, the total
signal at the receiver is never exactly canceled, no matter what
the frequency may be. Nevertheless, practical deviations from the
theoretical conditions are not great enough to invalidate the con-
clusions drawn from the idealized example.
To lessen the received signal's dependence upon the relative
phase difference of the two rays, a beam is usually formed that
concentrates most of the space wave energy in the direct way. This
is the job of a well designed transmitting antenna.
As a result of the earth's curvature, there exists a definite
horizon to the space wave, beyond which there exists a shadow
zone that cannot be reached by the direct or the ground reflected
wave (Fig. 16B). Note that in the figure the radio horizon and
optical horizon are not the same. Although previously the dielec-
tric constant of free space and the atmosphere in general were
taken as one, this is not strictly so. Temperature, density, pressure,
and water vapor content of the air lessen as altitude is increased.
This has an effect similar to that of ionospheric free electrons; i.e.,
the dielectric constant is reduced with an increase of altitude. If in-
dividual rays of a plane wave travel at different altitudes (as they
usually do), the higher ones will travel faster, and the wave will be
34 WAVE PROPAGATION
refracted slightly towards the earth. The bending will vary with
weather conditions and will become more pronounced as the rate
of change with an increase in altitude of these atmospheric para-
meters increases.
25. Antenna Height
It is often important to know just how far a transmitting and

receiving antenna can be separated without going below the radio
horizon. A simple relationship exists between the distances of sepa-
ration and the height of both antennas.
(12)
Where: D Distance in miles between receiving and transmit-
ting antenna.
Hr = Height in feet of receiving antenna.
Ht = Height in feet of transmitting antenna
The distance from the transmitting antenna to the radio
horizon can be derived by considering the radical containing Ht.
D (to horizon) = ~ = -../"2yJ:f; = 1.41 v'1Ii" (13)
The shadow zone beyond the radio horizon, or behind a terrestial
Fig. 17. Duct propagation.
obstruction (mountain, building, etc.) is not as sharply defined

as Fig. 16B might indicate. If the receiving antenna is located
behind a mountain, the field strength will decrease as the depth
of the receiving antenna in the shadow increases, in terms of the
wavelength of the received signal. Therefore, the line of demarca-
tion between line-of-sight signal and shadow attenuation becomes
greater as the frequency is increased (and the wavelength is de-
NORMAL TROPOSPHERIC PROPAGATION 3S
creased) . The effect is clearly seen in the difference in shadow zone

signal strength between television Channel 13 (210-216 me) and
Channel 2 (54-60 me) .
In many cases, if the terrain is rough in line-of-sight com-
munication, the received signal strength is actually greater than
it would be if the terrain were flat. This is because the rough
ground scatters and partially blocks the ground reflected ray, thus
avoiding phase cancellation. Even in the shadow zone, the signal
strength is largely affected by the roughness of the earth. The
roughness causes a diffraction of the wave down into the shadow
zone. This is such an important contribution to shadow zone signal
that the shadow zone is often called the diffraction zone.
26. Duct Propagations
Often there is an abnormal vanauon in atmospheric condi-

tions that has a great effect on the propagation of the space wave.
Sometimes the moisture content of the air near the ground is great,
but decreases rapidly with an increase in altitude. This change
is usually accompanied by marked temperature variations. The
effect on the dielectric constant of the air is the creation of a well-
defined boundary in which the rate of change of the dielectric
constant is very great with a slight increase in altitude. This di-
electric boundary and the earth form the upper and lower walls
of an atmospheric duct. Waves originating in this duct and travel-
ing approximately horizontally are trapped, and are propagated
around the curvature of the earth in a series of jumps involving
earth reflection and dielectric boundary reflection. (See Fig. 17.)
When this happens, one can no longer thing of space wave propa-
gation in terms of line-of-sight and shadow zone concepts, for un-
der these conditions, radio waves are often propagated hundreds
of miles into the shadow zone.
The action of an atmospheric duct is analogous to a metallic
waveguide: there is a definite minimum frequency that may be
propagated in the duct, depending on the distance between the
two boundaries. The width of such ducts varies from a few feet to a
few hundred feet, so that the lowest usable frequency may vary
from a high of several thousand megacycles to a low of 50 to 100
me.
Many interrelated factors contribute to the effectiveness of duct
transmission. For example, the receiving and transmitting antennas
must be located within the duct. In some instances this may mean
36 WAVE PROPAGATION
the difference of a few feet. If the receiving antenna is located

