TESOL International Journal

Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

Volume 16 Issue 4.4 2021 ISSN 2094-3938

2021 Volume 16 Issue 4.4 2021 ISSN 2094-3938

 Published by the TESOL International Journal

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Chief Editors: Dr. Custódio Martins

Ramón Medriano, Jr.

ISSN. 2094-3938

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TESOL International Journal

Chief Editors

Custódio Martins
University of Saint Joseph, Macao

Ramón Medriano, Jr.

Pangasinan State University – School of Advanced Studies

Senior Associate Editors

Jun Zhao Peter Ilič Farzaneh Khodabandeh
Augsuta University, The University of Aizu, Payame Noor University,
USA Japan Iran

Associate Editors

Mário Pinharanda Nunes Sharif Alghazo Khadijeh Jafari

University of Macao, China University of Jordan, Gorgan Islamic Azad
Jordan University, Iran

Rining Wei Harriet Lowe

Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, China University of Greenwich,
UK

2021 Volume 16 Issue 4.4 2021 ISSN 2094-3938

 Editorial Board

Abdel Hamid Mohamed - Lecturer, Qatar University, Kambara, Hitomi - The University of Texas Rio
Qatar Grande Valley, USA
Adriano, Nina - Baliuag University, Philippines Kazemian, Mohammad - Guilan University of
Medical Sciences, Iran
Al-Dhaif, Amina - Northumbria University, UK Ku-Mesu, Katalin Egri - University of Leicester
Alhilali, Tayba - Lecturer, Higher College of Lin, Yu-Cheng - The University of Texas Rio
Technology, Sultanate of Oman Grande Valley, USA
Badwan, Khawla - Manchester Metropolitan Maher, Kate - Kyoto University of Foreign
University, UK Studies, Japan
Baker, John - Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Mohamed, Naashia - University of Auckland,
Minh. Vietnam New Zealand
Balchin, Kevin - Canterbury Christ Church Munalim, Leonardo O. - Philippine Women’s
University, UK University, Philippines
Bekteshi, Edita - University of Tirana, Albania Mustafa, Faisal - Syiah Kuala University, Banda
Aceh, Indonesia
Boonsuk, Yusop - Prince of Songkhla University, Niu, Ruiying - Guangdong University of Foreign
Thailand Studies, China
Çakir, İsmail - Yıldırım Beyazıt University, Turkey
Chan, Chun Chuen - University of Sydney, Australia Rozells, Diane - Sookmyung Women's
University, South Korea
Chen, Qi - Newcastle University, UK
Chung, Hiu Yui - The Open University of Hong Salem, Ashraf - Sadat Academy for
Kong, China Management Sciences, Egypt
Cutrone, Pino - Nagasaki University, Japan Saito, Akihiro - Hakuoh University, Oyama ,
Japan
Derakhshan, Ali - Golestan University, Gorgan, Iran Sakka, Samah Mohammed Fahim El - Suez
University, Egypt
Dodigovič, Marina - Universidad de La Rioja, Spain Slaght, John - University of Reading, UK
Essex, James - Waseda University, Japan Stewart, Alison - Gakushuin University, Japan
Farsani, Mohammad Amini - Iran University of Tzu-Shan Chang - Tamkang University, Taiwan
Science and Technology, Iran
Geden, Ayşe Gür - University College London, UK Ulla, Mark - Walailak University, Thailand
Ghannam, Jumana - Nottingham Trent University, Venela, R. - National Institute of Technology,
UK Warangal, India
Hajan, Bonjovi H. - José Rizal University, Philippines Wong, Kevin - Pepperdine University, Los
Angeles, USA
Hasan, Idrees Ali - American University of Kurdistan, Yuanhua Xie - Guangdong University of Foreign
Duhok, Kurdistan Region Studies, China
Hos, Rabia - Rhode Island University, USA Yusri, Y. - Fajar University, Makassar, Indonesia
Zayani, Emna Maazoun - Sfax and Exeter
University, UK

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Contents

Anxiety in Classroom Oral Participation among ESL College Students 11

Bernadette D. Bagalay
Roxan T. Bayan
Jane C. Caliboso
Boyet L. Batang

Logic, Reasoning and Language Structures: A Comparative Study of Literature and Linguistics Learners 21
Rasib Mahmood
Abduh Almashy
Iftikhar Alam
Akhter Habib Shah

English Speaking Anxiety, Stressors, and Coping Techniques of College Student Researchers 33
Michael E. Santos
Wilfredo Q. Cunanan
Arnelia B. Mandap

Between Perception and Practice: The Emergency of Encouraging EFL Teachers to Implant HOTS in Their 40
Classrooms
Dwita Laksmita Rachmawati
Oikurema Purwati
Syafi’ul Anam
Slamet Setiawan

Language Proficiency and Plagiarism Practices among Graduate Students 59

Caren Casama Orlanda-Ventayen
Randy Joy Magno Ventayen

Gender and Interruption in Conversation Made by EFL Students 71

Ariyanti
Rinda Fitriana
Arbain

Contextualization on the Teaching and Learning Approach of Purposive Communication Syllabus for the 82
Bachelor of Physical Education Students
Michael E. Santos
Jumel C. Miller
Jonar T. Martin

Metacognition in The Senior High School in one National High School in The Philippines 88
Narciso Ambrocio Martin Jr.
Randy Joy Magno Ventayen
Ricky Dulay Retuerne

Blended Learning in A Research Writing Class: Perceptions and Experiences from ESL Secondary Learners 103
Bonjovi Hassan Hajan
Reynold C. Padagas

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Implementing Eco-translation to Build Translation Competence and Course Design 122

Sugeng Hariyanto

Guided Peer Tutorial Fosters Subject Mastery and Builds Essential Soft Skills 144
Margie Ugaddan Alcaide

Flipped Learning Approach in Teaching Writing in a University Setting: Students’ Experiences, Preferences, 161
and Perspectives
Gregorio P. Ebron, Jr.
Romualdo A. Mabuan

The Use of Blended Learning System in Teaching Language 184

Ma. Claire M. Guevara

Social Networking sites and ESL Students Writing Proficiency in English 224
Jane C. Caliboso

Impact of Covid-19 on English Language Teaching in Yemen: Challenges and Opportunities 238
Farooq A. AlTameemy
Yasser Alrefaee

Prospective Reading Teachers’ Digital Reading Habit: A Cross-sectional Design 253

Bernadeth T. Abequibel
Criselda D.R. Ricohermosa
Ericson O. Alieto
Cheryl P. Barredo
Rochelle Irene G. Lucas

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Welcome to Volume 16 4.4 of the TESOL International Journal, an Academics Education

journal.

In this volume we have 16 research papers for your perusal. The first paper is entitled Anxiety
in Classroom Oral Participation among ESL College Students by co-authors Bernadette D.
Bagalay, Roxan T. Bayan, Jane C. Caliboso and Boyet L. Batang. Fear of speaking foreign
language is common among Filipino students. This study aimed at determining the factors
contributing to students’ anxiety in classroom oral participation and finding the significant
difference among the factors that determine the students’ level of anxiety. Recommenadatios
for teachers are outlined.

The second paper titled Logic, Reasoning and Language Structures: A Comparative Study of
Literature and Linguistics Learners is authored by Rasib Mahmood, Abduh Almashy, Iftikhar
Alam and Akhter Habib Shah. This research aimed to compare linguistics and literature among
postgraduate students on their ability to reason on logical grounds. The researchers have
collected writing scripts of linguistics and literature students and drawn a comparison between
the two disciplines.

The third paper English Speaking Anxiety, Stressors, and Coping Techniques of College
Student Researchers with authors Michael E. Santos, Wilfredo Q. Cunanan and Arnelia B.
Mandap. The study was carried out with the intention to describe the English speaking anxiety,
stressors, and coping techniques among college students taking up Research subject of a state
university in the Philippines. Based from the conclusions of the study, the researchers
recommended that teachers should be aware and acknowledge that their students have
anxieties, endure stress, and has different coping techniques in speaking in English from which
has an impact on their learning process.

The fourth paper is entitled Between Perception and Practice: The Emergency of Encouraging
EFL Teachers to Implant HOTS in Their Classrooms by co-authors Dwita Laksmita
Rachmawati, Oikurema Purwati, Syafi’ul Anam and Slamet Setiawan. The paper notes to use
Higher Order Thinking Skills, teachers should involve students during the learning process that
promotes activities beyond comprehension. This research suggests that Indonesian EFL
teachers need to deepen their knowledge of Higher Order Thinking Skills.

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Paper five, Language Proficiency and Plagiarism Practices among Graduate Students, is
presented by Caren Casama Orlanda-Ventayen and Randy Joy Magno Ventayen from
Pangisanan State University in the Philippines. Their excellent study determined the Language
proficiency and Plagiarism Practices of Graduate Students under Education Program and Non-
Education Program and be able to correlate the language proficiency and plagiarism practices.
The authors wisely note that universities should be strict in the implementation of plagiarism
detection to maintain academic integrity.

The sixth paper is entitled Gender and Interruption in Conversation Made by EFL Students
authored by Ariyanti, Rinda Fitriana and Arbain from Indonesia. The research investigated the
topic of Interruption which is defined as the act of resistance by a certain speaker in a
conversation caused by certain factors such as an eagerness to be powerful or the act of asking
for clarification of the current speaker.

The seventh paper is entitled “Contextualization on the Teaching and Learning Approach of
Purposive Communication Syllabus for the Bachelor of Physical Education Students” by co-
authors Michael E. Santos, Jumel C. Miller and Jonar T. Martin. Their study contextualized
the teaching and learning approach of Purposive Communication syllabus for the Bachelor of
Physical Education students in the Philippines. Their findings and suggestions are applicable
to all ESP teachers.

The eighth paper in this edition is titled Metacognition in The Senior High School in one
National High School in The Philippines by Narciso Ambrocio Martin Jr., Randy Joy Magno
Ventayen, and Ricky Dulay Retuerne from Pangisanan State University, Philippines. Their
research proposed the following outputs beneficial to the whole school language community.
Teachers and administrators in the K1-12 Philippines would benefit greatly from this study’s
findings and recommendations,

The ninth paper is Blended Learning in A Research Writing Class: Perceptions and
Experiences from ESL Secondary Learners by co-authors by Bonjovi Hassan Hajan and
Reynold C. Padagas, Blended learning as an innovative pedagogy in the 21st century should be
viewed by language teachers as a form of professional development and a way to keep
themselves abreast with the different technological innovations. Of key note, and keeping in

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mind the rapid onset of AI that may well replace teachers, the authors note However, it should
remain that no products of technology replace the teachers.

The tenth paper is by Sugeng Hariyanto, “Implementing Eco-translation to Build Translation

Competence and Course Design”. This research looks at eco-translation as a pillar of
translation competence, as well as the design of teaching materials for translation courses.
Translation teaching materials were evaluated in three different English study programs. The
author’s study has proved that eco-translatology or eco-translation developed by Hu (2004) has
inspired new insights into how translation could be applied by involving the environment and
societies.

The next paper is entitled Guided Peer Tutorial Fosters Subject Mastery and Builds Essential
Soft Skills and authored by Margie Ugaddan Alcaide at Jose Rizal University Philippines.
Research has shown that peer tutoring can be a means of intervention in which students can
work with a peer to master academic skills or content. This action research examined the value
of tutor-tutee Peer Tutorial. The results showed rt effectiveness of the program in advancing
students’ scores.

The twelfth paper is Flipped Learning Approach in Teaching Writing in a University Setting:
Students’ Experiences, Preferences, and Perspectives is presented Gregorio P. Ebron, Jr. and
Romualdo A. Mabuan. This paper presents findings of a study designed using a flipped
classroom approach in teaching writing in a university ESL context. As regards the features of
flipped learning, the following ranked the highest from the students: the teacher giving more
time in coaching or facilitating learning and less time doing whole-class instruction; the use of
digital technology such as videos in delivering lectures; and the teacher giving students
immediate feedback on their written outputs. The authors hope that the findings of this study
on the use of the flipped-learning model inspire educators to explore new pathways for teaching
and learning and inform their pedagogical decisions and practices for their students.

The next paper is titled The Use of Blended Learning System in Teaching Language by Ma.
Claire M. Guevara from Jose Rizal University, Philippines. Her research aimed to determine
the impact of Blended Language Learning System in the academic performance of the pupils,
distinguish factors that affect the usage of Blended Language Learning System or BLLS

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implementation, identify its advantages and disadvantages and know teachers’ perceptions
regarding the new pedagogy in teaching Language. The significant finding into the Blended
Language Learning System has found it to be effective as reflected in the level of academic
performance of the pupils.

The fourteenth paper is titled Social Networking sites and ESL Students Writing Proficiency in
English by Jane C. Caliboso. This study aimed to find the effect of Social Networking Sites
on students’ Writing Proficiency in English. A lot of benefits abound in the use of social
networking sites such as sharing information and ideas, improving knowledge about new
terminologies, enhancing writing ability, etc. Despite these benefits that come with the
participation of students on social networking sites, its misuse could affect negatively on their
writing performance.

The penultimate paper Impact of Covid-19 on English Language Teaching in Yemen:

Challenges and Opportunities is authored by Farooq A. AlTameemy and Yasser Alrefaee. This
study examined the effect of COVID-19 on English language teaching as well as the steps
undertaken by the Ministry of Higher Education in Yemen to cope with the challenges imposed
by the spread of the pandemic throughout the country.

The final paper is Prospective Reading Teachers’ Digital Reading Habit: A Cross-sectional
Design written by Bernadeth T. Abequibel, Criselda D.R. Ricohermosa, Ericson O. Alieto,
Cheryl P. Barredo. and Rochelle Irene G. Lucas. The excellent research looks into Digital
Reading Habits and that gender, in the context of this study, played an essential role
influencing respondents with males who prefer and do more digital readings as compared to
females. This result supports trends and claims that there is gender divide in the use and
acceptance of technology and innovative platforms in which males are more accepting and
positive compared to females.

Thank you for reading.

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Anxiety in Classroom Oral Participation among ESL College Students

Bernadette D. Bagalay*
Isabela State University, San Mateo Campus, San Mateo Isabela Philippines

Roxan T. Bayan**
Isabela State University, Jones Campus, Jones Isabela Philippines

Jane C. Caliboso***
Isabela State University, Roxas Campus, Roxas Isabela Philippines

Boyet L. Batang****
Isabela State University, Echague Campus, Echague Isabela Philippines

Abstract
Fear of speaking foreign language is common among Filipino students. This study aimed at
determining the factors contributing to students’ anxiety in classroom oral participation and finding
the significant difference among the factors that determine the students’ level of anxiety. The results
suggest that the students are not experiencing very high level of anxiety in oral participation as
majority of the responses cluster around “Sometimes” and “Often” which are interpreted as “Low
Anxiety” and “High Anxiety” respectively. The respondents have high anxiety because of fear of
making mistakes (M=2.61), self-abasement (M=2.54), and lack of self-confidence (M=2.60). The
respondents, on the other hand, have low anxiety because of fear of difficulty (M=2.39). The data
indicates that the respondents are experiencing considerable level of anxiety during oral participation
hence, measures to address the problem must be undertaken. Moreover, there is no significant
difference between the students’ level of anxiety in the different factors. It can be interpreted from
the interview that students’ common anxiety problems root from their lack of self-confidence, fear of
getting embarrassed, and lack of communicative competence. It is recommended that various
interactive communicative activities are used by ESL teachers to address the anxiety among the
learners.

Keywords: anxiety, classroom oral participation

*[email protected]
**[email protected]
***[email protected]
****[email protected]
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Introduction
Fear of speaking foreign language is common among Filipino students. This study aimed at
determining the factors contributing to students’ anxiety in classroom oral participation and finding
the significant difference among the factors that determine the students’ level of anxiety.
English is considered as one of the official languages in the Philippines. Most subjects in the
basic and tertiary levels use English as medium of instruction. However, to ESL teachers, encouraging
students to speak the target language is a struggle. “Getting students to respond in a language
classroom—especially a foreign language class—is a problem that most language teachers face”
(Tsou, 2008). It has been identified that Speaking activities are primarily causes of high anxiety, as
well as the process in correcting errors, and speaking or communicating with native English speakers,
while writing activity, negative self-perception, and non-comprehension are all sources of moderate
English language anxiety (Jugo, 2020). It has been a wonder if academic performance goes with the
anxiety level of students. In fact, in one study, the significant relationship of high anxiety level and
low academic performance was pointed out. (Said et.al., 2018)
How to alleviate anxiety levels of learners is a serious matter to language teachers since it is
considered as the (Lui et.al.,2011) most powerful and negative predictor for students’ performance
in English. Interactive and communicative language teaching has been introduced to address such
problems. This approach provides more opportunity to students in participating in class discussions.
Oral participation is a good indicator of students’ engagement in learning (Frymer, 2015). As
a result, many college instructors require and/or grade oral participation. Exposure to native speakers
may be considered of help in alleviating anxiety in using the foreign language. However, a study
(Lee, 2009) revealed that no matter how long or short their stay is in the US, oral participation is still
considered as a challenge to them.
The language teacher may consider how often he conducts activities that require oral
participation It is then suggested that teachers consider both quality and quantity in oral participation
(Delaney, 2012). The most significant barrier to participation is a lack of confidence. Female students
are more likely than male students to report considerable anxiety at participating orally in a tutorial
setting. Reference shows that female students are more likely to experience a negative affective
response to oral communication in a small group setting. (Russel, 2015).
In relation to barriers and problems encountered in the learning of English as second language,
reticence of Asian learners is supposed to affect the programs of universities to encourage learners to
use English Language in formal classroom set up and outside classroom set-up (Trent 2009).
Social contexts of language learn-ing, such as students’ content course classrooms, affect not only
the amount and the type of input learners receive, but also the extent to which learners are able to
engage in meaningful real-life communication in the target language. (Lui, 2000)
Social skills play an important role in the learners’ performance. In analysing so, students’
peer relations skills were positively associated with their grades in in-class tests, but they were not
linked to their grades for oral participation. In contrast, students’ assertion skills were positively

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related to their grades for oral participation. These results are discussed with respect to the role of
peer relations skills and assertion skills for students’ academic learning and the fostering of these
skills in the classroom. (Jurkowski,2017)
In exploring factors of anxiety of second language learners, (Collante-Caiafa, 2020) “Anxiety,
low motivation to communicate, low self-confidence when learning a foreign language, the teacher's
method of supervising oral activities, fear of making mistakes and being ridiculed by peers are some
of the common factors that affected the oral participation of (these) students”.
There are ways that teachers explore in order to improve oral performance of students. In the
study of Hamzaoğlu et.al., (2016), it was found that students who used podcasts had higher oral
performance and lower speaking anxiety levels than the students who didn’t use podcast; and there
was a negative relationship between the participants’ oral performances and speaking.
Students’ skills in communication improvements are related to their active involvement in
class discussions. Conclusions suggest that discussion can be a useful addition to cross-curricular
programs (such as writing and speaking across the curriculum) and standalone courses (such as
public speaking). This technique can be used in combination with other strategies (Dallemore,
2010).

Objectives of the Study

1. What is the level of anxiety of college students in?
a. Fear of making mistakes;
b. Fear of difficulty;
c. Self-Abasement;
d. Lack of Self-Confidence
2. Is there a significant difference between the students’ level of anxiety in the different factors?
3. What learning activities are to be recommended to address students’ anxiety in classroom oral
participation?

Materials and Methods

Research Design
The descriptive survey method is used to determine the level of anxiety in Classroom Oral
Participation at Isabela State University Jones Campus. A descriptive qualitative method is also used
to confirm the underlying reasons for anxiety manifestation through Interview.

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Participants
Bachelor of Secondary Education junior students of Isabela State University, Jones Campus are
the respondents of the study. English Professors/ instructors in the same college were
interviewed.