outside the duct boundaries, no signal will be received, even though
it may be quite strong within the duct.
27. Duct Variations
In addition to ducts found over the land which vary in height

from approximately 100 to over 1500 feet, there is also a duct
formed over the ocean about 50 feet from the water surface. Its
vertical dimension is very small compared to the land ducts; thus,
it is an almost useless waveguide for the lower frequencies, becom-
ing important only for transmissions at frequencies well over 1000
me. For these very high frequencies, the transmitted energy may
be carried over relatively long distances through this narrow duct.
There are a large number of varieties of atmospheric ducts.
Some of these actually focus signals when the frequency is right,
while in most cases the duct behaves as a simple waveguide. Ducts
may be helpful in transmission for some frequencies but may wash
out other radio paths altogether. Add to this the fact that a sudden
wind may destroy the efficacy of a duct that has been in existence
for a long period before and it is understandable why duct propaga-
tion is inconsistent and unreliable.
Temperature inversions (a condition in which layers form so
that the temperature is abnormally high in the upper regions and
abnormally low in the lower regions) are more or less common
occurrences particularly in coastal areas. Air from the land areas,
usually comparatively hot and dry, passes over the cool, moist
ocean air, forming the so-called inversion layers. The ducts formed
thereby result in excellent signal transmission at frequencies from
100 me to 1000 me over paths of l 00 miles or more.
(I) What is meant by "space wave" propagation?

(2) Why are space waves of little use at low frequencies?
(3) What effect does the curvature of the earth have upon the reflected ray.
(4) Explain the importance and meaning of the diffraction zone.
(5) Whal is an atmospheric <lucl?
(6) Why may <lucl propagation be inconsislelll and unreliable?
(7) What is temperature inversion?
(8) What frequencies normally give good results for duct transmissions?
(9) Of what use arc "inversion layers"?
Chapter 5
SCATTER PROPAGATION
29. Introduction
Until quite recently, very high frequency waves have not been
used in communications that involved distances in excess of line•
of-sight path lengths. The vhf and uh£ spectra exceed the critical
frequency, hence these waves are not refracted in the ionosphere,
but escape into space. Thus vhf and uh£ waves are normally propa-
gated as space waves.
Observations made during the last war showed, however, that
uh£ signals sometimes were propagated over distances considerably
in excess of line-of-sight; that is, occasionally signals from high-
power radar sets were easily detectable well beyond the horizon
with losses only slightly greater than they suffered in free space.
For the most part, these phenomena were attributed to and could
be satisfactorily explained by ducting and superrefraction processes
in the troposphere, in addition to diffraction effects. As research
continued after World War II, however, it became apparent that
the distances over which consistent rather than occasional propaga-
tion of usable signals occurred were far greater than smooth-sphere
diffraction could explain, even with the help of ducts and super-
refraction.
In general, attenuation measurements made by research work-
ers demonstrated the complete inadequacy of former theories in ac-
counting for strong beyond-the-horizon (sometimes called trans-
horizon) transmissions.
37
38 WAVE PROPAGATION
Many theories have been proposed to explain this phenome-

non; although they differ substantially from each other in detail,
in general the propagation is attributed to minute disturbances
in the electrical properties of the troposphere. Precise measurements
have shown that appreciable variations in the dielectric constant
of the atmosphere are present as a result of turbulence, stratifica-
tion and other more obscure effects, and that these variations are
of the order needed to produce the observed propagation. Figure
18 illustrates the differences between distances covered by 3000-mc
20
\"'"~
40
OBSERVED
II.I
0 SIGNAL
f LEVEL
(I)
60 '"
311
9
II.I
m
m
80
\
'
~-
PREDICTED
SIGNAL ~
Q LEVEL
100
120
10 20 100 200 !100 1000
MILES
Fig. 18. Curves showing the difference between the signal level at 3000 me
predicted by the smooth-sphere diffraction theory and that actually observed.
waves at specific attenuations and the predicted distances that

should have been covered if the propagation followed the calcula-
tions based upon smooth-sphere diffraction theory.
30. Fading
The signal reaching a receiving antenna in any kind of radio

transmission often exhibits a variation with time as a result of
changes in the propagation medium. This effect, called fading, is
SCATTER PROPAGATION 39
evidently due to a varying instantaneous transmission loss over the

radio path.
These variations in received signal intensity are conveniently
classified as either the long-term type or the short-term type of
fading. The long-term variations are attributed to slow changes in
ionospheric absorption and, in some cases, to gradual changes in
tropospheric turbulence. The short-term variations, on the other
hand, are due to phase interference that occurs among two or more
simultaneous modes of propagation from the same source. The
received field is made up of several components that travel over
paths which often differ by several wavelengths, and it is the inter-
ference between these different modes which gives rise to so-called
fast fadinf!
For any given carrier frequency, the short-term type of fading
is usually studied on the basis of two sub-classifications: (1) fading
rates of IO minutes to one hour, and (2) fading rates of one to IO
cycles per second. The signal attenuation for the first type is prim-
arily dependent upon the weather, time of day, and the season,
while in the second case the carrier frequency is the principal
factor. Accurate knowledge of the determinants of the kind of
fading described in (1) is very important to the design and plan-
ning of a scatter transhorizon communication system. Many re-
search programs have been completed recently, and many more
are still in progress over the nation, to establish statistical data
which will help determine the losses in transmission field strength
which have to he overcome to achieve specified reliability.
Very rapid fading as described in (2) is often attributable to
fast fluctuations in the dielectric constant of the troposphere as
well as to possible phase interference. The graph given in Fig. 19
indicates the speed and amplitude possible in this type of short-
term signal fluctuation over a 180-mile scatter path at a frequency
of approximately 400 me.
31. Path Geometry
Figure 20 shows in somewhat exaggerated form the path geom-

etry of a typical scatter circuit at a frequency in the range from 300
me to 5000 me. As explained previously, the mechanism of tropo-
spheric scattering appears to be a function of heterogeneities in
the dielectric constant of the air due to variations of moisture,
40 WAVE PROPAGATION
temperature, and air density. Even though the attenuation of the

signals may average about 70 db more than that of free space, the
received signal field strengths are still substantially in excess of
those which are predicted by earth diffraction effects alone.
The successful utilization of a path of this nature for com-
munication over distances of 200 miles or more beyond the horizon
calls for specialized equipment. High gain antennas, high-power
transmitters, and space-diversity reception are now being employed
in such communications circuits. Although the cost of such equip-
60~--~--~---~----,-----,-----,
5Qt-----+-----+---+-----+---+-----I
401-----+-----l---+-----+---+-----i
"'ILi
,.J
m
<.>
ILi
0
101-----+-----l---+-----+---+------i
0.5 LO 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Tl ME (SECONDS)
Fig. 19. Graph showing fast fading over a 180-mile scatter path at 400 me.
ment normally exceeds that of standard transmitting gear by a

considerable amount, its use is justified in most cases because it
reduces the number of repeater stations required.
In discussing the path geometry of scatter transmission, the
question of the effects of wave polarization frequently arises. Ac-
curate data on this subject are not available at the present time.
Qualitative observations have demonstrated, however, that very
little difference exists in transmission efficiency between vertically,
horizontally, and circularly polarized waves. In addition, prelimin-
ary measurements indicate that the plane of polarization estab-
lished at the transmitter is fully preserved over the scatter path and
that the wave arrives at the receiver in virtually the same plane.
32. Antenna for VHF Scatter Circuits
Most of the antennas now in use are simple, center-fed cir-

cular paraboloids of revolution of various diameters. Large 60-
foot-diameter arrays weighing about 6000 pounds are in common
use; smaller antennas measuring about 28 feet in diameter are
SCATTER ZONE
TRANSMITlER- -RECEIVER
ANTENNA ANTENNA
Fig. 20. Wave scattering.
usually raised well above the ground to realize some additional

gain, and are often equipped with adjustments for azimuth. Fab-
ricated of welded aluminum tubing, these antennas are capable
of withstanding winds up to 100 mph even when coated with ice.
The high cost of these arrays makes it almost mandatory that
they be used for simultaneous transmission and reception - a
system known as diplexing. Since there is a great difference in
the amplitude levels of the received and transmitted signals - some•
times in the order of 200 db - diplexing is not easily accomplished.
The transmitted signal having the same frequency as the one to
42 WAVE PROPAGATION
be received must be attenuated well below the minimum detectable