Instrumentation
The instrument is composed of indicators of anxiety level in classroom oral participation as
perceived by the respondents, interpreted using the scale 1 – Never, 2 – Sometimes, 3 – Often,
4 – Always.
The following scale is used to determine students’ level of anxiety in classroom oral
participation.
Range Description Interpretation
3.50- Always Very High
4.00
2.50- Often High
3.49
1.50- Sometimes Low
2.49
1.00- Never Very Low
1.49

Furthermore, the data of this study are analysed using the descriptive statistics such as weighted
mean, inferential, and Analysis of Variance.

Results and Discussions

The data, in general, suggests that the students are not experiencing very high level of anxiety in oral
participation as majority of the responses cluster around “Sometimes” and “Often” which are
interpreted as “Low Anxiety” and “High Anxiety” respectively.

Fear of Making Mistakes

Statements Mean Interpretation
I feel like falling apart and going to pieces when even before I start 2.65 High
speaking.
I tense when I know that people are closely listening to what I have to 2.61 High
say.
I am afraid that the teacher corrects my mistake on the spot. 2.58 High
I feel embarrassed that I might give the wrong answer. 2.81 High
I fear that my classmates laugh at me when I recite. 2.45 Low
I hesitate even if I have ideas for fear that the teacher may not like my 2.55 High
answer.

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“I feel embarrassed that I might give the wrong answer” yields the highest mean of 2.81 which
may mean that students anticipate reaction even before reciting. Communication apprehension and
fear of negative evaluation were reported to be the two salient types of anxiety, according to the study
of AlSaqqafet.al., (2014)

Fear of Difficulty
Statements Mean Interpretation
I feel weak and tired after a graded recitation. 2.23 Low
I feel like fainting when called to stand. 2.19 Low
I feel shocked when called to recite. 2.68 High
I would rather not talk than go through difficulty of speaking the 2.23 Low
language.
I find talking to a group as stressful activity. 2.16 Low
I feel that reciting is just a natural and easy activity. 2.84 High

(It is noted that responses for Items 12, 17, 20, 21, 24. 25, and 26 were transformed since the
statements are positive. Since the statements are all negative (after transformation of responses), the
higher the mean, the higher is the level of anxiety.)
The 6th item, “I feel that reciting is just a natural and easy activity” manifested a mean of 2.84,
which is translated to high level of anxiety. In contrast to the statement, students do not consider such
as natural and easy activity.

Self-Abasement
Statements Mean Interpretation
I blush when I start reciting 2.29 Low
I believe that my teacher and classmates are better in English language High
2.84
than me.
I worry that I look bad when I recite. 2.45 Low
I fear of getting rejected if I commit mistakes. 2.68 High
I do not get frightened when called to recite. 3.13 High
I believe that my ideas are not acceptable. 1.87 Low
Among all indicators, the statement Ï do not get frightened when called to recite” (after being
transformed for interpretation) showed high level of anxiety, which means that they feel frightened
when they are called to recite.

Lack of Self-confidence
Statements Mean Interpretation
My arms and legs shake and tremble when reporting in front of the class. 2.42 Low
I feel that everything goes well when I recite. 2.84 High

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I feel calm and relaxed during recitation. 3.03 High

I can feel my heart race in oral performance/ participation. 2.58 High
I feel I would like to pee more often than usual. 2.03 Low
My hands are warm and dry during recitation. 2.71 High
I fall asleep easily after a day’s graded recitation. 3.10 High
I feel proud whenever I recite. 2.06 Low
Above table presents the fact that students have low self-confidence as inferred from not easily falling
asleep after a day’s recitation and by not feeling clam and relax during the activity.

Summary
Factors Mean Interpretation
Fear of Making Mistakes 2.61 High
Fear of Difficulty 2.39 Low
Self-Abasement 2.54 High
Lack of Self-confidence 2.60 High

It can be further noticed that the respondents have high anxiety because of fear of making mistakes
(M=2.61), self-abasement (M=2.54), and lack of self-confidence (M=2.60). The respondents, on the
other hand, have low anxiety because of fear of difficulty (M=2.39). In view of the foregoing, the
data indicates that the respondents are experiencing considerable level of anxiety during oral
participation hence, measures to address the problem must be undertaken. Moreover, there is no
significant difference between the students’ level of anxiety in the different factors.

Interview
Students
Ten out of the 31 respondents were randomly selected for an interview. They were assigned according
to number: from Student 1-10. The following were the answers gathered from the interviewees.
Common answers were transcribed as one.
When asked if they feel nervous when they recite, 7 out 10 said “yes”. The following reasons were
given:
-they anticipate that the teacher will scold them when they give wrong answers.
-they are not confident since they did not read the lesson
-there is no enough time to prepare for the lesson
-they believe that there are students who are better
-they do not pronounce English words correctly
-they get embarrassed when they give wrong answers
In this line, they were asked if they had an experience in oral recitations that they consider
traumatic. Student 5 said that it may not be traumatic but unforgettable. She continued by saying that

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when she recited, she was laughed at by her classmates because of the way she pronounces words.
Student 6 shared the same and added that the teacher corrects her mistake on the spot. Another student
shared that just the presence of the teacher causes her tension.
Students 5 and 6 admitted that the experience made them so shy in reciting. Other students
said that they have some experiences too but these only made them more confident in reciting. The
students under interview were asked to suggest activities or ways to help them overcome their anxiety
and the following were noted:
-The students should be given more activities in small groups so that they get used to sharing
their ideas.
-Teachers should try to understand that not all students are good in English.
-Teachers should tell his/her students’ imperfections privately and not publicly.
-Students may write their answers on a sheet of paper first to organize their thoughts.
-Teachers should give instructions that are clear and easy to understand.

Teachers
The teachers who are teaching English major and common subjects in the college were interviewed
regarding the common manifestations of anxiety among their students during recitation or oral
participation in a face-to-face classroom situation. The following were gathered:
- difficulty to start talking and ends up giving ‘astray ideas’.
- lack of communicative competence
- lack of confidence (they have an idea but they are not confident to express)
- confusion in forms and rules which results to grammatical errors
- stammering due to limited vocabulary
- too many pauses and unnecessary expressions
- attempt on answering using Filipino language

From the interview, it can be observed that the respondents’ common anxiety problems are
embarrassment, difficulty of using English language, and fear of what the teacher’s and classmates’
reaction.

Conclusion
The results from the study suggest that the students are not experiencing very high level of anxiety in
oral participation as majority of the responses cluster around “Sometimes” and “Often” which are
interpreted as “Low Anxiety” and “High Anxiety” respectively. The respondents have high anxiety
because of fear of making mistakes (M=2.61), self-abasement (M=2.54), and lack of self-confidence
(M=2.60). The respondents, on the other hand, have low anxiety because of fear of difficulty

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(M=2.39). The data indicates that the respondents are experiencing considerable level of anxiety
during oral participation hence, measures to address the problem must be undertaken. Moreover, there
is no significant difference between the students’ level of anxiety in the different factors.
In the interview, it can be interpreted that students’ common anxiety problems root from their
lack of self-confidence, fear of getting embarrassed, and lack of communicative competence.

Recommendations
Classroom activities that are more interactive and meaningful may play a significant role in
alleviating anxiety among second language learners, particularly in classroom oral participation. The
following recommendations are noted:
For Students:
1. Lack of confidence may yield from lack of preparedness. It is then suggested that
students manage their time better in order to prepare ad practice for activities that
require oral participation.
2. For problems in pronunciation, it may help to watch educational videos or visit
youtube channels (like Rachel’s Engish) for at least 10 minutes or more a day.
3. Reading is a worthwhile activity in preparing for the other macro skills. It is
recommended that students invest time in reading to gain insights and to learn
more vocabulary which they can use during oral participation.
4. It is highly recommended that a review on the basic rules in grammar (SVA,
tenses, etc) is done for better organization of thoughts.
For Teachers:
1. Giving instructions clearly is the key to a successful student performance. The
teachers may consider giving simple and clear questions and instructions to
students.
2. It is necessary to prepare for activities for small group discussions so that students
will get used to talking before she is exposed to a larger audience.
3. More interactive games, activities and exercises that require oral participation may
be given to students.
4. Necessary corrections to mistakes may be done in general in order to avoid further
embarrassment among the students.
5. Assignments may be given (to college students) in preparation for the next topics
for them to have ample time to prepare. (In most colleges, syllabi are given out to
students at the beginning of every semester to guide students on the flow of course
content. Giving advance assignments to specific issues in the topic may be helpful)

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References
AlSaqqaf, A., Bidin,Siti Jamilah, Shabdin, Ahmad Affendi, (2014). English Language Anxiety
among Arab Postgraduate Users: A case Study of Arab Postgraduates in a Higher Education
Institution in Malaysia. TESOL International Journal 9(2), pp 78-92
Collante-Caiafa, C. (2020). Factors generating reluctance in the oral participation in an English class
https://doi.org/10.17081/eduhum.22.39.4302 Education and Humanism, Vol. 22 No. 39
(2020): July-December. Article Published: Oct 23, 2020.
Dallimore, E. J., Hertenstein, J. H. and Platt, M. B. (2010). Using Discussion Pedagogy to Enhance
Oral and Written Communication Skills., Pages 163-172 | Published online: 07 Aug 2010
https://doi.org/10.3200/CTCH.56.3.163-172
Delaney, T. (2012). Quality and quantity of oral participation and English proficiency gains. First
Published November 15, 2012 Research Article https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168812455586
Frymier, A. B. and Houser, M. L., (2015). The Role of Oral Participation in Student Engagement.
Pages 83-104 Published online: 10Sep2015https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2015.106609.
Hamzaoğlu, H. and Koçoğlu, Z. (2016). The application of podcasting as an instructional tool to
improve Turkish EFL learners’ speaking anxiety. Pages 313-326 | Received 14 Oct 2015,
Accepted 07 Aug 2016, Published online: 10 Nov 2016
https://doi.org/10.1080/09523987.2016.1254889.
Jugo, R. R., (2020). Language Anxiety in Focus: The Case of Filipino Undergraduate Teacher
Education Learners Education Research International 2020.
Jurkowski, Susanne and Hänze, Martin (2017). A closer look at social skills and school performance:
students’ peer relations skills and assertion skills as predictors for their written and oral
performances. European Journal of Psychology of Education volume 32, pages79–95(2017).
Lee, G., (2009). Speaking up: Six Korean students’ oral participation in class discussions in US
graduate seminars English
for Specific Purposes. Volume 28, Issue 3, July 2009, Pages 142-156
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2009.01.007.
Lui, J. (2000). Understanding Asian students’ oral participation modes in American classrooms.
Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Volume 10, Issue 1, Jan 2000, p. 155 – 189 DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1075/japc.10.1.09liu © 2000 John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Lui, M. and Huang, W. (2011) An Exploration of Foreign Language Anxiety and English Learning
Motivation. Education Research International 2011.
Russel, R. and Cahill-O’Callagham, R., (2015). Speaking in the classroom: the impact of gender and
affective responses on oral participation Pages 60-72 Published online: 09 Jan 2015
https://doi.org/10.1080/03069400.2014.988459

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Said, M. M., and Weda S. (2018). English Language Anxiety and its Impacts on Students’ Oral
Communication among Indonesian Students: A Case Study at Tadulako University and
Universitas Negeri Makassar. TESOL International Journal 13(3), pp 21-30
Trent, J., (2009). Enhancing Oral Participation Across the Curriculum: Some Lessons from the EAP
Classroom. Hong Kong Institute of Education, The Asian EFL Journal 11(1).
Tsou, Wenli, (2008). Improving Speaking Skills Through Instruction in Oral Classroom Participation
First published: 31 December 2008 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2005.tb02452

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Logic, Reasoning and Language Structures: A Comparative Study of Literature

and Linguistics Learners

Rasib Mahmood*
PhD in English Linguistics and Literature from Air University Islamabad, Pakistan

Abduh Almashy**
Assistant Professor, English Department, Al Qunfudah Campus, UQU, Makkah Saudi Arabia

Iftikhar Alam***
English Department, Common First Year, Al Qunfudah Campus, UQU, Makkah Saudi Arabia

Akhter Habib Shah****

Department of English, College of Science and Humanities at Al Kharj, Prince Sattam Bin
Abdulaziz University,Al Kharj-11942 , Saudi Arabia

Abstract
The present research proposes that literature students are more rational and logical in their approach
while writing academically. In contrast, students of language are limited in their analytical approach
during academic activities. Given reason is the fact that the students of language focus more on
sentence structures rather than hidden meanings of the given text/writing activity. This research aims
to compare linguistics and literature students of the postgraduate level to judge their ability to reason
on logical grounds and investigate language students' skills who rely more on sentence structure to
explore the meanings during academic activities. Literature and language are interlinked with each
other; one cannot survive without the other. The ideas are conveyed through language, and literature
provides the vocabulary to language. Literature develops the elements of arguing and reasoning. The
students of literature become more analytical and interpretive as compared to the students of other
disciplines. They see reality from different angles, which they establish through language. The
students of linguistics are more focused on the sentence structures of the language. The researchers
have collected the data from the writing scripts of linguistics and literature students of the PhD level.
He has drawn a comparison between the researchers of two disciplines. This research is qualitative
as well as quantitative, where data has been collected through interviews and tests. Classroom
observation has been used as a reach method.

Keywords: Logic, Reasoning, Literature, Linguistics, Structures, Learners

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*[email protected]
**[email protected]
***[email protected]
****[email protected]

Introduction
Human beings elaborate on things in order in their writing practices to construct logic, reasons, and
language structures (Sampson, 1985). These variables are interlinked with each other. Logic is built
through reasons and language structures (Carnap, 2002). Language and sequence of reasons vary
from discipline to discipline and situation to situation (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994). The writing
techniques of the researchers/learners depend on their readings and the nature of the subject they are
reading (Cho & Brutt-Griffler, 2015). Some scholars believe that extensive reading directly affects
writing skills (Song &Sardegna, 2014). Extensive reading is essential in any writing script's logical
organisation to construct realities (Alvesson & Kärreman, 2000).
Realities are constructed through logic and reasoning through the use of language (Gergen,
2009). But the attitude of the learners of different disciplines varies (Richardson, 1996). The science
students' written script differs from the students of humanities and social sciences (Jewitt, 2005).
Scientists and economists use technical language rather than symbolic language (Samuels, 2013).
Literature students mostly use figurative language to describe a straightforward concept and topic
(Burke, 1966). Sometimes they use dramatic, fictional, and poetic language in academic writings
(Rinehart, 1998). The use of literary language has been seen even in the writings of doctorate students.
The literary readings affect the writing of literature students (Many & Wiseman, 1992). Imaginative
thinking prevails in all the spheres of their life (Crapanzano, 2004). This imaginative attitude can be
seen when they are asked a very simple question (Basadur et al., 2000). While on the other hand,
linguistics researchers/learners depend on numerical and quantitative research. They depend on
numbers as compared to the literature students.
Descriptive attitude can be observed in literary writings as well as interpretation of the literary
writings (Czarniawska, 1999). The literature research is more descriptive and interpretative as
compared to the research in linguistics (Brown, 2004). There will be no wrong to say that
interpretation is the only research method that governs all other literary research methods (Ryan,
Scapens & Theobald, 2002). By following this method, the literary researcher relates different
situations and incidents in the context of other incidents and situations of the past to predict the future
(Gremler, 2004). It is a fact that descriptive attitude remains prominent in literature students' writings
compared to the linguistics candidate (Van de Poel & Gasiorek, 2012). Moreover, the literature

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students use imaginative power to relate different situations and elements in different periods (Webb,
2016). In linguistics, the description is not required as compared to literature (Culler, 2002). The
researchers in linguistics believe in numbers.
The literature students add examples from historical and religious accounts in their academic
writings (Young et al., 2004). They focus more on connecting different incidents and situations with
history (Van Straaten, Wilschut & Oostdam, 2016). The majority of the literature students rely on a
comparative analysis (Marra, Moore & Klimczak, 2004). The English literature learners focus on
foreign as well as native culture (Myles & Cheng, 2003). This practice develops multidimensional
perspectives in their minds (Falicov, 1995). They try to create a rationale by giving examples from
different disciplines.
Literature trained its learners to use symbolic language and complex sentences (Bland, 2013).
Sometimes the sentences of the literature learners are complexed as compared to linguistics learners.
The symbolic language in academic writing seems a hurdle in understanding non-literary learners
(Thornborrow & Wareing, 1998). They use excessive literary devices and dramatic dialogues in their
writings (Mahmood et al., 2020). Linguistics learners mostly use the ordinary person language, which
is easily understandable to the common readers and researchers (Brown & Rodgers, 2002). They
avoid flowery language, unlike the researchers of the literature. Additionally, they avoid symbolic
and multi-perspective vocabulary.

Literature Review
The faculty of reasoning is endowed to human beings naturally (Fisher, 1984). It is the capacity of
making sense in any field of life. The reason is associated with the act of cognition (Alexander, 2016).
The discipline of logic is concerned with how human beings use formal ways to produce a valid
argument (DutilhNovaes, 2011). It is in close connection with Philosophy, mathematics, art, and
science. Reasoning can be divided into logical reasoning, inductive, verbal reasoning, and non-verbal
reasoning (Wegerif, Mercer & Dawes, 1999). Logical reasoning can be further divided into inductive
and deductive reasoning (Goel, 2007). In deductive reasoning, logical reasoning moves from
universal to particular, and in inductive reasoning, it moves from particular to universal (Zalaghi &
Khazaei, 2016). Following are the examples of two types of reason.
Deductive Reasoning:
All men are mortal.
Ali is a man
Ali is mortal
Inductive Reasoning
A is mortal
B is mortal

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C is mortal
Therefore: All men are mortal
Both types are the two methods of thinking process used by the human mind in daily life
(Lave, 1988). Those who adopt a logical way to find the truth adopt any one of these (Ayer, 2012). It
has been observed that poetic language is devoid of rational expression (Widdowson, 1992). Since
an author's emotional discourse is an abstract way of expressing thoughts and ideas, the rational
approach is hardly expected from them (Haidt, 2001). Few popular devices are alliteration,
onomatopoeia, hyperbole.
The language of literature is different from scientific and other types of writing (Jakobson,
1987). In terms of techniques, literary writings are embellished with the help of literary devices. These
devices work as a tool to make the language more beautiful and meaningful (Shohamy, 2006).
Literary techniques deliberately construct language in a specific way to deliver meanings (Krauss,
2005). The literary devices can be in the form of a single word as well as a phrase.
The notion of superiority between literature and linguistics is difficult to establish because the
survival of the two is difficult without each other (DeKeyser, 1998). Literature cannot exist without
language, and the same is the case with language (Jakobson, 1987). Literature is written in the
language, while language borrows concepts and words from a culture which is an integral part of the
culture (Liu, 1995). But it is also the fact that different approaches have been used in teaching
literature and linguistics (Taylor, 1988). These differences have effects on the writings of the learners.
Commonly six approaches have been used to teach literature students, such as paraphrastic approach,
stylistic approach, personal response approach, language-based approach, and information-based
approaches (Rashid et al., 2010). The teachers of language adopt translational grammar approach,
direct approach, audiovisual approach, the silent way, functional national approach, communicative
learning approach, etc., to teach the language learners (Bacha & Ilyas2014).
Literature is written in language but in some context. These contexts can be fictional and
historical (White,1974). The critic and reader give new contextual meanings to a literary text when it
is analysed and read by them. According to Johanna S DeStefano, it is a very important and crucial
concern in the field of education. The teachers adopt different techniques to accomplish this goal
(DeStefano, 1973).
John F. Sowa narrates that all the languages have words for all logic operators, even the logics,
which have not been invented yet. These languages have the terms and structures for everything that
anyone assumed, thought, imagined, or discovered. Aristotle believes that logic is considered a tool
for reasoning and analysing ontologies implicit in language. Some linguists and logicians think
beyond the concept of Aristotle, and they are of the view that logic exists at the foundation of all NLs
(Sowa, 2010). It is also the fact that logic is always attached to reasoning.