signal and the transmitter itself must be carefully isolated from the
receiver to prevent overloading.
33. Space Diversity Reception
The technique of diversity reception relies upon the fact that

when a signal has faded to a low value on one antenna, it is quite
ANTENNA A ANTENNA B
~7 7
"
RECEIVER A RECEIVER B
COMPARISON
CONTROL
ELECTRONIC
SWITCH
-
I
I
I
--
./ --
OUTPUT
Fig. 21. Switching diversity.
probable that it will have increased in strength on another an-

tenna situated some distance from the first.
Two methods have been used successfully for choosing the
antenna that provides the best response automatically; one is
called switching diversity and the other combination diversity.
Either of the systems may be applied to dual, triple, or quadruple
antenna arrays.
Switching diversity utilizes as many receivers as there are an-

tennas, a comparison control circuit, and an electronic switch, as
shown in Fig. 21. In this dual antenna system, the signals are de-
modulated and amplified in individual receivers and then are fed
to the comparison-control circuit. The latter compares the signal-
to-noise ratio of the received material, automatically throwing the
electronic switch to the positon that provides the best output.
Switching may be accomplished either before or after demodula-
tion; the former is usually preferred because the transients pro-
duced by the switching devices are seldom as large in this case.
With switching diversity the poorer signal is completely re-
jected while the better is totally received. This does not always
result in the best possible output since, as is often the case, a
combination of the better aspects of the two signals would result
in an improved signal-to-noise ratio. This is the idea behind com-
bination diversity.
In combination diversity two or more receiver outputs may
be connected in parallel. A control circuit is arranged to vary the
output impedance of each receiver in such a manner that the
impedance is roughly inversely proportional to the signal-to-noise
ratio. Thus, as the signal-to-noise ratio improves as a result of
fading effects, the impedance drops and the output of that particu-
lar receiver increases. If, at the same time, the second receiver
displays a poor ratio, its impedance rises and its output falls oft.
The total output signal is, therefore, a combination of the best
efforts of both receivers. If we add to this the fact that combination
diversity reception does not suffer from switching transients, the
growing popularity of this system becomes more understandable.
(See Fig. 22.)
34. Ionospheric Scattering
All of the preceding material in this chapter has dealt with

tropospheric scattering of uhf and vhf radio signals. During 1950,
discussions carried on among experimental scientists interested in
scatter propagation in the troposphere caused certain speculations,
which ultimately led to the discovery that scatter effects also occur
in the ionosphere. Two distinct and separate fields of investigation
have thus grown almost simultaneously, causing some confusion
among readers. It is important to note carefully the differences in
nature, range, and limitations of the two phenomena.
WAVE PROPAGATION
At low frequencies it is found that the intensity of ionospheric

(sky wave) signals is not appreciably different from the free space
values. As the frequency of the transmission rises above the maxi-
ANTENNA A ANTENNA B
CONTROL CONTROL
Cl RCUIT CIRCUIT
OUTPUT OUTPUT
IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE
COMBINED OUTPUT
Fig. 22. Combination diversity.
mum usable sky-wave frequency, the received signal begins to drop

sharply. At one time it was assumed that if the frequency were
raised sufficiently high, the signal would disappear altogether. It
is now recognized that the drop-off curve is not discontinuous but
has a "floor" below which there is no further drop-off. This floor
is now known to be due to ionospheric scatter transmission.
It is believed that ionospheric scattering takes place from the
lower E region. This phenomenon permits surprisingly reliable
communication over distances ranging from 600 to 1200 miles by
signals in the frequency spectrum from 25 me to 60 me.
Theories of ionospheric scattering. None of the theories of
ionospheric scattering thus far proposed are adequate to explain
all of the peculiarities of this method of propagation, although

they have been of some assistance in many respects.
Turb·ulence theory. Many of the observed phenomena in-
volving this type of scattering may be explained by predicating a
homogeneous turbulence of the ionization gradient of the lower
E region. Pressure fluctuations in a uniform gas, such as the at-
mosphere, accompanied by temperature variations at different alti-
tudes, give rise to density fluctuations. This, in turn, results in
electron density fluctuations called blob-s of turbulence, in which
aerodynamic cau.ses are responsible for the variations in ionization
intensity. This theory seems to give the most complete explanation
of observed phenomena.
Partial reflection theory. Some theorists hold to the belief that
partial reflection from an ionospheric boundary region whose
electrical density changes with height is enough to account for
ionospheric scattering. Experimental workers in the field have
found, however, that this theory can _be successfully applied to
observed results only if certain additional assumptions are made.
These assumptions involve changing irregularities in the ionization
gradient, conditions which partially invalidate the "smooth" boun-
dary reflection idea.
Meteor trail theory. It is believed by some that meteors mov-
ing through clouds of cosmic dust in the lower E region can pro-
duce non-homogeneous ionization, which partially or wholly ac-
counts for ionospheric scattering.
The signals received by this type of scattering are exceedingly
complex; their nature may often be largely attributed to scattering
from meteor trails. Yet their very complexity indicates that a single
cause is improbable and that much experimental work remains to
be done. Such work is expected to lead to a satisfactory integration
of all of the worthwhile theories to provide an adequate explana-
tion of all the observed phenomena.
(1) What is meant by fading?

(2) What explanations have been advanced for: long term fading? Short
term fading?
(3) Describe and explain the essential elements of scatter transmission,
(4) Illustrate, by diagram, the path geometry of a typical scatter circuit at
a frequency in the range from 300 me to 5000 me.
46 WAVE PROPAGATION
(5) What is meant by "diplexing"?

(6) Draw a diagram that illustrates switching diversity.
(7) Explain the function of the comparison control in the diagram required
for question 6.
(8) Describe and illustrate a combination diversity system.
(9) Give the essentials of the "turbulence" theory.
(IO) Explain briefly the partial reflection theory; the meteor trail theory.
Chapter 6
SPECIAL IONOSPHERIC EFFECTS AT VHF AND UHF
36. Introduction
In Chapter 3, the general behavior of radio waves of various

frequencies in the ionosphere was described and explained in the
light of the most recent studies in the field. Investigations of
peculiar and anomalous propagation of vhf and uh£ signals are
being carried on continuously throughout the world and are bring•
ing to light some rather remarkable phenomena. This chapter is
concerned with those effects, other than forward scattering in the
ionosphere, which promise to influence the operation of long-range
uhf and vhf communications circuits, radar systems, radio astrono-
my, and radio navigational systems.
37. The Effect of the Aurora Borealis
The aurora borealis, long a scientific mystery, is now believed

to be the visual effect of varying ionization in the upper atmosphere.
The apparent correlation between the appearance of the aurora
and the occurrence of radar echoes has been under investigation
for some time. It now appears that the visual aurora does produce
scattering and reflection of radar signals under certain conditions:
if the aurora is at a low elevation, the correlation is very significant.
Little success has been realized in attempting to obtain radar
echoes from high elevation aurora.
47
48 WAVE PROPAGATION
This effect, known as azimuthal aspect sens1tiv1ty, has been

measured as precisely as possible; signals in the order of I 00 me
show no echoes when the elevation is greater than 15 degrees with
respect to the radar antenna, while lower frequency signals in the
region of 30 me exhibit little echo effect when the angle is greater
than 20 degrees. In addition to the azimuthal effect, the studies
have demonstrated that echoes are much stronger with the antenna
oriented toward the north - even in the most northerly countries,
such as Norway - than when the echo search is made toward the
south. Thus, auroral ionization by echo methods is most readily
detected when the radar is directed toward the magnetic north pole
at low angles of elevation. The agreement among many of the
workers is that radar echoes are due to scattering from ionized
:treas aligned along the earth's magnetic lines of force.
The strength of radar echoes from the aurora has been shown
to depend upon the time of day and upon the season of the year.
Very little echoing is observable during the noon hours with max-
ima occurring around midnight; although the data presently avail-
able from various sources are not sufficient for precise estimates,
it is quite definite that the strongest radar echoes are obtained at
the time of the year when the visual aurora are usually brightest;
that is, during the equinoctial months.
38. The Effect of Meteors upon Wave Propagation
When a meteor flashes into the upper layers of the air it