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Bronkhorst et al. are of the view that logical reasoning has great importance in everyday life
because the concept of every living and non-living thing is created through logical reasoning. It is
also considered a significant element in the development of critical thinking. There will be no wrong
to say that this logical reasoning helps in the building of critical thinking in students at the beginning
of their learning process at the school level. Teachers try to develop logical reasoning to enhance their
students' critical thinking (Bronkhorst et al., 2020).
Levesque has tried to establish this notion that knowledge representation and reasoning are
possible through the computer. The computer will help in solving human beings' problems in one
way or another based on logic. Even the computer will become able to solve the complex issues of
human beings in the future. It will design many things more efficiently by building complex
systems/software (Levesque, 1986). But it is the fact that the teachers' training and techniques to teach
literature students directly affect their writing capabilities in one way or another. That is the reason
that literature students become more imaginative as compare to the students of linguistics.

Research Methodology
This research is purely qualitative, where data has been collected through classroom tests and
interviews from literature and linguistics background researchers. The targeted groups of students are
PhD. Linguistic and PhD. Literature researchers from KPK and Punjab. The data has been collected
through class assignments and tests of the researchers and the teachers' interviews. Twenty students
have been selected from Punjab (10 Males+10 Females) and twenty from KPK (10 Males+10
Females) for this project.

Analysis
The present research is conducted to compare two groups of students at the PhD level in Pakistani
Universities. One group of learners consisted of those whose major subject was English literature,
while the other group had learners with background knowledge of English language/linguistics. It is
pertinent to keep in mind that the learners were students of advanced research and were taught
academic writing to research the doctorate level. The students who were specialised in English
literature and language were part of the same academic class. The researcher who also worked as the
resource person of the class, investigated the approach of both groups while writing academically.
Moreover, it was also the concern of investigating how their approach of analysing a text or case was
different from each other. The data was collected from the assignments, class activities, and final term
examination of the learners.
Academic writing is concerned with the students' ability to write for academic purposes
(Mahmood et al., 2020). Notes taking, assignment making, article writing, and finally, thesis writing
have been major purposes of writing academically. Writing for educational purposes requires

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following the specific rules and regulations to complete a scholarly document. The researcher who
was also the resource person of the academic writing class, noted that few students were different in
their approach and understanding of the given tasks from the rest of the learners. This difference of
approach motivated the researcher to investigate the reasons behind it. To make the situation clear,
the researcher conducted interviews of the learners, and it was found that the difference was due to
the difference in their background knowledge. After interviews, the researcher explored that for better
analysis, they can be divided into two groups. One group had learners specialising in literature, while
the other group specialised in language/linguistics.
Since the learners aimed to teach academic writing to conduct research, their assignments,
class activities, and thesis writing process were taken as data to observe and investigate their writing
approach for conducting research (Mahmood et al., 2020). Following are the essential points that
helped analyse their approach and understanding of the given tasks.

Characteristics of Literature Specialized Learners

Choice of Vocabulary
The very first thing observed by the researcher was the choice of diction made by learners with
background knowledge of English literature. They had an extended word bank, as they had more
synonyms for one word. Large word banks helped them in avoiding the chance of a repetition of
words. Moreover, the words they chose for academic writing assignments were a bit flowery and
could provide more than one meaning. The use of flowery and complex vocabulary can be appreciated
in literary writings, but it is not recommended when utilised for an academic writing style because
writing for research purposes demands clarity of ideas. If researchers are found involved using
vocabulary with dual meaning, it may lead to vagueness.

Inter-textuality
Inter-textuality is another significant quality found in the academic writing tasks done by literature
students. Inter-textuality means the relationship between two or more texts. The term refers to the use
of taking examples from another text, to explain, describe and clarify the text in hand. It helps to
make a comparison and contrast between the two texts. The researcher found the element of inter-
textuality in the writing pattern of literature students. They took examples from social, religious, and
historical accounts to strengthen their research-based writing.

More Interpretative
Learners with literary backgrounds were observed as more interpretative in their approach towards
writing academically rather than being descriptive in approach. The difference between being
descriptive and interpretative in one's approach is that the former quality refers to explaining and

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clarifying (an object, text, case) in an objective and non-judgmental way. At the same time, the latter
is known as the act of explaining (an object, text, case) in a subjective manner. The subjective
explanation includes the interpreter's understanding of the given situation or text etc. The drawback
of being more interpretative is that it can lead to a based way of looking at reality, which can be
harmful to research-based writing. But it can equally be helpful in some cases while researching in
the fields of social sciences and humanities.

Less Logical
Learners with a background in literature were found less logical in their academic writing practices.
The research hypothesis that a major reason behind being less logical can be their training of using
literary devices and signs and symbols as the students of literature. Literary devices in literature are
used as a tool to embellish writing as well as it paves the way for conveying meaning in as few
possible words as it can. Literature students were obsessed with this style of writing, even in academic
writing.

More Imaginative
The use of imagination is one of the instinctive qualities of human beings. All human beings use their
imaginative power, knowingly and unknowingly. Academic writing learners who belonged to the
field of literature were found lucidly using imaginative faculty. Strong imaginative power is not much
appreciated in academic writing because it can make the situation complexed. Moreover, such type
of writing cannot help build some argument. Therefore, learners were guided to avoid excessive use
of imaginative power in academic writing.

Characteristics of Language/Linguistic Specialized Learners

Choice of Vocabulary
An analysis of the class assignments of the teachers who were having specialisation in the
language/linguistic field showed that their choice of vocabulary was a bit different from the students
of English literature. Learners with background knowledge of linguistic/language used a limited
vocabulary. They hardly use synonymous for one specific word. Moreover, they avoided flowery
language; instead, they preferred simple and technical vocabulary appropriated for academic writing.

Inter-textuality
These students were not much familiar with the practice of inter-textually. Their limited approach
towards reading practices other than the syllabus books kept them from utilising the productive way
of writing academically. As it has been mentioned earlier that inter-textuality refer to the act of giving

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references to other text to work comparisons and contrasts. Language students were found less
interested in this practice

Less interpretative
These learners preferred to be descriptive in their approach compared to students of literature in their
academic writing. The quality of being objective characterises the descriptive approach. These
learners were found less interpretative because they avoided personal points of view in the academic
writing tasks. The descriptive writing style is appreciated much in academic writing practices

More Logical
It has been noted through class assignments of academic writing of non-literary background learners
that they appeared to be more logical in approach. When they were given a research-based task, they
handled it more technically. The researcher claimed that since language/linguistic students focus more
on a direct approach to the given topic while using simple, natural language and keeping themselves
away from metaphorical language use, they grip their academic tasks more logically.

Less Imaginative
As stated previously, imaginative faculty is one of the basic qualities that human beings possess. But
it is equally important how and to what extent it can be used and in which context it is being used.
The use of imaginative power was analysed in the writings of language/linguistic learners in an
academic writing class, and it was observed that they were not much indulged in the habit of utilising
their imaginative faculties. Imagination sometimes takes the academic writer away from his/her basic
task of researching because imagination leads to nowhere in such tasks. In this way, these learners
were credited with using a logical approach and avoiding excessive or unwanted use of imaginative
power.

Conclusion
A thorough analysis of the two groups of learners chosen from two different backgrounds established
that educational training and background of learners play a vital role in academic writing/research-
based writing. Those universities which conduct joint coursework for PhD. English candidates, their
learners are better able to create a balance between literature and language-based activities. The
institutions that offer separate coursework for literature and language students face difficulty handling
research-based writing activities to complete their PhD degree in English. The research concludes
that the students interested in pursuing their PhD in English must have sufficient knowledge of
linguistics and literary rules. In this way, they will be better able to conduct research and write
academically effectively.

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English Speaking Anxiety, Stressors, and Coping Techniques of College Student

Researchers

Michael E. Santos*
Wilfredo Q. Cunanan
Arnelia B. Mandap
Don Honorio Ventura State University, Bacolor Pampanga Philippines

Abstract
The study was carried out with the intention to describe the English speaking anxiety, stressors, and
coping techniques among college students taking up Research subject of a state university in the
Philippines. This quantitative descriptive study was participated by (N=101) 4th year college students.
The Second Language Speaking Anxiety Scale (SLSAS), English speaking stressor and coping
technique ranking scale by Woodrow (2006) were administered. Based on the results of the study,
the researchers made key recommendations. Pedagogical implications were also discussed in this
research article.

Keywords: English speaking anxiety, stressor, coping techniques

Introduction
A research study by Genc, Kulusakli, and Aydin (2016) delineated that anxiety plays a significant
importance in language learning and it can affect language learning process especially language
learners’ productive skills. Anxiety refers to an emotional state that can have both positive and
negative influences, and which fosters and facilitates or disturbs and impedes learning (MacIntyre,
1995). Speaking anxiety have indicated that there is a powerful relationship between anxiety and
success in speaking in foreign language classrooms and speaking has been recognized as one of the
most anxiety-provoking skills. Learners of foreign language use some coping strategies to overcome
this anxiety.
There are three types of anxiety. These are trait, situation-specific, and state anxiety (Cattell &
Scheier, 1963; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989). Trait anxiety refers to a general tendency to become
nervous in a wide range of situations (Spielberger, 1983). People with trait anxiety are anxious about
many things under many circumstances.

*[email protected]

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State anxiety is the feeling of worry or stress that takes place at a particular moment
under a particular circumstance (Spielberger, 1983) and often accompanies physical
signs such as perspiration, sweaty palms, dry mouth, muscle contractions and tension,
and increased heart rate. A situation-specific anxiety is similar to trait anxiety in that it
is stable over time, but it may not be consistent across situations. Rather, it is subject to
change from situation to situation. Public speaking anxiety is an example of situation-
specific anxiety.
Martin (2019) disclosed that speaking anxiety if not given the proper intervention
could affect the confidence of the students to communicate fluently in their other
academic endeavors or when they are already in the field of work. Becoming competent
on the English language especially speaking is necessary for education students or
future teachers who will be required to speak in English for their practice teaching or
when they become full-fledged teachers. It is a common knowledge that English
speaking competence has always been a measure of effectiveness and readiness as a
teacher in the Philippines. Teachers most of the time are required to speak English
especially in private schools and international schools.
Kirkpatrick (2019) expressed that English is a contemporary element in the society
which has become a vital instrument of communication across the world. It has made
it easier for people to represent themselves in a global platform. English allows
elementary and junior high school students to understand what revolves around the
world, overcoming barriers associated with language. Learning becomes easier
enabling them to read a lot of books and articles and speak with people from different
places across the world. While Taupan (2019) reported that communication could be a
very important component in all spheres of nursing care, including prevention,
treatment, rehabilitation, education, and health promotion. However, it is often taken
for granted as part of daily life specifically, competency in communication is central to
nursing.
In this regard, the researchers as educator themselves felt the need to investigate
the English speaking anxiety, identify the common stressors and coping techniques of
4th year education students who are involved in research presentations as part of their
course requirement. The researchers believed that their endeavor would not only add to
the existing studies relating to English speaking anxieties but to properly address these
as well.

Methods
Participants and Procedure
One hundred one (N=101) student teachers of the College of Education in a state
university in Pampanga participated in this descriptive quantitative research by
completing the Second Language Anxiety Speaking Scale and English Speaking
Stressor and Coping Technique Scale. Each participant was required to read and sign
an informed consent in agreement to voluntarily participate in the study. Also, the
respondents were assured that all their responses to the instruments will remain
confidential.

Instruments
Second Language Speaking Anxiety Scale (SLSAS) (Woodrow, 2006). This
questionnaire consists of 12 items on a 5-point Likert type scale ranging from 1 (not
anxious at all) to 5 (extremely anxious) measuring the English speaking anxiety that

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the participants were likely to encounter in communicative settings concerning in-

class/out-of-class distinction. English speaking stressor and coping technique ranking
scale. This survey questionnaire asked respondents to rank their common stressors (1-
10) and coping techniques (1-5) with 1 as the highest.

Data analysis
For the statistical analysis of data, means were computed, tabulated, and interpreted.

Results and Discussion

Respondents’ English Speaking In-Class Anxiety
The results on the respondents in-class anxiety level is slightly anxious (Figure 1). The
items‘Giving an oral presentation’, ‘Contribute to a formal discussion’, and ‘Teacher
asks me a question in English in class’ with a mean of 2.85, 2.74, 2.70 respectively
were sensed by the respondents as in-class condition that make them anxious, similar
to the study of Martin (2019). In a study by Woodrow (2006) on Asian students with
Chinese as majority participants who are enrolled in English for Academic Purpose
(EAP), it was discovered that students have moderate level of in-class anxiety.
Likewise, giving an oral presentation and contributing to formal discussion to be the
most uneasy situations for English speaking in-class anxiety.

IN CLASS ANXIETY

6 When askeded to contribute to a formal discussion 2.74

5 Giving an oral presentation to the rest of the class 2.85

4 Taking part in a role play in front of the class 2.56

3 Taking part in a group discussion in class 2.41

2 Speaking informally to my English teacher 2.77

1 The teacher asks me a question in Engish in class 2.70

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

Figure 1. Respondents’ in-class anxiety

Respondents’ English Speaking Out-Class Anxiety

Figure 2 displays the respondents’ English speaking out-class anxiety, which disclosed
that generally the respondents out-class anxiety level is slightly very close to being
moderately. The items ’Talking to administrative staff’, ‘A native English speaker I do
not know asks me questions’ and ‘A supervisor in my University asks me a question in
English’ with a mean of 2.97, 2.97, 2,96 respectively were perceived by the
respondents as an out-class situation that make them anxious. Contrary to the study of
Martin (2019) the items ‘Answer question of lecturer’ and ‘Ask question to lecturer’
were perceived by his respondents as out-class situation that make them very anxious.

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While, Woodrow (2006) discovered that answering the lecturer in English and asking
the lecturer in English were the most stressful English speaking out-class situation.

OUT CLASS ANXIETY

6 Talking to administrative staff 2.97

5 A native english speaker ask me questions 2.78

4 A supervisor in my University asks me a question in English 2.96

3 Starting conversation with a friend who is a native speaker of English 2.53

2 Taking part in a conversation out of class with more than 1 native speaker of English 2.72

1 Talking to administrative staff ofmy school in English 2.97

2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1

Figure 2. Respondents’ out-class anxiety

Respondents’ English Speaking Common Stressors and Coping Techniques

The respondents were asked to ranked their common stressors as regards to speaking
English. The respondents’ answers as indicated in Figure 3 revealed that ‘Speaking in
English to strangers’, Not being able to make self understood’ and ‘Speaking in English
in classroom activities’ with a mean of 6.16, 6.16, 6.0 respectively are the top three
common stressors among respondents. While Martin (2019) reported that ‘Talking to
unfamiliar topic’, ‘Speaking to Native Speaker’, and ‘Giving an oral presentation’
ranked high as common stressors. Likewise, Woodrow (2006) revealed that one of the
major English speaking stressors is talking to native speakers, moreover, performing
English speaking in front of the class scored high.

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COMMON STRESSORS 10. Not being able tomake self

understood.
10 9. Speaking in test situations.
9 8. Talking to someone of higher status.
8 7. Talking about unfamiliar topic.
7 6. Not being able to understood when
6 spoken to.
5 5. Speaking in English to strangers.
4
4. Speaking in English in classroom
3
activities.
2
3. Speaking in English to native speakers
1
2. Giving an oral presentation
0 2 4 6 8 1.Performing in English in front of
classmates.

Figure 3. Respondents’ Common Stressors

Moreover, the respondents were also asked on the techniques that they use to cope-
up with English speaking anxiety. As presented in Figure 4, it was concealed that item
5 ‘Compensation’, item 4 ‘Relaxation techniques’, and item 1 ‘Perseverance’ floated
as the respondents coping techniques. On the other hand Martin (2019) stated
‘Improving language/knowledge in English’, ‘Positive thinking’, and ‘Perseverance’
appeared to be his respondents coping techniques in English speaking anxiety.
Similarly, in a study by Woodrow (2006) it was found out that majority of the
respondents regarded perseverance and improving knowledge in English as the most
common coping techniques on English speaking anxiety are.

COPING TECHNIQUES

5 Relaxation techniques 3.12

4 Compensation 4.07

3 Positive thinking 2.13

2 Improving language 2.62

1 Perseverance 3.02

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

Figure 4. Respondents’ Coping Techniques

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Pedagogical Implications
Language is the most important aspect in the life of man. It can be defined as a basic
form of communication which is dynamic and flexible. It is universally renowned for
its power of expression and its rich literature. The changing times have witnessed the
growing need of English language in all walks of life. In school, colleges, and
universities, the teaching of the English language has become a bigger challenge.
Although enough awareness is prevailing among students but still many of them
struggle a lot to learn the language and one of the main reason is anxiety.
For a developing and multilingual country like the Philippines, it is essential to
learn the so called “global language”. It is on this reason the Department of Education
implemented the K-12 curriculum to answer the pressing needs of Filipino students to
become globally competitive not only in Math and Sciences but also in the English
language, specifically speaking skills.
To remain relevant and interesting, the researchers viewed that the respondents as
future teachers should possess 21st century skills and one of which is the effective
communication. They must be able to display these skills to be at par in the present
times and be able to contribute to the development of the 21st century learners.
Moreover, it is suggested that the future teachers be equipped with a wider range of
knowledge, mastery of skills, and teaching competencies which can address global
demands in the future. Finally, the results of the study may serve as an eye opener for
English teachers to teach English not only as a subject but a skill subject.

Conclusions
th
The speaking anxiety level of the 4 year college student research presenters is slightly
anxious very close to being moderately anxious. Giving an oral presentation, contribute
to a formal discussion, and teacher asks me a question in English in class were sensed
by the respondents as in-class condition that make them anxious. While the items
‘talking to administrative staff’, ‘a native English speaker I do not know asks me
questions’ and ‘a supervisor in my University asks me a question in English’ scored
high as they were perceived by the respondents as an out-class situation that make them
anxious. Regarding to the common stressors, the respondents viewed speaking in
English to strangers, not being able to make self understood and speaking in English in
classroom activities as their major common stressors.
To relieve with the English speaking anxiety, the respondents resorted to
compensation, relaxation techniques, and perseverance as their best coping techniques.
Based from the conclusions of the study, the researchers recommended that teachers
should be aware and acknowledge that their students has anxieties, endure stress, and
has different coping techniques in speaking in English from which has an impact on
their learning process. In line with this, it is recommended that the language teachers
should provide various group activities in their class in such a way that it will lessen
the anxieties of the students by creating equal opportunities to speak the English
language inside and outside the classroom thus, improving their English proficiency in
speaking.

References
Cattell, R. B., & Scheier, I. H. (1963). Handbook for the IPAT Anxiety Scale
Questionnaire (self Analysis Form): A Brief, Valid, and Non-stressful

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Questionnaire Scale, Measuring Anxiety Level in Adults and Young Adults

Down to 14 Or 15 Years of Age. Institute for Personality and Ability Testing.
Genç, G., Kuluşaklı, E., & Aydın, S. (2016). Exploring EFL learners’ perceived self-
efficacy and beliefs on English language learning. Australian Journal of Teacher
Education, 41(2), 4.
MacIntyre, P. D. (1995). How does anxiety affect second language learning? A reply
to Sparks and Ganschow. The modern language journal, 79(1), 90-99.
MacIntyre, Peter D., and Robert C. Gardner. "Anxiety and second‐language learning:
Toward a theoretical clarification." Language learning 39.2 (1989): 251-275.
Martin, J.T. (2019). English speaking anxiety of Physical Education Major Students.
The Asian EFL Journal 23(3.2)
Spielberger, C. D. (1983). State-trait anxiety inventory for adults.
Taupan, S.S. (2019). Nursing Students’ Attitudes towards Learning Communication
Skills. The Asian ESP Journal 15(1.2)
Woodrow, L. (2006). Anxiety and speaking English as a second language. RELC
journal, 37(3), 308-328.

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Between Perception and Practice: The Emergency of Encouraging

EFL Teachers to Implant HOTS in Their Classrooms

Dwita Laksmita Rachmawati

Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia & Universitas Merdeka Pasuruan,
Indonesia

Oikurema Purwati
Syafi’ul Anam
Slamet Setiawan*
Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia

Abstract
Implementing HOTS in teaching and learning activities is essential for students to
compete globally. It requires teachers to engage their learners to accelerate their higher
stage thinking skills during their class activities. Nevertheless, there has been no
comprehensive investigation of EFL teachers' knowledge and practices in
implementing HOTS in the classroom. This research addressed teachers' conceptions
about HOTS in the EFL classroom by analyzing interviews and 13 items of a
questionnaire with the secondary level teachers in East Java, Indonesia. To analyze the
data, the researchers focused on bringing all data together to understand further how
the participants conceptualize HOTS and how HOTS are perceived to be endorsed in
learning activities. Although the participants aware that incorporating HOTS is closely
intertwined with English subjects and curriculum, this research shows that the teachers'
understanding of HOTS is still inadequate. In other words, this research suggests that
Indonesian EFL teachers need to deepen their knowledge of HOTS. There is a
compelling argument calling for immediate training for educators to improve
pedagogical practice in implementing HOTS, especially in the teaching and learning
phase.

Keywords: HOTS, HOTS-based instruction, Indonesian context

* [email protected]

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Introduction
Implanting students with High Order Thinking Skills (Hereafter HOTS) is essential to
create global citizens with innovative and creative skills (Schulz and Fitzpatrick 2016).
The reports of educational policy worldwide emphasize that high-level thinking skills
are pivotal for the economy's future growth (Mishra and Kotecha 2016). Critical
thinking, reasonableness, and tolerance are crucial to individual and interpersonal well-
being in an expanding global environment (OECD 2018). HOTS becomes the center of
attention for several investigators (Cancino and Capredoni 2020). They stated the
essential of implementing HOTS in teaching and learning activities. Many teachers and
researchers in the educational areas have highly recommended enhancing learners’
HOTS (Avargil, Herscovitz, and Dori 2012). There is a trend to include HOTS in a
curriculum. HOTS has been inserted as the objectives of learning in an Educational
Policy, such as in England in 1999, Hong Kong in 2000, Malaysia in 2003, and China
in 2001 (Li 2016). Other emerging countries, such as Thailand, Mexico, Russia, and
Brazil, also have similar initiatives (Li and Wegerif 2014). In the Indonesian context,
English teachers are demanded to use HOTS during the teaching process. Since
establishing the 2013 Curriculum that promotes Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS),
English teachers have been encouraged to use HOTS during the teaching process. The
Indonesian government authorized the implementation of HOTS to the Ministry of
Education Regulation number 22 in 2016 concerning the Elementary Standard Process
and Secondary Level in education (Permendikbud 2016). Thus, English teachers should
have been familiar with HOTS in teaching students. To use HOTS, teachers should
involve students during the learning process that promotes activities beyond
comprehension.
Based on the practical level, educators are suggested to encourage HOTS in a
classroom since it is essential to equip students with 21st-century competence (Jerome,
Lee, and Ting 2017b; Yeung 2015). The 21st-century demand for education emerges
with thinking skills called high-order thinking skills (HOTS). Scholars have claimed
that HOTS and learners’ academic success are closely intertwined. In this case, learners
who have HOTS often do better in education than those who are not (Li and Walsh
2011; Wilson and Narasuman 2020). That is why the implementation of HOTS is
essential in the educational phase, particularly in the teaching-learning activities. The
students’ higher-level thinking capability in the learning cycle will impact the
efficiency of the learning. The government should innovate the curriculum to fit the
current professional skills needed to be mastered by the students. Teachers' attitude and
knowledge are considered a main pre-requisite for the successful implementation of
change. It is essential to innovate the curriculum (Vu, Winser, and Walsh 2020).
Therefore, educators’ knowledge of HOTS is essential to be investigated to reform the
curriculum.

Literature Review
Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy
Bloom’s updated taxonomy is the category to assess thinking skills in education (Singh
and Shaari 2019). The taxonomy is assumed to be beneficial for test item developers to
align their questions with syllabus and learning goals (Bloom et al. 1956; Krathwohl
2002). Enacting the six proficiency levels in Bloom's revised taxonomy, the objective
of Indonesia's 2013 curriculum is to prepare Indonesians to become creative and
innovative people who can make a contribution to communities and world civilizations

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(Permendikbud 2013). The most significant difference between the original and new
versions of Bloom's taxonomy is that the new version has two dimensions: knowledge
and cognitive dimensions (Anderson et al. 2001; Brookhart 2010). Bloom’s revised
taxonomy can be illustrated in Figure 1 below:

High Order
Thinking
Skills

Low Order
Thinking
Skills

Figure 1: Bloom’s revised taxonomy (Mishra and Kotecha 2016)

In the revised edition of Bloom's category, thinking skills from the lower level
of thinking skills to the higher stage of thinking skills can be defined in the following
explanations (Anderson et al. 2001). First, it is "remembering," which refers to the
capability to recall specific information from long-term memory. Second, it is
"understanding" that includes the ability to construct concepts derived from oral,
written, and visual communication, often known as instructional messages. Third, it is
"applying" means the capacity to implement or perform a specific procedure to
overcome obstacles and to employ knowledge in actual circumstances. Moreover,
"analyzing" requires the opportunity to break down a particular issue into its constituent
elements and decide how such parts are tied to each other. Furthermore, it is
"evaluating" in which the skill to make judgments based on the current relevant
requirements and standards. The last is "creating," which can make coherent
information and reorganize the components into a new pattern or structure.

High-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)-Oriented Teaching Activities

Some previous studies indicate that cognition and language development are
interrelated in language education (Ghonsooly and Showqi 2012; Li 2016; Li and
Wegerif 2014). It is well-claimed that educators probably play the most crucial part in
promoting any educational innovation. Hence, giving HOTS-based instruction is one
of the most excellent ways to equip students with HOTS in this current era, especially
in Indonesia’s 2013 curriculum (henceforth K-13) (Nourdad, Masoudi, and Rahimali
2018; Widodo 2016; Wilson and Narasuman 2020). Learners who are trained
and prepared to think at a higher level positively affect their learning growth (Heong et
al. 2011; Tanujaya 2015; Tanujaya, Mumu, and Margono 2017).

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Many research claimed that teachers’ pedagogical belief and knowledge affect
their teaching in the classroom (Farrell and Kun 2007; Miri, David, and Uri 2007;
Rickinson et al. 2017), decision making, and interaction (Ab Kadir 2017). As Dwyer,
Hogan, and Stewart (2014) explained, language learning beliefs and knowledge could
influence everything they do in the classroom, like prompting, advising, assisting, and
guiding classroom activities more vigorously than applying a coursebook pedagogy
book. So, whatever teachers do to decide while advising and assisting their class, they
are molding the future society (Casanave 2010; Li and Walsh 2011; Zohar, Degani, and
Vaaknin 2001). Thus, if teachers assume that memorizing is the main objective of
learning, they will emphasize remembering skills and always guide their students to
remember everything they have learned.
Although there is an urgent need for HOTS-based teaching and learning
activities and assessment in this current era, there are still several problems with the
integration of HOT in the classroom context (Hashim, Ali, and Shamsudin 2017). For
instance, Li (2016) investigated EFL teachers' knowledge in China on HOTS by using
questionnaires and interviews. The research indicates that EFL teachers in China do not
have sufficient knowledge on HOTS, yet they believe that HOTS is essential for
students. Moreover, Mok (2009) investigated secondary school teachers in Hong Kong.
He found that educators do not have enough understanding that can be incorporated in
the class to enhance their learners’ HOTS. The result showed that educators did not
construct chances to raise their students’ HOTS. The teachers’ questions were not
indicated HOTS, and they did not give their learners space to think critically. Moreover,
Schulz and Fitzpatrick (2016) found that teachers showed uncertainty on what HOTS
means. All in all, the reality indicates that EFL instructors find it challenging to
construct HOTS-based teaching and learning activities and assessments, which would
significantly affect the assessment phase and teaching-learning process.
Based on the issues, the study purposed to identify EFL teachers' knowledge in
Indonesia, especially English teachers in various secondary schools, while using the
framework of HOTS in the classroom context and assessment. Even though HOTS has
become a popular topic for teachers and investigators in the field of education, yet this
research is seen as different research from some previous related studies. The main
difference is from the sample of the study that is English teachers in various secondary
school level in Indonesia. The sample is selected because all teachers in Indonesia are
mandated to implement HOTS-based teaching activities and assessments regarding
Indonesian government regulation in the 2013 curriculum about HOTS
implementation. Further, the degree of teachers' competencies in developing HOTS-
based teaching activities was also uncovered in this research. This research is also
different from previous studies since it provides more comprehensive data from
questionnaires and interviews. This research is relevant to the current Indonesian
curriculum since, in this 2013 curriculum, teachers are demanded to have the ability to
construct HOTS-based teaching activities and language assessment to prepare and
educate students to be able to face global challenges.

Research Questions
Thus, this study is essential to provide some insight to promote HOTS in
teaching and learning activities and language assessment. Two research questions will
guide the research process, they are:
1) How is EFL teachers’ knowledge about HOTS?

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2) To what degree do EFL teachers implement HOTS in teaching and learning

activities?

Method
Research Design
The descriptive qualitative research design is utilized in this research that is completed
with teachers from various schools. It allows the researchers to dig more in-depth
information on the phenomenon according to the context (Yeung 2020). A
comprehensive examination of 40 educators' perspectives and practices on teaching
EFL students using the HOTS framework was researched using an interview and
questionnaire. The researchers interviewed five groups of participants that consisted of
8 teachers on their understanding and application of HOTS in English learning. Those
data collection techniques allow the researchers to gather more in-depth data.

Participants
The study was conducted at secondary schools in Indonesia. The educators who
participated in the study were from various kinds of schools. They are selected with
pseudonyms herein and voluntarily participated in this research. The participants of this
study were dominated by females (55% n = 22). The majority of participants (n=18)
were around 31 to 40 years old. Twelve educators own 11 to 15 years of teaching
experience. Mostly, teachers in this study came from state senior high schools (n=12).
Most of them (n=13) have classes that consist of 31 to 40 students. Finally, codes (TA,
TB, TC, TD, TE, …) represented the participants' names to protect their identity. The
demographic information of the participants is as follows:

Table 1
The Participants’ Demographic Information
Demographic Characteristics N %
Male 18 40
Gender
Female 22 55
20 to 30 9 22.5
Age 31 to 40 18 45
41 to 50 13 32.5
0 to 5 years 3 7.5
6 to 10 years 5 12.5
Teaching
11 to 15 years 12 30
Experience
16 to 20 years 9 22.5
21 to 25 years 11 27.5
State Senior High School 12 30
Private Senior High School 10 25
State and Private Senior
Type of School 10 25
Vocational High School
State or Private Senior High
8 20
School
Less than 30 9 22.5
Class Size 31 to 40 13 32.5
41 to 50 11 27.5

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More than 50 7 17.5

Note. N: The total of the participants; %: percentage

Instruments and Procedures

To answer the first research question related to teachers’ cognition in implementing
HOTS in teaching and learning activities, the researchers used semi-structured
interviews to ask the formal series of questions specifically (Creswell and Creswell
2018; Merriam and Tisdell 2016; Patton 2015). The interview session was recorded
digitally and then transcribed and coded manually. The focus group interviews’
objective was to examine the teachers’ understanding of HOTS and their application of
HOTS in foreign language teaching.
To answer the second research question, the researchers delivered a
questionnaire made in Google Form since using this technique, a large amount of data
can be collected in a short time from many participants. The items in the questionnaire
were adapted and modified from Li (2016). The protocol aims to obtain data about
teachers’ practice in implementing HOTS while teaching English. The questionnaire
has three scopes: teacher’s perception and behavior in implementing thinking skills, the
focus of teachers in teaching, and factors that hindered teachers from applying the
HOTS framework. The questionnaire was piloted to 10 teachers to assure each item’s
reliability and validity. The questionnaire includes a cover letter and 13 items of
statements divided into two parts, namely demographics and factual questions. The 13
items measuring teachers’ experience while implementing HOTS in classroom
activities were measured using five strongly agree to strongly disagree. The
questionnaires were shared with around 60 teachers, with 40 completed and valid
feedback from the teachers.

Data Analysis Technique

In this recent study, the researchers will manually code the data from the interview since
it seems more reasonable to eliminate errors and inaccuracy. Then, to calculate the
information gathered from the questionnaires, the researchers calculate the percentage
of the participants’ answers in each item. This research used numerous approaches to
collect research data. The stage is essential, which is called triangulation (Patton 2015).
The researchers used a grounded approach to categorize the teachers' verbal accounts
into themes for focus group interviews that contrasted with the data from the
questionnaire. Then, the codes were clustered to shape themes that highlighted HOTS's
interpretations and experiences of the teachers in classrooms.

Results and Discussion

Result of Research Questions 1: Teachers’ Knowledge of HOTS
It is crucial to acknowledge EFL teachers' understanding of HOTS in this study because
it shows their attitude when encouraging HOTS in classroom activities. The result of
this research demonstrates that the knowledge of the participants on HOTS was still
low. The participants showed varied yet fragmented conceptions of HOTS. The results
indicate that the participants can find it challenging to identify and express the
definition of HOTS since no participant put forward their concept of HOTS. The
majority of the teachers describe the general meaning of HOTS. The investigators
established four themes from focus group data (see Table 2 below). The teachers'
responses are reflected in the researchers' selected participant quotations.

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Table 2
Teachers Understanding of HOTS
Theme Specific Ideas for Each Theme
Teachers believe that HOTS should be promoted in academic subjects to
consciously implement make students autonomous in learning and to shape
HOTS in the classroom is global citizens.
essential.
All learners should be enforced to a higher level
The teachers are of thinking. However, not all learners can think
unsure whether or not the deeply.
learners can think at a Educators have questions about the learners' HOTS
higher level. with linguistic, reading problems, and low socio-
economic conditions.
An assessment developed by teachers is often
only based on what the teachers feel their learners
can accomplish.
Assessment involves questions and tasks mainly
concern LOTS.
Typically, HOTS questions developed by the
Educators fit the level of
teachers are only appeared at the end of the
cognitive and classroom
assessment process.
assessment process
The teachers do not expect and require all learners to
according to learners' daily
demonstrate the same thinking level on higher-order
works.
questions.
Teachers often provide less detailed assessment
prompts to some learners.
For HOT, assessment is not always aligned with
teaching and learning activities presented by the
teachers.
It is hard for educators to explain what they believe
about HOTS.
Teachers’ knowledge of Educators feel doubt as to how to assess and
HOTS is complex: teachers implement HOTS in teaching-learning activities.
are unsure how to The HOTS-based assessment developed by the
assess and integrate HOTS teachers is not systematic.
along with the content Assessing and implementing HOTS in a classroom
material’s demand. is aligned with the expectations of a report card.
Teaching is controlled by learning results and the
amount of content material to be instructed.

Teachers Believe that Consciously Implement HOTS in the Classroom is Essential

All participants admit that implementing HOTS in their classroom activity was
essential besides teaching the main content. Educators also recognized that a deliberate
attempt should be taken to implement HOTS. However, several participants also felt
that the content material should be taught, as students come to school with a range of
knowledge and background experience. That is why the participants believed that more
attempts should be made to implement HOTS along with the school subjects. HOTS

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modeling that given by the teachers is also essential. As described by the instructors,
modeling involves encouraging learners what is required in the response, collaborating
with learners to design how to create example responses, and demonstrating to learners
how to answer the tasks. Most participants articulated that the integration of HOTS in
teaching is crucial. Participants A (TA) expressed their beliefs. Their explanations are
the representation of all participants’ expressions the researchers interviewed. Teacher
A (TA) commented:
“Every student will get the benefit. In the end, the school system is not
bringing the habits of thinking HOTS consciously for yielding global citizen.
If we are not stimulating them to think HOTS, teachers are doing an extreme
disservice.”
From the teachers' expressions above, it can be seen that they agreed on the
pivotal of HOTS integration in a teaching and learning phase. The teachers thought that
HOTS was necessary for students to be competitive in the globalization age.
Furthermore, the participants realized that the learners' HOTS could be enhanced by
presenting them with an applicable instructional scenario, particularly integrating
HOTS along with content materials. This condition indicates that all educators are well
aware of the value of HOTS for learners.

The Teachers are Unsure whether or not the Learners can Think at a Higher Level
The participants of this study believed that learners need to be taught how to develop
their HOTS to benefit from it. The participants express their belief that some students
will have deeper thinking than their friends. Hence, teachers were not sure that their
learners would be ready and successful at HOTS, yet they could improve it. Teacher D
(TD) stated his uncertainty about implementing HOTS in the classroom:
“Whenever I think about HOTS, I do not feel sure that I will assist all my
students in implementing those skills successfully.”
Teacher E (TE) also described their statement as the following:
“We will always have students who may never reach the ability to perform
HOT, but it does not mean that they will get nothing from it. They will benefit
from being part of a discussion, listening to their friends, and so forth.
However, they may have difficulty coming up with HOT on their own.”
The participants’ statements above implied that some of their learners with low
academic levels were significant attention to the teachers. However, not all of them
have the same opinion. One of them claimed:
“This is crucial that we still have to teach weaker students critical thinking
skills. From my perspective, they are so vulnerable, and this is my job to
support them, whatever the situation is.” (Teacher F)
Another teacher urged:
“I still do not think HOTS is suitable for all students. I do not mean the
students cannot be pushed to think critically, but they require to be pushed.”
(Teacher B)
The participants appeared to think profoundly about the level to which weaker
students could develop their HOTS. Indeed, there was not any consensus among
educators. However, there was great attention and belief that all learners still need to
be exposed to and experienced HOTS to develop their critical thinking. There were
other concerns about HOTS in schools with many students from low socio-economic

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backgrounds, like a lack of background knowledge, language, and cognitive skills.

Teacher H (TH) claimed:
“We have a variety of students with a variety of socio-economic conditions
where many parents are uneducated. They did not have much time to talk to
their children about what is going on.”
All of the previous discussions mostly dominated staffs' and teachers' meetings
at the schools. Almost all of the participants expressed that learners have difficulty in
reading. Even though the researchers did not inquire about reading, the participants
argued that students who had reading problems did not demonstrate HOTS indications.
The educator explained that their students' reading ability had become a more crucial
issue to implement HOTS in classroom activities (Dwyer et al. 2014; Yuwono et all.
2021).

Educators Fit the Level of Cognitive and Classroom Assessment Processes

According to Learners’ Daily Works
The assessment for the classroom was primarily according to what the educators think
the learners could do. Based on some teachers, HOTS questions are involved in the
assessments. However, only at the end of the assessment. The questions usually demand
learners to use their insight to a new case that has not been taught in the classroom. An
educator who was discussing the kinds of the questions that include on the test depicted
what most teachers stated:
“A new situation would arise, but I would not do so for all tests, a minimum
portion of the assessment. I suppose you might call them the bonus questions
in any way.” (Teacher E)
The participants conceded that less difficult questions were presented to some
students than to others. They may have been allowed to respond verbally, use some
notes, drawing diagrams, or give it in other ways. Teachers D and E (TD and TE)
explained that some students, even those who achieve a high level, will find it
challenging to answer HOTS questions. They said that when students are given HOTS
questions, they always hear:
“But I do not know it. I cannot find the answer in the book. It is not explained
by the teachers yet. There is neither sentence nor paragraph which explains
…”
Then, one teacher responds:
“Most students cannot put the knowledge they have studied to a higher stage,
or they cannot generalize it to other situations or everyday life.” (Teacher D)
Teachers confessed that sometimes they put HOTS in the classroom instruction
that they did not assess like the teachers might have their students debate and class
discussion, yet the teachers will not use it as the assessment phase. For higher taxonomy
categories, evaluate and create categories were included in classroom activities.
However, it is not part of the assessments. Some teachers also claimed that applying
HOTS separated the higher academic learners from lower academic learners. Teachers
proposed that if the higher-order assessment is used, some of the students could not
answer it. It means teachers need to re-teach, and they do not have much time for this.
Hence, the lower order question is used even though they use some activities, which
include HOTS.