forms an ionized trail about two miles in length. Under special
conditions, this trail is capable of reflecting a large enough propor-
tion of the incident radio energy to make it detectable by radio
means. Early investigations into short-lived bursts of reflected
energy within the normal skip zone showed that these transient
echoes were of meteor-trail origin.
It is fairly well established that these trails are markedly
aspect sensitive. This term is used to indicate a condition in
which the angle of incidence of the radio waves at the reflective
boundary is an important factor in determining the strength of
the returned signals. In the case of a radar system, the close prox-
imity of the transmitter and receiver establishes a perpendicular
aspect sensitivity; the strongest meteor-trail reflection occurs when
the radar waves are incident on the trail at an angle of 90 degrees
(Fig. 23) . For a communications application in which there is a
SPECIAL IONOSPHERIC EFFECTS AT VHF AND UHF 49
large distance between the transmitter and receiver, the angle of

incidence must equal the angle of reflection toward the receiver.
Meteor trails are predominantly found between (approxi-
mately) 37 miles and 50 miles above the surface of the earth, the
INCIDENT
ANGLE•90°
TRANSMITTED-
SIGNAL -RECEIVED
SIGNAL
-RADAR
ANTENNA
I I
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER
(A)
"........,..
A
(B)
Fig. 23. Reflection from a meteor trail; (A) as obtained with radar equipment.
(B) As used in communications.
greatest occurrence being at about 43 miles. Echoes are of short

duration, usually of the order of a half-second. During certain
50 WAVE PROPAGATION
meteor showers, specifically the Perseid meteors, the echo duration

may be extended to as much as 20 seconds. It has been found that
the echoes may often be analyzed to determine the velocity of the
meteor quite precisely; much study has yet to be done in this
field, however, before the technique is well enough developed for
general astronomical purposes.
39. The Faraday Effect
The first radar moon echoes obtained in 1946 by the U. S.

Army marked the beginning of many such attempts, most of which
have been successful. Most workers report two distinct types of
fading. (1) One type of fading, having a period of a few seconds,
is attributed to the libration (an oscillatory motion, like that of a
balance) of the moon itself. (2) The second type, with a period
of approximately one hour, is most intense a few hours after sun-
rise. This points to ionospheric effects. On the other hand, there
is some evidence that it is due to the so-called "Faraday Effect,"
in which the plane of polarization 0f a wave is rotated in the
presence of the earth's magnetic field. Verification of this theory has
been reported recently; transmitters using perpendicularly oriented
dipoles have received moon echoes with fading periods that agree
closely with those predicted by the theory.
40. Ionospheric Absorption of Radio Waves
The refractive effect of the ionosphere has been discussed in

previous chapters and has been shown to result from the variations
in electrical density in the successive regions of this portion of the
atmosphere. A second phenomenon involves energy losses as a
radio wave passes into the ionosphere. Basic theory of transmission
through ionized air predicts that very little loss will take place in
the uh£ region in this manner. Since there has been insufficient
experimentation at the ultra high frequencies, the evidence un-
covered in tests with normal high frequencies has been extrapolated
to the uhf range by some authorities. These conclusions are sum-
marized below.
The ionosphere contains "free" electrons. As the field of the
passing wave acts upon these electrons, they move about in response
to the alternations of polarity, the amplitude of the oscillation
depending directly upon the strength of the field and inversely
SPECIAL IONOSPHERIC EFFECTS AT VHF AND UHF 51
upon the mass of the particle. Such oscillation results in re-radiation

of energy at the same frequency, so that very little of the total
energy of the wave is lost; The conversion from field to kinetic and
back to field energy is quite efficient. In other words, the fact that
oscillation occurs does not account, in itself, for ionospheric ab-
sorption.
The only charged particles in the ionosphere that are involved
in this process are the electrons; positive ions are not affected be-
cause of their relatively great inertial mass, a characteristic which
insures that they will remain quiescent even when immersed in an
alternating field. Oscillating electrons can, however, collide with
neighboring gas molecules and positive ions, their kinetic energy
being sufficient to set the latter in motion. This conversion does
produce a net field loss, since a part of the field energy is converted
into kinetic energy of massive particles (i.e., into heat) . Thus,
the degree of absorption is determined to a great extent by the
frequency of these electron-molecule-ion collisions.
Experimental evidence points to the D region of the ionosphere
as the site of the absorptive action. At low and middle latitudes of
the Earth, the degree and time of occurrence are largely under solar
control; at high latitudes, localized effects are associated with
auroral, magnetic, and ionospheric disturbances, rather than with
the sun. Although it is still the prevailing view that streams of
charged particles originating in the sun are responsible for most
of the 0- layer ionization, the details of the mechanism are still far
from clear.
41. Effect of the Ionosphere on Radio Waves of Extra-Terrestrial