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Teachers’ Knowledge of HOTS is Complex: Teachers are Unsure How to Assess

and Integrate HOTS along with the Content Material’s Demand
Teachers uttered many terms and gave various explanations to elaborate HOTS, namely
problem solving, reasoning, reflecting, comprehending, creating, making sense, making
a judgment, and thinking out of the box. Some teachers also expressed other terms like
literal thinking, deeper thinking, metacognition, empathy, and literacy. They did not
explain what HOTS exactly meant. However, they are all accepted that HOTS go
beyond remembering and comprehending. Learners must employ what they have
learned to circumstances in a school context and daily and utilize the experience to
remember facts and grasp a concept. That was a concept that has been consistently
stressed by all participants, like teacher A (TA) who explained:
“People cannot explain its meaning, which is why there is the term critical
thinking. I do not think it is elaborated clearly to make people understand.”
Almost all participants were ambivalent on the critical thinking definition,
integrating it in the classroom and assessing it. The majority of teachers claimed that
they have little knowledge about the taxonomy of Bloom. The participants also claimed
that they had not been trained to implement and apply it in the classroom context and
English assessment. They even cannot mention the sub-categories of LOTS and HOTS.
Besides, most participants did not know how the category, such as analyzing,
evaluating, and creating, was implemented and meant for their learning.
Teachers in any grade discussed how important to follow up on the outcomes
of learning. The participants felt they had many materials to cover up, and often they
were frustrated by the daily teaching demands. That is why they found it challenging to
implement HOTS along with content materials and their daily activities, as teacher F
(TF) responded:
“After making them have linguistic skills, we have to encourage them to be
critical thinkers, assess issues, and recognize various points of view and
others. There was no time because, as English educators, we are not very
convenient to do so.”
This study shows that the participants are already aware of integrating HOTS in
a classroom instruction cycle. However, their knowledge about HOTS is also essential
to decide what they will do in class. This study gave evidence that the participants still
have a lack of understanding of HOTS. This point will have a considerable impact on
applying a higher stage of thinking abilities in the classroom environment because the
understanding and awareness of educators about HOTS are salient to guarantee the
learners’ success (Feng 2014). He also insists that it is challenging to visualize
educators who have insufficient HOTS understanding to face 21st-century challenges.
When seeing the research data in Table 2 above, it is believed that educators would feel
challenging to train learners to exist in the global world because of the poor HOTS
understanding. Because a strong awareness of the essentials of HOTS is not enough to
assist learners in developing their HOTS, educators are also needed to have a sufficient
understanding of HOTS.

Result of Research Question 2: Teachers’ Practice of HOTS in the Classroom

The researchers also asked the teachers to respond to the questionnaire containing
statements to measure teachers’ practice in promoting HOTS in classrooms. This part
of the questionnaire covers 13 statements that include five Likert scale points, as seen
in Table 3 below. The statements in the questionnaire are divided into three parts. Those

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three parts affirm the identified four themes found in the focus-group interviews. There
are seven items mentioned in the questionnaire which relate to the teachers’ perceptions
and behavior in implementing HOTS (Items 1-7). Next, in the second sub-section, two
statements represented teachers’ focus in teaching (items 8-9). The last four statements
represent factors that prevented teachers from implementing HOTS in the classroom
(items 10-13).

Table 3
Teachers’ Practice of HOTS in Classroom
Scale (%)
No. Statement
1 2 3 4 5
Teachers’ perception and behavior in implementing HOTS
In my class, learners are provided
1. 17.5 25 37.5 5 15
with chances to improve their HOTS.
I encourage higher-order thinking
2. skills (HOTS) by providing open 22.5 32.5 17.5 15 12.5
questions and feedback to students.
I give my students time to provide
3. 30 30 22.5 7.5 10
HOTS answers in the classroom.
I give learners chances to collaborate
4. to address challenges in the 25 37.5 10 12.5 15
classroom.
I promote unexpected responses and
5. tend to take benefit of learning 35 40 5 12.5 7.5
experiences that may occur.
I enable learners to be open to receive
6. 22.5 35 7.5 17.5 17.5
new information.
7. I allow learners to play with language. 25 52.5 5 10 7.5
The focus of teachers in teaching
I spend much time improving the
8. linguistics knowledge of my students, 12.5 7.5 10 20 50
like grammar and vocabulary.
I provided good chances to my
9. students for using the language for a 25 22.5 7.5 20 25
real-life purpose.
Factors that prevented teachers from implementing HOTS in the classroom
I was mandated to explore the
textbook’s content; thus, I have little
10. 0 0 10 10 80
time to implement HOTS in the
classroom.
The textbooks’ activities are primarily
11. 0 5 10 10 75
linguistic-knowledge-based.
I am a well-qualified teacher to
12. facilitate HOTS in the teaching and 85 5 5 2.5 2.5
learning phase.

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I understand various activities and

13. strategies for improving students’ 35 27.5 5 15 17.5
HOTS in the classroom.
Note. 1= absolutely not agree, 2= not agree, 3= not sure, 4= agree, and 5= absolutely
agree.
All results showed that the participants did not encourage HOTS in the
classroom instruction phase even though the curriculum clearly stated that HOTS
should be the main component of teaching all subjects, especially English teaching.
Many teachers (25% or 10 teachers) disagreed that learners should be given a chance
to enhance their HOTS. Only a few teachers (12,5% or 5 teachers) thought it was good
to promote HOTS in teaching and learning activities. Several teachers also stated that
they provide feedback for students. They claim that feedback from teachers is an
excellent way to improve students' HOTS. As Musyarofah, Setiawan, and Maru (2021)
stated that feedback is an essential aspect to measure students’ development in the
classroom. However, 37.5% or 15 teachers feel that it was challenging to implement
HOTS in the classroom. A teacher shared her opinion:
“I had thought and talked with some teachers about it when I completed the
questionnaires. In my opinion, we want to implement HOTS and assist the
learners in being critical thinkers. However, it seems challenging as we do
not have sufficient knowledge about the exact skills that include HOTS.”
(Teacher B)
There was an open question as a strategy in the literature to endorse HOTS (Li
2011). However, only 12,5% or 5 participants strongly agreed that they asked open
questions to stimulate students' HOTS. Furthermore, 17.5% or 7 participants felt
unsure, while 32.5% or 13 teachers believed they were not asked open questions to their
students. The participants recognized the importance of open questions and feedback
in the interviews as Mohammed (2021) stated that teachers could give feedback for
students to ascertain that the students are capable of making optimum use of it to
improve the weaknesses. Nevertheless, some participants, including participants A and
B, stated that, in their lessons, they choose more closed questions since they are cautious
about creating chaos. Teacher A (TA) explained:
“I would not keep the learners on track if I used open questions. Thus, I will
not achieve my teaching goal on time, yet I have to cope with all types of
students’ behavioral problems more significantly.”
Only 10% or 4 participants reported providing their learners time to provide
HOTS answers in the classroom. Whereas, most teachers, in which 30% or 12 teachers,
said that they did not give learners enough time to develop their classroom thoughts.
The interview data indicated that time is a big issue for the participants. Moreover, in
this research, less than half of the teachers (15% or 6 teachers) arranged collaborative
work in the classroom. The group and collaborative work can promote HOTS since
learners can work equally in a safe and communicative environment to construct and
share knowledge. One researcher claimed that group interaction and collaborative work
are essential in enhancing the students' reading skills and high level of thinking
competence (Jerome, Lee, and Ting 2017a). Then, 37.5% or 15 participants stated that
they did not conduct collaborative work. The interview results shed light on the type of
group work that participants arrange their learners to do:
“I utilize group work in my teaching. I often request the learners to go
through the paragraphs and turn to read them. I inquire the learners to

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review their notes and to verify responses after the exercises have been
finished.” (Teacher F)
Furthermore, promoting unexpected responses and taking advantage of learning
experiences that may occur are believed to improve students’ HOTS (Li 2016). In this
study, only 7.5% or 3 participants confirmed that they recognized learners' unexpected
reactions and tended to take advantage of appropriate learning experiences. Some
scholars also suggested offering a dialogic space in class to provide learners with space
to engage students’ HOTS (e.g., Li and Wegerif 2014; Wegerif 2011).
Receiving new ideas is characteristic of innovative and creative thinking (Li
2016). However, only 17.5% of teachers allowed their students to be open to receive
new information, and 35% or 14 teachers did not do that. Allowing the learners to play
with language is also a crucial aspect of creativity, yet most participants (52.5% or 21
teachers) disagreed that they motivated them to play with language. Moreover, both
were considered bad traits for most teachers because they would distract students from
absorbing the content materials they had received. It is shown in the interview:
“Openness and playfulness may sound good, but both are useless since they
can distract students from absorbing more content knowledge.” (Teacher C)
In the second sub-section, teachers were asked about their teaching focus (items
8-9). The majority of the participants (70% or 28 teachers) stated that they agreed that
they need to spend more time to foster their students’ linguistics knowledge, like
grammar and vocabulary. Based on the finding, participants declared that they need to
emphasize English learning on grammar since it allows them to gain high scores in
high-stakes assessments. Teacher J (TJ) explained:
“I understand that a teacher should teach a communicative skill, and
learners need to be given more chances to learn a language for individual
actual purposes. However, we do not accomplish it since grammar or
vocabulary are the aspects that are being assessed.”
The following section showed factors that prevented teachers from
implementing HOTS in a classroom (items 10-13). All participants agreed that
textbooks and time were two critical challenges in the application of HOTS in
classrooms. Firstly, the participants argued that they had a responsibility to address all
subject materials in the class. Second, as most activities mentioned in the textbooks are
mainly linguistic-based knowledge, the participants stated that they have to follow it
rigidly. That is why developing appropriate textbooks is also essential because it has a
pivotal part in teaching (Novita et al. 2020). As teacher D (TD) stated:
“Truthfully, we do not have deep knowledge about HOTS-oriented activity.”
None of them agreed that they were well-qualified to implement and facilitate
HOTS as part of their teaching responsibility. In reality, none of the interviewed
teachers ever mentioned that they were trained to implement HOTS. Most of the
participants also were not aware that HOTS was clearly stated in the K - 13. There is a
gap in it among teachers. The curriculum demands educators to integrate HOTS in the
classroom context and assessments, yet they were not informed and trained before.
Only 15% or 6 participants were acknowledged that they understood various strategies
to foster and promote students’ HOTS.

Discussion
Some core issues arose from the data analysis in this research. In this study, the teachers
reported several challenges and dilemmas confront the application of high stage

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thinking capabilities in the instructional phase. First is related to the basic knowledge
of the HOTS concept. In this research, the participants showed several yet fragmented
understanding of HOTS, focusing solely on the cognitive dimension, neglecting
environmental and personal elements (Seo, Lee, and Kim 2005). The researchers
conclude that many participants did not have in-depth knowledge of HOTS, as
mentioned above. Once the researchers asked about the definition of HOTS in
classrooms, the teachers presented examples of teaching practices. They did not express
precisely the meaning of HOTS. The participants also offered little evidence that HOTS
was routinely implemented and assessed in their classes.
Additionally, educators understand which learners' higher level of thinking
abilities can be advanced by assisting students with an appropriate classroom activity,
involving providing students with HOT-focused assessment. The educators stated that
the activity could enable them to engage in the thinking process that requires HOTS.
The result can be assumed that the educators have positive behavior and attitudes about
the importance of HOT. Nevertheless, the teachers still have lack understanding and
knowledge about HOTS. This situation could affect HOTS's employment in the
classroom, as Feng (2014) asserts that the educator’s knowledge of HOTS was essential
to assure their students’ learning success. Seman, Yusoff, and Embong (2017) stated
that not understanding HOTS will lead to the inability to master HOTS. The teachers'
lack of knowledge on HOTS will also help create effective instruction and apply it for
a classroom activity. Hence, the correct HOTS concept will influence the proper
teaching and learning instruction and assessment.
FitzPatrick and Schulz (2015) claimed that teachers as a "driver" in the teaching
and learning process have an essential role in improving their students' HOTS.
However, in this study, the participants reported that they require to know more about
HOTS to be implemented in teaching and learning activities. The teachers assumed that
learners must become good critical thinkers and problem solvers, yet teachers did not
implement or assess the students' HOTS as they supposed they should do because they
were not well-prepared to implement and assess it in the classroom. That condition is
in line with the study of Schulz and Fitzpatrick (2016), who reported that many teachers
do not feel confident to apply HOTS in the classroom because they feel that they do not
have sufficient knowledge about HOTS. The condition can happen because motivating
learners to use their HOT requires relevant skills and dispositions (Mok 2009). Thus,
to develop students’ HOTS, educators are demanded to have such knowledge (Li 2016).
Li (2016:13) also suggested that teachers should have two kinds of knowledge. Firstly,
they should comprehend “the definition of HOT as well as they should be open-minded
to different concepts to develop learners’ HOTS." With those kinds of knowledge,
teachers will not have misconceptions about incorporating HOT in the classes.
Many research pieces have suggested that HOTS can be promoted by giving
open questions and feedback, giving learners a chance to have collaborative work,
giving extended wait time, and implementing innovative and creative ideas (Li 2011;
Mok 2009). Thus, educators' first step to developing students' high-order thinking skills
is to employ those strategies in classrooms consciously. Implementing the strategies
will assist the educators in constructing opportunities for learners to enhance the
students’ creativity. Nevertheless, the educators stated that they need assistance and
help to enhance their comprehension of HOTS. Hence, adequate professional
development opportunities or training are required to improve and tailor the educators’
needs.

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The next issue found in this research is that the participants emphasized that
they experience a lack of HOTS implementation in their classroom. As mentioned
above, HOTS-based activities’ performance is a fundamental shift in English education
policy in Indonesia. Unfortunately, this reform persists at the stage of educational
policy. Both the schools and educators did not realize the reform of the Indonesian
curriculum. They also did not encourage HOTS in classrooms. According to the
participants, the HOTS implementation in the instructional phase is associated with
many dilemmas and barriers. Firstly, pedagogical and content knowledge is absent as
well as the implementation of HOTS. The absence of resources for preparation, training
and professional development chances is closely linked to the previously mentioned
condition. The second is that there are constraints led by depending on government-
mandated books and the course schedule's demands. Teachers are often worried about
incorporating new strategies in a brief period (e.g., Li 2016). Giving space for the
improvement of HOTS in the tightly packed curriculum is a challenge (Tanujaya et al.
2017). Practices to develop cognitive skills, involving adequate time for questions in
the classroom, creativity, group work, and contemplation on work in progress, all
require sufficient time and space of thinking (Li 2013; Peter J and Bellocchi 2013).
Classroom management is another crucial issue of this research. Creative
students are prone to disrupt the atmosphere of the class, resulting in inappropriate
behavior. These behaviors would take time for teachers to overcome. Moreover,
educators' lack of discipline is a big problem for educators in Asia (Hue 2007). That is
the teachers’ challenge to acknowledge while preparing for their instructional phase.
This conviction and perception could further hinder the willingness of educators to
adopt a HOTS pedagogical approach. The third is that a set and mandatory curriculum
with test-driven goals poses an obstacle to promote innovation and creativity (Tanujaya
et al. 2017). When a HOTS-based curriculum is applied, there is a need to reconsider
the assessment method. At least, the exams’ scope not only concentrates on linguistic
input, yet on the implementation and construction of knowledge. Ultimately, educators
prefer to adopt a culture of instruction, even though they do not entirely approve of it.
Hence, to make reform happens, a collaborative and self-motivated culture is pivotal to
conduct.

Conclusion
In the field of education, there are frequent calls for teaching HOTS and assessment
directed at higher-order thinking skills instead of merely remembering information.
HOTS are required for an individual to face this 21st-century challenge. What more, the
idea of why the HOTS-based instruction and assessment is desired has been
acknowledged by many teachers and educational researchers who argued that HOTS
had demonstrated tremendous industry demand. They further claimed that the
educational institution’s key goal in disseminating knowledge is to develop students’
HOTS. HOTS is vital for educators in any specific field of study to qualify their learners
to be competent in their preferred area. The qualification can be accomplished by
teaching educational materials and transferable skills, like critical thinking, analytical,
or investigation skills. This research is seen as a fundamental framework for teachers
to improve their English teaching perseverance. It can be used as a teacher’s reference
to amend their teaching and assessment quality. Furthermore, training regarding HOTS
implementation should be conducted progressively for English teachers to improve
their knowledge and teaching practice.

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Pedagogical Implication
The rapid growth in the 21st-century requires individuals to master particular skills,
precisely 21st-century skills required for new workplaces and emerging career
requirements. Millennial students and the next generations need experience in actual
situations, application-based activities, and motivation to support and assist them in the
competitive and rigorous workspace. Thus, curriculum and teachers are required to
promote HOTS concepts to facilitate students’ deeper thinking practices in the
classroom as this study revealed that it is essential in this 21st century since those skills
can be the most effective ammunition for students after they graduate from school or
universities, particularly once they face a dynamic situation and challenge both
nationwide and worldwide. In the Indonesian context, the integration of HOTS-oriented
teaching activities becomes the center of attention to improve education quality.

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Language Proficiency and Plagiarism Practices among Graduate

Students

Caren Casama Orlanda-Ventayen*

Pangasinan State University, Alaminos City Campus, Alaminos City
Pangasinan Philippines

Randy Joy Magno Ventayen**

Pangasinan State University, Lingayen Campus, Lingayen Pangasinan
Philippines

Abstract
The English language has been the medium of instruction in most universities and
colleges in the world that is common and mostly used to threaten the integrity of the
scientific literature and academic community due to plagiarism despite available
detection applications. This study aims to determine the Language proficiency and
Plagiarism Practices of Graduate Students under Education Program and Non-
Education Program and be able to correlate the language proficiency and plagiarism
practices. The graduate students from two programs were the sources of data for this
study. Pivot Analysis and Correlation matrix process were used to determine the linear
correlation of English proficiency scores and plagiarism percentage that was visualized
using a Scatter Diagram with Loess Regression Interpolation. The result of the study
shows that Education graduate students have higher scores in English Proficiency
scores than Non-education graduate students. It also shows that non-graduate students
tend to practice more plagiarism compared to the education of graduate students. Linear
correlation also shows that there is a strong positive correlation of plagiarism practices
among students. It is recommended that universities should be strict in the
implementation of plagiarism detection to maintain academic integrity.

Keywords: English, research competencies, English proficiency

Acknowledgments
The researchers would like to thank Dr. Renato E. Salcedo, the Campus Executive
Director of PSU Alaminos City Campus for the encouragement to continue doing
research. Dr. Randy Joy M. Ventayen, the current Dean of the College of Business and
Public Administration for assistance in floating the questionnaire to the Graduate
Students.