Origin.
Although most of the interest in ionospheric effects centers

around communications circuits using the uh£ range, the compara-
tively new science of radio astronomy is very much concerned with
signals of extra-terrestrial origin. Radio astronomy shows great
future promise, not only as a supplement to optical astronomy, but
as a field in itself. For this reason, the effect of the ionosphere on
the so-called "Janssen signals" from space is of prime importance
in that it makes necessary the correction of coordinates of "radio
stars" as observed on radio telescopes.
Ionospheric refraction. The signals from radio stars have been
found to deviate to a greater degree than that predicted by standard
52 WAVE PROPAGATION
ionospheric refractive theory. Much theoretical work has been

carried on in recent years to help explain the discrepancies be-
tween the predicted and the experimemal radio paths. Theories
based upon increasing curvature of the upper F2 region and upon
greatly increased electron density in the ionosphere during the
summer, particularly in the layer of the F2 region immediately
above the point of maximum ionization, are currently under in-
vestigation.
"Twinkling" or radio stars. The radio signal stream from loc-
alized regions in outer space is by no means constant in intensity.
These rapid and unpredictable variations - now commonly re-
ferred to as scintillation or twinkling - were once thought to be
inherent in the sources themselves. Later work by separated group5
of observers demonstrated that the scintillations observed from
various points 011 the earth simultaneously could not be correlated
with each other. In this sense, the radio observations are similar
to optical twinkling - an effect due to the earth's atmosphere. In
the radio case, . however, the disturbance originates in the iono-
sphere rather than the troposphere.
The anticipated results of proposed experiments on radio
star scintillation may be summarized somewhat as follows: scintil-
lations will begin to appear when the received frequency falls be-
low about 3000 me, the intensity depending upon the angle of
elevation of the source above the horizon and the latitude of the
observer. As the frequency is decreased below 100 me, the deviation
from standard received intensity may be as much as 50 percent at
low angles of elevation, the intensity falling to a minimum as the
source reaches the zenith (directly overhead). Also, scintillation
effects will be more pronounced at high latitudes, because iono-
spheric disturbances are of greater intensity in the polar regions.
(I) Under what conditions does the aurora borealis influence transmission?
(2) Explain "azimuthal aspect sensitivity."
(3) What is meant hy "aspect sensitive" in relationship to meteors?
(4) What are the two types of fading associated with the "Faraday Effect"?
(5) List the pertinent conclusions that have been drawn with respect to the
ionosphereic absorption of radio waves; to ionospheric refraction; to
"twinkling" of radio stars.
INDEX
angle of incidence 27, 28 ionospheric absorption, 50, 51

antenna height, 34, 35 ionospheric refraction, 31, 5 l, 52
aurora borealis effect, 47, 48 ionospheric scattering, 43, 44, 45
average level, I inversion layers, 36
azimuthal aspect sensitivity, 48 line of sight communication, 31
boundary, 15 magnetic field, 7
cosmic rays, 24, 29, !H, 32 meteor effect, 48, 49, 50
crest level, 3 meteor trail theory, 45
crests, 3 MUF, 29
critical angle, 28, 29, 30 partial reflection theory, 45
diffraction zone, 35 path geometry, 39, 40, 41
direct ray, 31 phase velocity, 23
displacement current, 7 photons, 20, 21
diversity reception, 42, 43 photon collision, 21
diversity switching, 42, 43 Planck's constant, 20
D region, 25, 26, 51 polarization, l, 9
duct propagation, 35, 36 propagation, 1
E field, 9, 10 radiation, 4, 5, 6, 7
E region, 25, 26, 29, 30 radio horizon, 33, 34, 35
electric field, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 21, 22 ray, 8, 9
electromagnetic waves, 7, 8, 9, 10 reflected rays, 31, 32, 33
Fl region, 25, 26 reflected wav~. 31
F2 region, 25, 26, 29, 52 refractive index, 23, 24, 26, 27
fading, 38, 39, 50 relative phase shift, 33
Faraday effect, 50 selective fading, 13
frequency, 4, 19 shadow zone, 33, 35
frequency range table, 19 silent zone, 29
ground currents, 31 sky wave, 19, 20, 29
ground wave, 19, 29 skywave propagation, 12, 13
ground wave propagation, 12, 13 Snell's law, 24
H field, 10 space current, 7, 22
Huygen constructions, 23 space wave propagation, 31
ionization, 20, 21, 22 space waves, 19, 31, 32, 33
ionized atom, 21 sporadic E clouds, 30
ionosphere, 18, 20, 21, 22 sporadic E reflection, 30
layers of, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 stratosphere, l 8
55
56 INDEX
sunspot cycle, 1 vertically polarized wave, 10

trans-horizon transmissions, 37 Vlff scatter circuits antenna, 41, 42
troposphere, 18 wave amplitude, 3
tropospheric propagation, 31 wave diffraction, 16, 17
tropospheric scattering, 39, 43 wave front, 8, 9, 10, 23
turbulence, 38 wave length, 3, 4, 5
turbulence theory, 45 wave motion, 2, 3, 4
twinkling of radio stars, 52 wave reflection, 14, 15, 16
vertical electrical field, IO wave types, 18, 19, 20
vertical polarization, 19 wave refraction, 15, 16, 17

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ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY SERIES

_;, '~ ?,: ·.'·':.

JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, INC.

JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, INC.

All rights reserved. This book or parts thereof may

Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 56-11339

Printed in the United States of America

A thorough understanding of the basic principles of wave propa-

1 Nature and Use of Electromagnetic Waves

2 How Electromagnetic Waves are Propagated 12

3 Effect of Atmosphere on Radio Transmission 18

4 Normal Tropospheric Propagation 31

6 Special Ionospheric Effects at VHF and UHF 47

NATURE AND USE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Propagation is the process of sending or transmitting energy

(is propagated) through the earth's atmosphere, although this is

Fig. 1. Radiation of spherical waves in a simple communications system.

An electromagnetic wave travels through space in much the

of waves in water can be used as a physical illustration of these

Fig. 2. Waves in water.

form a single wave, the separation between two adjacent troughs

The velocity of an electromagnetic wave in air is the same

,\ = ~ - !~~:~~~ = .372 miles or about 1964 feet

Radio waves represent a form of electrical energy predicted

a continual state of tension (like rubber bands) , and that they

tive bodies shown and go to a negative body (too distant to show in

that if the potential at one plate is zero with respect to - IOO

Fig. 4. The electric fleld of a capadtor.

magnitude. They also represent the direction of force applied to a

in magnitude. James Maxwell proposed that under these condi-

4. The Magnetic Field

On the basis of classical theory, it can be shown that an ac-

electromagnetic waves. In an antenna, electronic charges (elec-

Fig. 5. Spherical propaga,

are always perpendicular to the surface of the imaginary balloon,

If we examine a ray of a radio wave, we find that it is made

Fig. 6. (A) E and H components of the eledromagnetlc wave. (B) Vedor

components do not oscillate in random directions, but are fixed. The

wave (as shown in Fig. 6) possesses a vertical electric field (E)

Honst.) = H 0 sin 27rf (t - : ) (2)

E (Inst.) =E 0 sin 271'f ~- : ) (3)

Where: H(lnst.) = Instantaneous value of the magnetic vector in

(5) What is an induction field?

HOW ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ARE PROPAGATED

Electromagnetic waves can travel between a transmitter and

The second method by which electromagnetic waves travel

broadcast originating in a city is received in the same city) takes

Fig. 7. Wave Reflection.

9. Combination of Sky and Ground Waves

Occasionally, a transmitter and receiver will have to be placed

10. Wave Reflection

Electromagnetic waves can be reflected from certain surfaces as

11. Combined Refraction and Reflection

For reasons that will be analyzed in the next chapter, dif-

Fig. 8. Reflection and refraction of an electromagnetic wave as It passes

disturbances of various intensities. Although the velocity of an

propagation is greater than in a space where little or no electrifi-

Fig. 9. Refraction due to change of velocity.

differing electrification make their appearance; these are not sharply

As a result of the inequality of the distances covered in a unit

,\ = ~ - !:~ = .372 miles or about 1964 feet