*[email protected]
**[email protected]

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Introduction and Background of the Study

The English language is an international language that is used in teaching and learning
especially in most Graduate Education programs. It has been the medium of instruction
in most universities and colleges in the world. Language proficiency is very much
important to achieve high academic performance (Orlanda-Ventayen, 2019), thus, most
students should possess these skills to learn. English is also the most plagiarized
language that is common and threatens the integrity of the scientific literature and
academic community (J. R. Higgins et al., 2016). Maintaining academic integrity for
educators might be a challenge despite plagiarism detection software available in the
market such as Grammarly and other software use to check plagiarism of student work
(Ventayen & Orlanda-Ventayen, 2018). The challenges for the service provider are also
visible due to some has limited indexing that may not be able to detect other text outside
of the range. Turnitin is known as the best plagiarism detection software available in
the market, it was used by most institutions such as the Pangasinan State University to
fight plagiarism (Batane, 2010; Turnitin, 2017). While Turnitin might be the best
among the rest, the cost of the subscription may not be afforded by some small
institution.
There has been an increasing practice of plagiarism in the academic community
and it has been classified as a multi-layer phenomenon of dishonesty that occurs in
higher education. In the academic community, some papers indexed in PubMed have
been retracted for many reasons including fraud or error that includes plagiarism,
scientific mistake and ethical problems (Eret & Ok, 2014; Steen, 2011). Plagiarism is
dangerous, which could lead to wrong information and wrong application. Academic
papers and web pages are increasing, and it is very difficult to compare documents with
all available data on the internet that even the best plagiarism detection application may
face these challenges. It is important to maintain academic integrity, especially for
educators and managers, because they are the center of education and commerce in the
world. In this study, graduate students are examined to determine plagiarism practices
and English proficiency skills. This study also compares the two different programs.

The Objective of the Study

The main objective of the study is to correlate language proficiency and plagiarism
practices among Graduate Students, with the following specific objectives:
1. To be able to determine the Language proficiency of Graduate Students under:
a. Education Program
b. Non-Education Program
2. To be able to determine the Plagiarism Practices of Graduate Students under:
a. Education Program
b. Non-Education Program
3. To be able to correlate the language proficiency and plagiarism practices of the
graduate students under
a. Education program
b. Non-education program.

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Significance of the Study

The significance of the study is to determine if there is a direct correlation of language
proficiency and plagiarism practices which may be able to provide intervention based
on the result of the study, the study is also an eye-opener to the graduate students and
schools in order to provide intervention to avoid plagiarism.

Definition of Terms
Education Graduate Students – Students of one State University in the
Philippines who are taking up Master of Arts in Education.
English Language Proficiency – Consist of an examination that measures
grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension.
Non-Education Graduate Students - Students of State University in the
Philippines who are taking up Master in Development Management.
Plagiarism Practices – The practices of graduate students in plagiarizing
examination without reminders.
Programs – It is a degree program offered by the institution. MAEd and MDM
are the programs offered by one State University in the Philippines.

Methodology
Research Design
A descriptive correlational research design was utilized by the researcher, which is
primarily interested in describing relationships among variables as this research study
will investigate the correlation between English proficiency and plagiarism practices
among graduate students of one State University in the Philippines. Document analysis
and Examination are the main methodology of the study, where the result of the report
of the plagiarism detection software and the result of the examination will be
investigated. An informal follow-up interview was utilized in order to validate the
result and acquire insights from the respondents.

Sources of Data and Processing

The graduate students of one State University in the Philippines taking up Education-
related master’s degree and non-education master’s degree for the SY 2019-2020 were
the sources of data for this study. All of the students are invited to participate in an
English Proficiency Examination that which was 100 multiple choice that is divided
into 3 categories which are grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. At the
orientation, the students are not notified that essay work will undergo plagiarism
testing.
The researcher administers a midterm and final examination in the form of essay
writing with five questions with approximately 1500 words for each student without
reminding the students that the paper will undergo plagiarism detection. A purposive
sample used that is selected based on the characteristics of a population and the
objective of the study.

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Figure 1 Distribution of Respondents

As shown in Figure 1, there are 27 Master of Arts in Education students who
are labeled as Education Graduate Students, and 23 Master in Development
Management who are labeled as non-education graduate students.

Figure 2 shows the RapidMiner Process Design

As shown in Table 2, the data was imported in the RapidMiner design process
to simplify the analysis of data and to generate the result.

Statistical Treatment Used

In order to simplify statistical computation, all data was imported using
RapidMiner. A Correlation matrix process (Naik & Samant, 2016; RapidMiner, 2019)
was used to determine the linear correlation of English proficiency scores and
plagiarism percentage. To interpreted the linear relationship, a range of strengths was
adopted as shown in Table 1.

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Table 1 Table of Interpretation for Strength of the Linear Relationship

Scatter Diagram with Loess Regression Interpolation was generated in the

RapidMiner Statistical Visualization to visualize the scores and percentage. Lastly,
Pivot Analysis was also used to determine the average, minimum and maximum value
of scores and percentage.

Results and Discussion

Language proficiency is the ability to use the English language in spontaneous
interaction and non-rehearsed context. The language competency of the students was
measured based on the examination conducted which contains grammar, vocabulary,
and reading comprehension. The manner of speaking the English language that is
acceptable and appropriate to native speakers is one of the challenges for Filipinos
(Kirkpatrick, 2012; Sicam & Lucas, 2016).
Aside from the difficulties in English, this study aims to determine the
correlation between proficiency and plagiarism practices. An award-winning
plagiarism software Turnitin was used to determine the plagiarism practices of the
education graduate and non-education graduate students.

Language Proficiency of Graduate Students

Table 2 shows the average percentage of English proficiency in Education and non-
education students. The result shows that education students have higher results in all
examinations which consist of grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension.
Table 2 shows the Average English Proficiency

Table 3 shows the minimum percentage of English proficiency in Education and

non-education students. The result shows that education students have higher results in
all examinations which consist of grammar, vocabulary and reading comprehension.
Table 3 shows the Minimum English Proficiency

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Table 4 shows the total combined percentage of all the results of the English
proficiency examination. The result shows that graduate education students have a
higher total score compared to the non-education master’s students. This implies that
teachers have higher English proficiency than non-teaching workers because the
medium of instruction that the teachers are using is English in the classroom. English
proficiency of teachers is also mandatory from job application to practice (Nel &
Müller, 2010; Van Canh & Renandya, 2017).
Based on the informal interview with the non-education graduate students, the
medium of communication in the workplace is Filipino or the local language. English
is not widely used in the office and only applies in the form of business communication
and memorandum. Studies suggest that workers practicing English as a lingua franca
may improve communication skills in and outside the workplace (Al-khatib, 2005; C.
Higgins, 2018; Lam et al., 2014).
Table 4 shows the Total Combined Percentage

The scatter diagram consistently shows that education graduate students have
higher score results than the non-education graduate students. Loess regression is a
nonparametric technique that uses locally weighted regression to fit a smooth curve
through points in a scatter plot. Loess curves reveal trends and cycles in the data of
education and non-education graduate students. This implies that education students
have higher English proficiency than non-education graduate students.

Figure 3 Scatter Diagram showing Loess Regression Interpolation of Total Score’s

Percentage
3.2 Plagiarism Practices of Graduate Students

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Table 5 shows the average percentage of plagiarism practices of Education and

non-education students. The result shows that education students have lower plagiarism
results in all assignments submitted.
Table 5 Average Percentage on Plagiarism Practices of Graduate Students

Table 5 shows the maximum percentage of plagiarism practices of Education

and non-education students. The result shows that education students have lower
plagiarism results in all assignments submitted.
Table 6 Maximum Percentage on Plagiarism Practices of Graduate Students

The scatter diagram does not consistently show that education graduate students
have a lower result of plagiarism results than the non-education graduate students
despite the average shows that education students have lower plagiarism results. Loess
regression shows a curve through points in a scatter plot that there is an overlap between
courses and different assignments. This implies that both education and non-education
students do not have consistency in practicing plagiarism.
Educators are implementers of academic integrity where they aim to maintain a
high level of standard in the academic community. Due to the increasing technological
advantage in education (Apas & Ventayen, 2019), the easy access to the Web, and other
means of communication, has turned plagiarism into a serious problem for publishers,
researchers and educational institutions (Maurer et al., 2006). Not all institutions may
be able to subscribe to a high-priced plagiarism software, or some may be able to choose
a low-cost plagiarism detector but with a low detection rate without access to closed
accessed resources. Researchers suggest Turnitin as the plagiarism software that should
be used in order to maintain the academic integrity (Bruton & Childers, 2016; Buckley
& Cowap, 2013; Johari et al., 2015; Patel et al., 2011; Walker, 2010).
While the result of the study shows that the plagiarism practices of graduate
students in non-education programs have a higher rate. The industry should also
improve its awareness in relation to plagiarism in any form as a serious offense where
integrity and loyalty in work must be treated with utmost importance.

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Figure 4 Scatter Diagram showing Loess Regression Interpolation of Assignments

Table 7 shows the correlation matrix for education students, it was shown that
there is a weak positive correction between reading comprehension and plagiarism
practices. This implies that if the student has a higher score in reading comprehension,
a plagiarism practice also increases. A weak positive correlation shows that there is a
slight effect of reading comprehension to plagiarism practice.
There is a moderate positive correlation between the plagiarism practices for the
first and second assignments. This implies if the student practice plagiarism on the first
assignment, there is a possibility that the practice will be repeated.
Table 7 Correlation Matrix for Education Students

Table 8 shows the correlation matrix for non-education students, it was shown
that there is a weak positive correction between reading comprehension and plagiarism
practices. This implies that if the student has a higher score in reading comprehension,
a plagiarism practice also increases. A weak positive correlation shows that there is a
slight effect of reading comprehension to plagiarism practice.

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There is a strong moderate positive correlation between the plagiarism practices

for the first and second assignments. This implies if the student practice plagiarism on
the first assignment, there is a possibility that the practice will be repeated.
Table 8 Correlation Matrix for Non-Education Students

Table 9 shows the correlation matrix for both education and non-education
students, it was shown that there is a weak positive correction between reading
comprehension and plagiarism practices. This implies that reading comprehension may
have a contribution to the plagiarism practice of the students.
There is a strong positive correlation between the plagiarism practices for the
first and second assignments. This implies if the student practice plagiarism on the first
assignment, there is a possibility that the practice will be repeated for both programs.
Table 9 Correlation Matrix for both Education and Non-Education Graduate Students

A negative moderate correlation is visible between Grammar and vocabulary

across the assignments, this means that as the knowledge in grammar and vocabulary
increases, the lesser the student will practice plagiarism.
The result of the study agrees with other related studies, where plagiarism is
more frequent among lower performers (Jereb et al., 2018). Other studies suggest that
gender has a factor with plagiarism practices (McCabe et al., 2001). Lack of knowledge
about the penalty, process, and awareness also contributes to the practice (Eret &
Gokmenoglu, 2010; Šprajc et al., 2017).

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Limitation of the Study

While there is a visible difference between the two programs, this study is limited in
nature. In order to validate and conclude the strong correlation of program across the
plagiarism practices, expansion of the study should be conducted. English proficiency
in grammar and vocabulary was found out to be a contributory factor in order for the
student to minimize its plagiarism practice, but the practice such as paraphrasing and
other methods of detection was not used in this study. Only one institution was
subjected to testing and convenient purposive sampling was used in the selection of the
population of this study. It is recommended that a wider scope of respondents should
be conducted in future studies.

Conclusion and Recommendation

The study concluded that graduate education students have a higher total score
compared to the non-education master’s students. This also concludes that teachers
have higher English proficiency than non-teaching workers because the medium of
instruction that the teachers are using is English in the classroom. This paper also
concludes that education graduate students have a lower result of plagiarism results
than the non-education graduate students but both education and non-education
students do not have consistency in practicing plagiarism.
It is recommended that the graduate students should be aware in the first place
to avoid the practice. The institution must include an orientation to the students
regarding the use of the plagiarism detection software in order to avoid the practice.
Sanction and penalties should be imposed by the institution and clear guidelines should
be implemented to maintain academic integrity.

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Higgins, C. (2018). English as a Local Language. In English as a Local Language.

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‘Turnitin’ as an Innovative Educational Tool: Inculcating Critical Thinking in
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workplace communication: An evaluation of existing resources in Hong Kong.
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institutions: A decade of research. Ethics and Behavior.
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Data Mining Tool: WEKA, Rapidminer, Tanagra, Orange and Knime. Procedia
Computer Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2016.05.251
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English second language learners in South African schools. South African Journal
of Education. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v30n4a393
Orlanda-Ventayen, C. C. (2019). Impact of English language courses and English
proficiency on academic performance of junior business administrators. Asian
EFL Journal, 24(4.1).
Patel, A., Bakhtiyari, K., & Taghavi, M. (2011). Evaluation of cheating detection
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in higher education. Organizacija. https://doi.org/10.1515/orga-2017-0002
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Turnitin. (2017). The Plagiarism Spectrum. In www.turnitin.com.
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Classroom Language Use: A Conversation Analysis Study. RELC Journal.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217690935
Ventayen, R. J. M., & Orlanda-Ventayen, C. C. (2018). Graduate students’ perspective
on the usability of Grammarly® in one ASEAN state university. Asian ESP
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say they do. Studies in Higher Education.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070902912994

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Gender and Interruption in Conversation Made by EFL Students

Ariyanti*
Rinda Fitriana**
Arbain***
University of Widya Gama Mahakam Samarinda, Kota Samarinda, Kalimantan
Timur Indonesia

Abstract
Interruption is defined as the act of resistance by a certain speaker in conversation
caused by certain factors such as an eagerness to be powerful or the act of asking for
clarification of the current speaker. The matter of interruption itself is influenced by
many factors that cause it comes to the surface where gender is one of the crucial aspects
in influencing the existence of interruption in the conversation. Conducting
conversational analysis, the researchers investigated interruption occurred in
morphology class of the third semester based on West and Zimmerman's Syntactic
Measurement of Interruptions. 22 students were involved as the research subjects who
are grouped into three. Each group consists of male and female students. The
researchers also focused on interruption which occurred 1) before the speaker making
the first point, 2) after the speaker making the first point, 3) in mid-clause after the first
point, and 4) after a pause or other turn ending signal. Having analyzed two-hour video
records of students’ discussion, it is found that females interrupted more than males in
mixed group gender. They tend to interrupt after the speaker making their first point
and in mid-clause, after the first point was made acted as confirmation, conclusion, or
completion of the speaker's idea. The findings support a previous study regarding with
situation where interruption occurred when male and female speakers as the main
speaker.

Keywords: interruption, gender, conversation, sociolinguistics

*[email protected]
**[email protected]
***[email protected]

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Introduction
In everyday life, we always communicate with each other as we are social creators.
Specifically, in communication, people always engage in conversation to transfer the
message they would like to deliver. As Liddicoat (2007) states, human beings must
engage in conversational interaction where they also depend on the conversation to
have a meaningful life. Additionally, through conversation people made in everyday
life, it makes them able to socialize and develop their relationship with each other.
The conversation is highly important for the human being. As Ford & Ford
(2009) explain, everything we talk about in conversation is very urgent where we often
use them when we are socializing, talking about the weather, trying to motivate people,
helping friends solve problems, expressing ideas, etc. Therefore, people who do those
actions want to have people understand, take appropriate action and create a sort of
conversation to transfer messages.
Specifically, in conversation, we cannot leave aside that there must be a sort of
interruption when people belong to a certain conversation. The matter of interruption
itself is influenced by many factors that cause it comes to the surface where gender is
one of the crucial aspects in influencing the existence of interruption in the
conversation. Generally, much of the conversation happens to consist of male and
female speakers which always being an interesting research subject to study.
Additionally, understanding the nature of talk made by humans in everyday life has
been always become an urgent matter especially to be a subject being studied.
Supporting this idea, Maynard (2006) explains that it is fundamental to understand the
role of conversation in human social life wherein the 1960s, there is increasing
development in terms of analyzing the conversation as a field of study.
Specifically, interruption is a reflection of power. As stated by Tannen (1993)
that interruption is a sign of domination. However, interruption regards as the act of
doing violation to the current speaker because the interrupter speaks while the current
speaker is speaking. Similar to Tannen (1993), James & Clarke (1993) state that
interruption is a violation in conversation. It happens when one speaker talks in the
middle of someone’s talking. Interruption regards as a violation because it seems to be
impolite to speak while another person is speaking. Interruption is interpreted as
negative behavior and an attempt to show the power by controlling the interaction
through taking the floor to speak and also control the topic of conversation. They also
add that although interruption considers to the action of violation to another speaker in
conversation, interruption has functions in conversation. The first function is such
behaviour in conversation is to prevent the current speaker to finish his or her speaking
and the second function allows the second speaker to take over the floor so that another
speaker will have a turn to speak up his or her mind.
Generally, Murray (1985) mentioned that interruption has occurred when one
person is cutting the current speaker off before ending the signal. Similar to Murray
(1985), Lestary et al. (2017) pointed out that speakers' intention to interrupt is to
complete and cut turns. Additionally, when speakers have something to share with other
speakers or to convey their opinion or perspective, they usually come with interruption.
However, there have to be some measurements in determining the interruption i. e.
syntactic and context-sensitive cultural measurements (Okamoto et al., 2002). Other
than that, interruption among mixed-gender situations is caused by disregard and
assertiveness more than same-sex gender conversation (Al-Habies, 2020; Balan et al.,
2020; Jabeen et al., 2021; LaFrance, 1992). Furthermore, in research conducted by

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Adam (2013), the interruption can indicate several meanings including to agree, to
support, to control over the floor, and to compete with other speakers.
Nevertheless, interruption behavior does not always regard as a violation of
conversational rules. In this case, Tannen (1993) gives an example if someone does not
understand what the current speaker is saying or the current speaker in answering a
question is not properly understood, another speaker might interrupt to get clarification
from him or her. In conclusion, interruption is one of conversational behavior which
usually occurs in any type of conversation. Interruption itself in some theories has a
negative connotation because the speaker who interrupts speaks while the current
speaker is speaking. Furthermore, interruption is a representation of the action of being
powerful. In this case, this conversation behavior is often done by a certain speaker to
show domination to other speakers.
In everyday conversation, men and women usually use language differently as
Language and gender differences in communication (Speer, 2005). Similarly, Okamoto
et al. (2002) explain that men and women view conversational behavior differently
because of their gendered behavior. Besides, men and women learn how to use language
in different ways because of their activities in the same-sex group. In this case, men
learn how to maintain an audience and declare their opinions, whereas women learn to
create the closeness of relation by exchanging information. Men tend to talk about sport
and cars while women tend to talk about gossip regarding relationships or other topics
of conversation, men like to talk about themselves while women like to talk about men,
men talk a lot while women listen, men are assertive while women are submissive, men
are logical while women are illogical. Women’s talk considers more friendly,
cooperative, and relational where women tend to give positive reactions better than men
and work hard to get meaningful conversation. Men’s talk is more dominant, more
directive, and less supportive. For example, men tend to dispute another speaker’s
utterances. This conversation behavior could be in terms of acknowledgment to another
speaker’s comments, the act of changing the topic of conversation, or giving no
response to another speaker’s utterance(Alharthi, 2020; Okamoto et al., 2002; Parangan
& Buslon, 2020). Those types of conversation behavior by men and women spread
widely in society and culture. Because of that reason, men and women bring different
assumptions and rules to everyday conversation.
Supporting Okamoto’s theory, Johnstone (1993) also states that the use of
language by men and women is not in the same way. Men and women use language
differently in terms of interpreting others' speech, in conversation among themselves
like women with women and men, in joking, in public image-making, in writing, and
telling their personal stories. Besides, Johnstone (1993) adds that the explanation of
gender differences in terms of language use has several kinds of points of view. Some
scholars view the differences of men and women in using the language is from a
psychological difference. Others claim that the differences come from social origin
based on status and prestige. Moreover, others declare that the difference is from the
cultural differences where men and women usually socialize in same-sex peer groups.
Lastly, the differences come from different forms and functions of talk. In short, men
and women live in different worlds in terms of the psychological world, the social world
including prestige, power, status, and also a culture where all those elements make men
and women shape their talks.
Furthermore, men and women have their styles in having the conversation. In
this case, Eckert & Ginet (2003) explain the conversational style made by men and

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women. In women’s talk, they always try to be cooperative and supportive speakers. In
addition, women also tend to pick up and build on each other’s themes. On the contrary,
men’s style is more competitive rather than cooperative and also maintains the foster
hierarchy of being dominant in conversation. The topics they discussed are also
different and the differences seem to be corresponding to their style of talk. In short,
the term of gender is not merely the matter of biological sex of being men and women,
it is related to what men and women do and perform in social life. In other words, it is
elaboration between sex references to the social term which usually occurs in everyday
life. Moreover, men and women have their style in terms of the use of language in
performing talk including the way they talk and the topics being discussed.
Furthermore, study regarding gender is fascinating due to many researchers
studied about gender aspect in their research focus i.e. Sheu et al. (2005), Radwan
(2011), Otlowski (2003), and Rahimpour & Yaghoubi-Notash (2007). Specifically in
this research, since communication is always related to gender aspect where people,
including men and women, interact with one another, some researchers eager to
investigate which gender is more dominant in conversation in many contexts of setting,
e.g. Bartolome (1993) with “Dominance and Sex: Two Independent Variables in the
Analysis of Interruption”, Anderson & Leaper (1998) with “Meta-Analyses of Gender
Effects on Conversational Interruption: Who, What, When, Where, and How”, and
Lovin & Brody (1989) with “Interruptions in Group Discussions: The Effects of Gender
and Group Composition”. In this case, even though those researches were conducted in
different settings, their investigation concluded that men interrupt more than women.
Additionally, men interrupt more than women also found in mix-gender class which
was done by Atakan & Yurtdaş (2013). Other than that, research regarding gender in
relation to interruption seems to be very fascinating to many researchers in many area
of studies i.e. Bui (2021), Cannon et al. (2019), Gay (1990), Ghilzai (2018), González-
Sanz (2018), Johannes P. et al. (2020), and Maghfiro et al. (2020). However, this
research intends to propose two main objectives: the description of the dominant gender
is also included in the description of the result in this research. In addition, this research
also points out the influence of the gender aspect on interruption in conversation made
by male and female students in speaking class in the Teaching English Department
setting at University of Widya Gama Mahakam Samarinda, Indonesia.

Research Methodology
In analyzing interruption and gender in conversation made by male and female students
of the fourth semester of the Teaching English Department, the researcher uses
conversation analysis as the analytical approach. As Wooffitt (2005) points out that
conversation analysis is one of the methodological approaches to study verbal
interaction. In this case, the researcher will use conversation analysis as an approach to
analyzing the conversation made by male and female students which related to the
interruption occurs and also the influence of gender aspect regarding the presence of
the interruption itself.
To easier the researcher, the researcher will use the transcription of the data
recorded which consists of the recording of a conversation by male and female students
in the classroom. Moreover, the transcription can help the researcher to extract the data
recording by coding the conversation based on Gail Jefferson’s transcription symbols
so that the researcher can classify the interruption done by male and female students in

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the classroom and also determine the influence of gender term related to the presence
of interruption.
After data collection, the next step that the researcher will do is data reduction
wherein the transcription, the researcher will reduce the data which is not related to the
focus of the study so that the researcher can identify the interruption made by male and
female students. After data reduction, the researcher will display the data that has been
reduced by explaining the interruption reflected in the conversation as well as the
influence of gender in terms of the presence of interruption in the conversation. After
all, the researcher will conclude with the data that have been displayed before (Miles &
Huberman, 1994).
Moreover, in analyzing the interruption made by the students, the researchers rely
on the theory of West & Zimmerman (1983), where interruption refers to “violations
of speakers’ turns at the talk”. They also added that interruption is operationally defined
as “incursions that are initiated more than two syllables away from the initial or terminal
boundary of a unit-type”. In other words, when someone cut off another person’s
talking before s/he made the point which is more than two syllables, it is considered as
an interruption. Not only referring to West and Zimmerman’s syntactical measurement,
to analyze the interruption that occurred during students’ discussion, we also refer to
context-sensitive cultural measurement proposed by Murray (1985), which covered
four situations where interruption taking place.

Findings and Discussion

Research Question 1: How is interruption reflected in conversation made by male
and female students of the fourth semester of Teaching English Department at
Widyagama Mahakam University Samarinda?
In collecting the data, we involved 22 college students who were grouped into three to
discuss morphology. Group 1 consists of seven students with two males (as the main
speakers) and five females (as the audiences). Group 2 consists of eight students with
three males (two of them were the main speakers) and five females (as the audiences).
Having analyzed three discussion videos with 30 – 40 minutes duration, overall, we
found that interruption likely appeared in groups with the male speakers (group 1 and
group 2). Meanwhile, in the group with the females as the main speakers (group 3),
interruption rarely occurred. The male audience tends to listen carefully to the female
speaker and commented when she had made her points. During 30 minutes discussion,
only two cases of interruption occurred. The following graph describes the number of
interruption occurred in three groups based on Murray’s measurement.

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Figure 1. Number of interruptions made by both genders in each group

Number of Interruption by both genders in each
group
10
8
6
4
2
0
GROUP 1 GROUP 2 GROUP 3

FEMALE MALE

The bar chart above shows that among the three groups, an interruption occurred
more in groups 1 and 2. As it is shown in group 1, females made 6 interruptions and
males made 9 interruptions. Similarly, in group 2, females made 6 interruptions and
males made 8 interruptions which are fewer than males in group 1. In total, there are
15 interruptions occurred in group 1 and 14 interruptions appeared in group 2. However,
there are only four interruptions that arose in group 3. It proves that interruption likely
takes place when males are in charge to lead the discussion.
In terms of how much each gender made interruption, the following graph
describes the result;

Figure 2. Number of Interruption made by females and males within three groups
Number of Interruption made by
females and males within three groups
25
20
15
10
5
0
FEMALE MALE

As it can be seen on the graph above, it is clear that males interrupted more than
females. From all interruptions recorded from three groups, there are 33 interruptions
were made, and 21 of them were made by males. Females only made 12 interruptions.
This result is in line with some research findings, such as West & Zimmerman (1983);
Tannen (1993); and Anderson & Leaper (1998).
Furthermore, when the interruptions occurred in the three groups were analyzed
through Murray’s measurement, it is found that the interruptions were likely taken place
in a situation when the person cutting off the speaker before she or he made a point in

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a conversation. In this study, the situation is symbolized with the number “1”. The
following graph displays the number of interruptions that occurred in each different
situation summarized by Murray.
Figure 3. Number of Interruption Occurred
NUMBER OF INTERRUPTION OCCURED
6

0
1 2 3 4
Murray's measurement

GROUP 1 GROUP 2 GROUP 3

Note:
1 = cutting the speaker off before he or she has made his or her first point of the
conversation;
2 = cutting the speaker off before he or she has made the first point of a turn
3 = cutting the speaker off in mid-clause after the first point of a turn
4 = beginning to speak during a pause or other turn ending signal
The graph shows that in group 1 (the diagonal stripes bar), the interruption arose
more in situation number 1. It is when the audience cuts off the speaker before he or
she made the first point of the conversation. Five cases have appeared in group 1 in
situation 1. However, only three cases appeared in group 2 and one case in group 3.
What is more, for situation number 2, where the audience cut off the speaker
before he/she made the first point of a turn, one case was found in group 1 and two
cases were found in group 3. Meanwhile, for situation number 3, where the audience
cut off the speaker in mid-clause after the first point of a turn, group 1 and two made
the same number of cases, i.e.: two cases. Similarly, only one case appeared in groups
1 and 2 regarding the fourth situation, where interruption occurred during a pause. Thus,
it can be said that interruptions were mostly appeared when the speaker had not made
the point of the conversation and at the mid-clause after the first point of a turn. It is
important to highlight that these situations prevail in groups with the males as the main
speakers. Meanwhile, in the group with the females as the main speakers, interruptions
have appeared before the speaker made the first point of a turn (situation 2).
Considering the number of cases in group 3 (the females as the main speakers), which
is only three cases (within 30 minutes of recording), it shows that the males tend to wait
until the female speakers finish talking. The interruption they made was for
confirmation only. There was not found completion-oriented interruption as it has
happened in the group with males as the main speakers.

Research Question 2: How is the influence of gender in the presence of interruption

in conversation made by male and female students of the fourth semester of Teaching
English Department at Widyagama Mahakam University Samarinda?

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To analyze how much gender influence the presence of interruption, we consider the
number of interruption of each gender has made and the content of interruption they
made. As it has been explained above that males interrupted more than females. The
higher number of interruptions made by males related to the male’s role compared with
the female’s role in society. Zimmerman and West (1975) emphasized the role of man
as the dominance, whose greater status and power, to take the conversational floor. This
situation explains why in this study the males interrupted more than the females, since,
males interrupted when they want to complete the other speaker’s explanation (who is
also male) and to provide more complete information (dominance as the only source of
information in the group).
For example;
Excerpt 6

MS1.G2: jadi klo di free morpheme i//

MS2.G2: //morpheme itu sebenarnya ada 2, yang//
MS1.G2: //bebas
MS2.G2: yang dia bisa berdiri sendiri, ada yang dia bisa gabung, kayak link gitu
nah.. klo berdiri sendiri itu seperti the//
FA1.G2: //itu yang free morpheme kah?
MS2.G2: iya free tapi bagian itu (0.3)
MS1.G2: oh (0.3)
MS2.G2: sperti the, run, on (0.3)//
FA1.G2: //apa tadi? The?
MS2.G2: the
MS1.G2: oya, ini//
MS2.G2: contoh//
MS1.G2: //ntar dulu… contoh yang ini sebenarnya dibagi dua lagi, di free
morpheme, namanya masuk di fungsional morpheme, disitu
maksudnya, morpheme-nya tidak dapat menerima imbuhan

In the above excerpt, the interruptions have occurred between two male speakers. They
interrupted each other to complete each other statements as well as showed who was in
charge of the group.
However, when a female interrupted, the objective of her interruption was for
confirmation. Females are interrupted when they want to confirm the correct idea in
their minds with the speaker. For example:

Excerpt 1
MS1.G1: … assignment, in the assignment that we have to fill in the blank//
FA1.G1and FA2.G1: //not assignment, homework!↑

Excerpt 4
MS2.G1: ah…er…bagaimana dengan kata sekejap//
FA3.G1: //sekejap?
MS2.G1: ((nodding)), kejap,kejap lah
FA2.G1: gak ada…
FA1.G1: sekejap itu sudah kata dasar

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Excerpt 7
MS1.G2: ntar dulu… contoh yang ini sebenarnya dibagi dua lagi, di free
morpheme, namanya masuk di fungsional morpheme, disitu
maksudnya, morpheme-nya tidak dapat menerima imbuhan//
FA1.G2: //oh, jadi yang ‘the’ tadi ya?
MS1.G2 and MS2.G2: iya

If we take a look at the content of interruption above, the female audiences show
a way of demonstrating cooperation and enthusiasm (Anderson and Leaper, 1998) in
form of confirmation. When males are in the position as the audience and the females
as the presenter, the males tend not to interrupt. Meanwhile, when the males are in
charge as the presenters with females as the audience, the male presenter tends to
interrupt their partner (another male presenter) and the audience to complete the
speaker’s idea or to make the correction. The males interrupt when the other speaker
pauses because of losing the idea to help/ continue the speaker’s idea.
On the other hand, females as the audience tend to interrupt for confirming the
speaker’s idea/opinion. They also mostly interrupt before the speaker makes the point
and after the first point has been made. Unlike males, females do not consider gender
to interrupt, they interrupt their female friend as well as their male friend. Above all,
even though most male audiences tend not to interrupt when female speakers are
talking, some male audiences are curious to interrupt female speakers because they
assume that the topic is interesting.

Conclusion and Suggestion

Regarding the number of interruptions made, males interrupted more than females,
considering the male’s roles as the dominance and the one whose power. Moreover, the
interruption was likely to appear in the group with the male as the main speaker.
Besides, an interruption occurred mostly in the situation when the speaker has not
finished making the first point of a conversation. Making interruption after a pause or
other ending turn signal seldom happened. The findings of the research are hopefully
can give benefits for the next researchers. Therefore, further researchers are suggested
to have a deeper analysis on a similar area of research especially gender and
interruption. Besides, the teaching of Sociolinguistics in English teaching should be
more interesting to have students’ attention. Therefore, lecturers are suggested to have
more creative ideas on how to teach Linguistics subjects such as in part of gender and
interruption exist in teaching English classrooms. Other than that, the pedagogical
implication in this research drives to highlight that male and female students have their
styles in conversation. Consequently, lecturers need to understand that the way of
learning of both male and female students is different.

References
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Alharthi, S. (2020). Gender Perception of Euphemism Expressions: A Study of Saudi

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ESL Sojourners. Asian ESP Journal, 16(4), 116–139.

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Anderson, K. J., & Leaper, C. (1998). Meta-Analyses of Gender Effects on
Conversational Interruption: Who, What, When, Where, and How. Sex Roles,
39(314).
Atakan, M., & Yurtdaş, G. T. (2013). Construction of Gender in Adolescents’ Dyadic
Conversations. Studies in Psyhology, 33(2).
Balan, A. K. D., Lucero, J. M., Salinas, Z. T., & Quinto, E. J. (2020). Gender
Differences in Refusal Speech Acts of Filipino College Students. Asian ESP
Journal, 16(5.1), 135–163. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-
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Bartolome, M. B. (1993). Dominance and Sex: Two Independent Variables Analysis of
Interruption. Universidad de Alcala de Henares.
Bui, V. (2021). Gender Language in Modern Advertising: An Investigation. Current
Research in Behavioral Sciences, 2.
Cannon, B. C., Robinson, D. T., & Smith-Lovin, L. (2019). How Do We “Do Gender”?
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Eckert, P., & Ginet, S. M. (2003). Language and Gender. Cambridge University Press.
Ford, J., & Ford, L. (2009). The Four Conversation: Daily Communication that Get
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Gay, T. (1990). A Short Study of Turn Taking in Mixed Sex, Small Group Discussion.
Lntenrational Journal of Adolescmce A11tl Youth, 2.
Ghilzai, S. A. (2018). Conversational Interruptions-Analyzing Language, Gender and
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González-Sanz, M. (2018). Influence of Gender and Role on Interruptions in Political
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Jabeen, I., Hameed, A., & Afzal, N. (2021). Gender beliefs in academic settings: An
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Contextualization on the Teaching and Learning Approach of

Purposive Communication Syllabus for the Bachelor of Physical
Education Students

Michael E. Santos*
Jumel C. Miller
Jonar T. Martin
Don Honorio Ventura State University, Bacolor Pampanga Philippines

Abstract
This study aimed to contextualize the teaching and learning approach of Purposive
Communication syllabus for the Bachelor of Physical Education students in the
Philippines. Needs analysis survey by Chatsungnoen (2015) was administered to 130
Bachelor of Physical Education students at a State University in the Philippines to
determine weaknesses in their English communication skills to which it serves as a
basis in contextualizing the syllabus. The researchers adopted Bell (1981) ESP
Language Teaching Syllabus Design and utilized Delphi Method in conducting the
research study. Gathered data were run through Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) to present descriptive statistics of the respondents. The findings
suggested that the proposed contextualized syllabus on purposive communication
for BPED majors is viable to be applied as part of its program.

Keywords: Contextualization, Purposive Communication, Bachelor of Physical

Education

Introduction
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) describes English for a Specific Purpose (ESP) as a
motion to language teaching in which both subject and methods are founded on the
learning rationale of the learner. Based on this definition, as a instructor in determining
what to teach and how best to learn, it is necessary to consider the needs of learners
(Gatehouse, 2001; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Saragih, 2014). More precisely, the
goals of the course developed using the framework of the ESP will be based on the
unique interests of the student audience (Basturkmen, 2010; Richards & Schmidt,
2010).
According to Masruddin (2018) ESP encourages teachers to plan lessons for
learners to use relevant and accurate English in a variety of ways that could be
experienced by learners in their potential professions. The ESP curriculum has to be
built as language instruction with circumstantial content, language skills, motivations
and processes are co-operated in customized courses. Brown (1995) famed the idea of
a "needs analysis" referring to activities involving the collection of information that
will serve as a basis for the development of materials that meet the learning needs of a
particular group of students.

*[email protected]

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In addition, Oradee (2012 ) conducted research on the improvement of English

speaking skills for students. The post-test mean score (85.6 per cent) of students'
English-speaking skills was considerably higher than the pre-test mean score (60.8 per
cent) after the researcher engaged three communicative tasks, including conversation,
problem-solving and role-playing. The features of the practices may have facilitated
contact between students in the classroom. Using these methods, students were given
the ability to work together and support others when completing their tasks. The
experience of working in communities will reduce their fear of making mistakes while
speaking English. Students in the community will support those in the team who need
assistance. Students may also easily communicate themselves when operating in
communities. Such a habit will lead to self-monitoring, increased confidence in
communicating, and satisfaction that can inspire learners to engage more.
Similarly, Martin (2019) examined the English speaking anxiety of Physical
Education major students in the Philippines. Seventeen Physical Education major
students participated in the study completing the second language speaking anxiety
scale (SLSAS), English speaking anxiety and coping technique ranking scale, and
interview. The results presented the English speaking anxiety of the students being
moderately high. Also, evidence for common speaking anxiety and coping strategies
emerged. Thus, the researcher suggested a review of the current structure and content
of courses provided in the teacher education programs as regards the English speaking
competency of Physical Education majors.
Alvarez (1991) referenced the “1973 bilingual policy that enabled teachers to be
using Filipino in Social Science subjects and English in Science and Mathematics
because of the difficulties of interpreting those specific language. Bilingual education
was characterized as the distinct use of Filipino and English as a medium of instruction
in specific subjects and the use of the local vernacular as an alternative medium of
instruction. Implementation of this strategy has seemed to have contributed in a decline
in the standard of English, Science and Mathematics. Advocates of teaching Science in
English have cited three key reasons for its continued use: that it is validated and
successful, that it is cost-effective and that it is commercially viable” (p.3).
Compelled by the curricular reforms at the college level carried on by the gradual
advent of K-to-12 in the Philippines, Tenedero and Orias (2016) developed a syllabus
for English for future accountants, intended to make future accountants work-ready.
The research followed Bell's (1981) English for Common Purpose Language Teaching
Syllabus Design as a structure and results-based education (OBE) model, each relying
on the identification of learner expectations and learning outcomes as a preliminary step
for the design of the course. The learning outcomes, teaching techniques, instructional
materials and assessment methods were all calculated on the basis of the observations
of the Philippine studies investigating the employer perspectives and also probing the
final-year students’ perspective of work-relevant communication skills in accounting
profession.
Similarly, Houng (2018) published a research article on the English language needs
of police officers in Vietnam and offered a framework for developing an ESP
curriculum for prospective police officers. Houng suggested that a police officer must
be trained not only with technical and intellectual skills, but also with proficient English
communication skills to truly represent locals and visitors alike.

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Knowing the scarcity of contextualized materials in their field, the researchers

decided to do an extension study by designing a Purposive Communication syllabus for
Bachelor of Physical Education students to align their English communication skills
with their discipline. Purposive Communication is a 3-unit general education course
whose aim is to develop listening, comprehending, critiquing, responding to live or
recorded discussions, speaking publicly with confidence, explaining authentic passages
or texts in own words aided by illustrations in various forms, writing technical reports
and academic papers, and preparing a presentation.
This endeavour of customizing the course for BPE students is the researchers’
contribution to the authentic and relatable teaching and learning experiences being
provided to future physical education teachers. Since the medium of instruction in
Physical Education is in English, the researchers also envision improved English
proficiency among BPE students.

Methods
The researchers used quantitative descriptive approach wherein gathered quantifiable
data will be subjected to statistical technique in developing the proposed syllabus. The
study employed the ESP Language Teaching Syllabus Design model offered by Bell
(1981, as cited in Tenederos & Orias, 2016). The model consists of three major areas
for consideration in syllabus design—(1) external requirements expected of the student
(i.e., Analyse Needs, Specify Skills), (2) student’s present competence (i.e., Analyse
Error, Specify Level), and (3) educational philosophy (i.e., Select Teaching Strategy,
Design Teaching Materials, Evaluate). Below is the framework suggested by Bell.

Figure 1. Bell (1981) ESP Language Teaching Syllabus Design

The research study concentrated on the external requirements which are to analyse
needs and specific skills by integrating the recommendations from two cited studies —
work relevant communication skills (i.e., Maguire, P., & Pitceathly, C. 2002) of key
communications and means to acquire them and (i.e., Riemer, M.J. 2002) of English
communication skills for global engineers.

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Figure 2. Delphi Method Operation Flow Chart

Needs analysis survey by Chatsungnoen (2015) was administered to sophomore

Bachelor of Physical Education students (N=130) in a state university in the Philippines
to identify their weakness and needs in improving their communication skills. The
results of were considered in the development of the syllabus. The contextualized
Purposive Communication syllabus was subjected to content validation through
consultations with 4 subject area teachers (P.E.) and 5 English language teachers in a
state university and private university.
In validating the contextualized syllabus quantitatively, these two groups were
asked to rate the relevance of the learning outcomes, topics, teaching and learning
methods, resources, assessment methods and timetable using a four-point Likert scale.
The final draft of the questionnaire underwent reliability test where the internal
reliability coefficients was (a=.77) was satisfactory. Gathered data were computed,
tabulated, and interpreted. Specifically, the researchers followed the Delphi Method
Operation Flow Chart as depicted in Figure 2.

Results and Discussion

Table 1 shows the validation of the proposed contextualized syllabus on purposive
communication for BPED majors. The syllabus was validated in terms of learning
outcomes, methodology, resources, assessment, and time table. Resources where one
statement states “advocates supplementation that aims to satisfy all the instructional
materials for an ideal proposed syllabus” obtained the highest score with a mean of 3.33
(sd = + 1.00) which is given a descriptive interpretation of strongly agree. Learning
outcomes which states that “provide meaningful task applying all communication skills
valued in their future careers - speaking, writing, listening and reading” and assessment
which says that “covers a wide variety of assessment tools to achieve the learning
outcomes” both obtained a mean of 3.00 (sd = + .866) which is given a descriptive
interpretation of agree. Time table which refers to “the length of each lesson is sufficient

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and attainable” obtained a mean score of 2.89 (sd = + 1.05) which is given an
interpretation of agree. Methodology which pertains to “learning activities integrate a
comprehensive theme in the field of Physical Education” obtained a mean score of 2.67
(sd = + .866) which is given an interpretation of agree.

Descriptive Statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation

Learning Outcomes 9 3.00 .866

Methodology 9 2.67 .866
Resources 9 3.33 1.00
Assessment 9 3.00 1.00
Time Table 9 2.89 1.05
Valid N (listwise) 9

Table 1. Mean and standard deviation of the validation of the

contextualized syllabus

All items obtained a descriptive rating of Agree except for resources which
obtained a descriptive rating of strongly agree. This means that the proposed
contextualized syllabus on purposive communication for BPED majors is viable to be
applied as part of its program.

Conclusion
Through evaluating the language requirements of the Bachelor of Physical Education
students, the researchers have been able to define the terms and roles that would be
most useful to teach. The principle of needs analysis makes it easier to differentiate
between different groups of learners and to develop syllabus inventories precisely
suited to the unique needs of students. Based on the findings of the study the
contextualized Purposive Communication syllabus provided assessment activities that
corresponds to the learning outcomes, the methodology section is filled up with relevant
Physical Education topics, time frame allotted per topics are sufficient, and student
managed activities are supplied with activities that were highly connected to BPED
Majors.

Recommendation
Pedagogical speaking, the following are important considerations for language teachers.
First, language teachers should understand the presence of anxiety and tension among
language learners and should apply simple and efficient techniques to help them deal
with these negative feelings. Second, teaching and learning methods in language
teaching need to be strengthened and provide students who have insufficient access to
the English language with a wide range of opportunities to thoroughly develop not only
their speech skills, but also their listening, reading and writing skills. Third, it is

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important that teachers create a friendly, informal and learning-supportive environment

for language learning by providing many group activities that enables student to feel
comfortable participating in the class. Fourth, teachers from other subjects should be
encouraged to contextualize Purposive Communication syllabus in their respective
field of specialization for their students to acquire specific English communication
skills related to their future careers.

References
Alvarez, A. A. (1991). Pilipino or English in Science Learning? The Case of Bilingual
Education in the Philippines
Basturkmen, H. (2010). Developing courses in English for specific purposes. Springer
Brown, J. D. (1995). The elements of language curriculum: A systematic approach to
program development. Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 20 Park Plaza, Boston, MA
02116.
Chatsungnoen, P. (2015). Needs analysis for an English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
course for Thai undergraduates in a Food Science and Technology programme: a
thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor
of Philosophy in Education, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Doctoral dissertation, Massey University).
Gatehouse, K. (2001). Key issues in English for specific purposes (ESP) curriculum
development. The internet TESL journal, 7(10), 1-10.
Houng, T.T. (2018). English Language Needs in Listening and Speaking Skill of Police
Officers in Vietnam: Basis for ESP Syllabus Design. The Asian ESP Journal,
14(7.2), 251-279.
Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes. Cambridge
university press.
Maguire, P., & Pitceathly, C. (2002). Key communication skills and how to acquire
them. Bmj, 325(7366), 697-700.
Martin, J.T. (2019). English Speaking Anxiety of Physical Education Major Students.
The Asian EFL Journal. 23(3.2), 105-112.
Masruddin, (2018). Designing Appropriate English Learning Materials for Syariah
Economy and Syariah Banking Study Program Students at IAIN Palopo. The Asian
ESP Journal, 14(4), 42-46.
Oradee, T. (2012). Developing speaking skills using three communicative activities
(discussion, problem-solving, and role-playing). International Journal of Social
Science and Humanity, 2(6), 533.
Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. W. (2013). Longman dictionary of language teaching
and applied linguistics. Routledge.
Riemer, M. J. (2002). English and communication skills for the global engineer. Global
J. of Engng. Educ, 6(1), 91-100.
Saragih, E. (2014). Designing ESP materials for nursing students based on needs
analysis. International journal of Linguistics, 6(4), 59.
Tenedero, P. P. P., & Orias, B. L. (2016). English that counts: Designing a purposive
communication course for future accountants. English for Specific Purposes World.

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Metacognition in The Senior High School in one National High School in The
Philippines

Narciso Ambrocio Martin Jr.*

Pangasinan State University - Infanta Campus, Infanta Pangasinan Philippines

Randy Joy Magno Ventayen**

Pangasinan State University - Lingayen Campus, Lingayen Pangasinan Philippines

Ricky Dulay Retuerne***

Department of Education, Philippines

Abstract
This study was a qualitative approach and used phenomenology and unstructured interview
research methodologies to 551 Senior High School learners who received test instructions and
achieved a hundred percent retrieval rate. For pilot testing, this research used the PHIL-IRI English
Screening Test, where the computed reliability of the instrument used was 94% using Cronbach’s
Alpha. The focus was English usage because it became our lingua franca and medium of
instruction. The study aimed to understand the prevailing conditions of metacognition and its
implication in Basic Education and to initiate possible “insertion” to achieve successful learning.
Understanding the data on the varying difficulty of English core metacognition revealed that the
strands which needed priority interventions were E and F (65%, 70%) and due for repeat testing.
In contrast, Strands B, G, and H just passed (75%) the test, which also needed immediate
interventions. Further, the interview revealed that the learner’s significant concerns when using
English were shyness, bullying, low esteem, and difficulty understanding English instructions. In
summary, this research proposed the following outputs beneficial to the whole school language
community; the proposed objectives of retention policy, English core Strategic Intervention
Materials (SIMs), and the Senior High School Reading Comprehension Learner’s Profile (SHS
RCLP). Further, the SIMs English core metacognition encourages the other fields in Senior High
School, e.g., core, applied, and specialized. The need for testing of effectiveness will check its
contribution towards metacognition in Basic Education in the future.

Keywords: Insertion, Metacognition, Retention Policy

Acknowledgment
The researchers would like to acknowledge and express their appreciation to The Heads’ Offices
of The Pangasinan State University and The Department of Education, especially The School
Heads of Don Eulogio de Guzman Memorial National High School and Eulogio Clarence Martin
P. De Guzman Technical Vocational High School.

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*[email protected]
**[email protected]
***[email protected]

Introduction
Learning is a continuous process of life, the pinnacle of the future, and the vision of the universe.
The day we stop learning new things would be the end of life. Learning is the only thing that
distinguishes humans from other organisms. Being human, we have an excellent opportunity to
think. Thinking is a great thing we all can do, which places humans as the highest in the Kingdom.
The famous adage led by Albert Einstein goes, “If you stop learning, you start dying,” is a
testimony for a human development being to continue his learning capacities (Patterson et al.,
2008). It creates professionals in the field, such as historians, writers, and life advocates, among
the world’s expert pool. It is becoming a requirement of humans every day to read where reading
becomes a source of someone’s happiness or an outlet of stress, for instance. Others read because
this might give them satisfaction while grasping knowledge from anticipated stories from different
perspectives. Hence, when they read, therefore they must learn from it.
Extant confirmed that the complexities of reading comprehension to a single idea, i.e., the
ultimate objective in teaching-reading, is the improvement of one’s life. Karlin concurs with this
idea by suggesting the following skills to be included in a reading program: word recognition,
word meaning, comprehension, study, and appreciation skills (Karlin et al., 1971).
Reading with comprehension involves a series of interconnected cognitive processes.
These processes are not inbuilt for reading because no person is born with reading ability and
competency (The Concept of Tabula Rasa introduce by John Locked) (Mehan, 2017). Reading
task is only a very recent innovation in human history, where it involves decoding words,
sentences, and text types and could not be innate to humans. From the International Reading
Association (IRA), William S. Gray defines reading as a complex set of mental activities involving
four (4) dimensions: the perception of words, a clear grasp of meaning, thoughtful reaction, and
integration (“International Reading Association,” 2006; Petchko, 2011).
While reading, we employ metacognitive skills and strategies to unconsciously apply as
we go through the process, whether we engage in skimming or scanning for a particular text. We
generally use and increase metacognition through different approaches from paragraphs to stories,
from simple texts to bullet sentences.
Metacognition refers to “thinking about thinking.” Metacognition involves knowledge
about his thinking processes and products, active monitoring, and regulation of cognitive
processing activities (Bernat, 2008; Iwai, 2010, 2016).
Metacognition has three (3) main aspects: metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive
monitoring and self-regulation, and control. A learner should understand the importance of reading
comprehension because he should understand the context of what he is reading every time he reads.
However, one noted a failure of metacognitive skills lies with the associated problems during
knowledge accumulation. It should have been the appreciation for life learning skills indispensable
to learner interpretation and application in his everyday life.
The first problem that involves both readings in printed text and hypertext is that readers

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are not aware of the cognitive and metacognitive strategies used in comprehending a text (Abdul
(Larrañaga & Yubero, 2015; Ricker & Richert, 2021). When the readers are not aware of the
method used, they would likely miss several essential points in the text. Their way of reading might
also not effective in conveying the meaning intended by the author. The awareness also reflects
the level of confidence possesses by the readers in the reading activity.
It is where the process of metacognition comes in. This method requires learners to acquire
thinking skills and monitor and control their commitment and attitude during the learning process.
It offers creative thinking opportunities whereby learners can harness potentials at their best, push
their limits, and adapt to new situations.
Further, in giving higher-order questions, learners are made to think, analyze, and evaluate.
They can develop a framework for acquiring information and passing on this information.
In the study presented by Reza Ahmadi et al. (2009), the researchers argued that
metacognitive reading strategies benefit learners reading comprehension and foster learning
activities. Investigations on University learners about metacognitive beliefs and plans showed
learners who are confident about their ability to learn a foreign language are positively associated
with learners learning achievement. As a result, learners who have confidence in their learning
process can utilize metacognitive reading strategies such as planning, monitoring, and evaluating
were more successful than those who did not use them in their learning and reading programs
(Reza Ahmadi et al., 2013).
In terms of comprehension, metacognitive strategies are those activities that make learners
aware of their thinking as they do reading tasks. The New South Wales Department of Education
and Training defines metacognitive reading strategies as planned, intentional, goal-directed, and
future-oriented mental activities and processes that help a reader thinks about and checks how he
progresses in fulfilling a cognitive task. In fulfilling a task using metacognition, the learner plans
and activates, monitors, controls, reacts, and reflects (Kelly, 2012).
The theory presented by David Perkins inspired the essential planning of what a teacher
has to teach inside his classroom, which he termed as the “Four Cornerstones of Pedagogy” crafted
from a 5-year research program entitled “Project Zero,” where he was one of the investigators. The
four (4) pedagogies are (1) what shall we teach, (2) what is worth understanding, (3) how shall we
teach for understanding, and (4) how can learners and teachers know what learners understand and
how learners can develop a deeper understanding. Perkins posited that these cornerstones should
have enough structure and enough flexibility to serve the teaching-learning environment needs
(Brandt, 1990; Kasbekar, 2017; Merikoski, 2012).
In support, Louise Rosenblatt popularized the theories of Efferent and Aesthetic Readings.
Efferent is reading to get information, while aesthetic reading is the opposite of efferent and is
concerned with the reader’s appreciation, reception, and evaluation of the text. Simultaneously,
the focus is on the reader’s reading experiences as he concentrates on the images, associations, and
feelings that incite him (Rosenblatt & Karolides, 1999; Shook, 2019).
The difference between these two (2) kinds of reading lies in how the reader behaves during
the reading act. Efferent concerns with information or data while aesthetic problems with the
critical reading approach. At present, teachers may employ efferent or aesthetic, or a combination
of the two in the reading strategies, and the result is the status quo.
Like in any educational institution in the country, slow, frustrations, and non-readers
continue to exist despite motivational aid and references used as instructional materials. Suppose

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the reference materials can answer these types of readers in Basic Education; the approach should
be less supervision and let the child grow as he loves to learn through reading and continue the
voyage, independently progresses at his pace. Reading strategies should be timely enhanced as the
teaching-learning school environment welcomes diverse learners bearing multiple intelligences
through different educational settings.
Public schools have their Individual Reading Inventory (IRI). It sources out reference
materials to address, minimize, or eradicate the booming numbers for slow, frustrations and non-
readers in the grassroots turning it as their training grounds as they go through the ladder. From
The Office of The Principal, the IRI of Don Eulogio de Guzman Memorial National High School
revealed a handful of slow, frustrations, and non-readers for the Academic Year 2019 – 2020. Data
confirmed that there had appeared slow, frustrations, and non-readers from the Junior High School
Department with a total number of thirty-four (34) learners who had difficulty with their reading
strategies. One strategy to address it is to have a “Pabasa” approach (Reading in Tandem, An Action
Research initiated by the Schools’ Administrators). It is an activity for the tutor-tutee (one-on-one)
reading strategy (Manfra, 2019).
Considering the number of learners who have difficulties reading strategies, checking the
total number of learners in the entire Division of La Union needs attention or any form of
intervention before getting promoted per year. Data confirmed that from Graders 3 to 7, the La
Union Schools Division Office (LUSDO) has fifteen (15) non-readers. Every year, the school may
increase the number of learners who need the tutor-tutee approach. It contributes to the many
problems in the Department of Education that are seamlessly facing today. If not address outright,
it mirrors the Agency’s performance as a whole, particularly teachers coming from the language
sectors.
Providing solutions to address reading difficulties from a learner is expanded and detailed
in the Modules (Developmental Reading I/II) published by Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State
University – Open University System (DMMMSU-OUS). These Modules could help bridge the
application and mastery of academic reading skills, skimming, scanning, note-taking, organizing
and outlining, appropriate aids to comprehension in a given text, reference materials for different
reading purposes, and analysis of the narrative structure using story grammar.
However, the aforementioned Instructional Materials (IMs) flexibilities compelled a high
intelligence level to realize its objectives. Because of its complexities, it needs competent
individuals given with higher faculties to bridge the implementation and simplify learners’
consumption on their level of thinking capacities and convenience. Nonetheless, it could somehow
benchmark the achievement of a well-desired metacognition level among learners in the long run.
Therefore, metacognition directly correlates with a person’s level of Intelligence Quotient
(IQ), which should handle by scientific approaches coupled with a deep understanding of the
nature of Psychology of behavior and attitude that the person displays.
Considering a learner who attempts to read the operating manual of a cellular phone, for
instance, may sound out the letters in words, read it orally, but fail to understand the content.
Because he cannot pronounce the words correctly; likewise, he does not know the technical
meanings for the terms used in the text. It shows metacognition is essential when we read and to
understand the content of what we are reading. It becomes the heart of the reading act, which is
getting the meaning of the printed text, which we can use and apply circumstantially.
Reading with comprehension, like speaking and listening with understanding, is considered

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a language process. Reading entails the fluent use of converted print into language. When we read,
we are stringing together visual forms and the interpretation of their meanings.
Educational Philosopher Morrow itemized 14 literacy behaviors one would elicit in reading
comprehension skills such as (1) browsing books and other colorful materials, (2) looking at
pictures and other print materials, (3) eyes focused intently on books, (4) recognizing letters and
numbers (5) recognizing pictures, (6) observing adult reading, (7) emulating adult learning, (8)
enjoying storytelling, (9) interested in reading aloud, (10) retelling, (11) half narrating, (12) half
reading, (13) possessing reading vocabulary and (14) naming objects and characters. He further
opined that the home’s role, the parents, and caregivers who provide the needed support are
essential in promoting early literacy. Besides, the presence of books and other reading and writing
materials are all contributors to it (Houtman, 2015).
This initiative realized that educators must continually monitor their learners’ progress to
achieve the desired academic performances, let say on per grade level or mandatory every time
they get promoted. The early detection of failures at the onset of learner’s reading strategies may
initiate outright interventions to address seamless metacognitive problems before it piles up. The
idea of addressing any minor issues on the teacher’s level is already a result of our way of achieving
insistent quality education in the field instead of buck-passing (pointing-fingers) and underscoring
who are the culprits in the Philippine Education System.
This research becomes imperative in education, particularly in the teaching-learning
process, where the facilitators advocate the significance of reading comprehension to learner’s life.
It will serve as a lay-bare for the entire Division of La Union and replicate the same to raise the
significance of metacognitive skills among learners in the Department of Education. A learner can
understand and apply the context of what he is reading for and enhance transfer and retention of
knowledge for life learning skills in his voyage towards becoming a successful individual in the
field he wishes to excel for in the future. The benefits of reading can mold the school’s leaders and
achievers, which is the pilot school’s primary goal.

Innovation, Intervention and Strategy

This research envisioned to propose a “retention policy” on learner’s comprehension using
Instructional Materials (IMs) to help in the assessment in the Senior High School with the primary
objective to understand the learner’s metacognition as a basis for teacher’s needs analysis (TNA)
requiring improvement on the identified weak areas in the teaching-learning process.
Based on the observation, the concept of a retention policy is subject to a proposal to be
implemented in Basic Education to streamline the importance of the learner’s acquired
comprehension in their years of studying. This research tried to understand its implication to
process the necessary information on the School Administrators and Teachers’ part towards
achieving quality education through an objective assessment.
In achieving the objectives of the retention policy, the researchers likewise proposed test
materials in the form of Strategic Intervention Materials (SIMs) as an “insertion” to the teaching-
learning process to elicit the results for subsequent data analysis and interpretations on the
prevailing conditions of the metacognitive skills as revealed by the learner.
Through the assessment results, the researchers tried to design a sample proforma of Senior
High School Reading Comprehension Learner’s Profile (see Appendix H) to monitor the progress
objectively and the actions taken to the identified numbers of poor, average, and above-average

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readers.
In summary, this research proposed the following outputs beneficial to the whole school
language community, such as the retention policy’s proposed objectives, SIMs English core
metacognition, and the SHS RCLP.
The researchers may present this initiative in the Division Office (Education Program
Supervisors) for subsequent review and simulation among Senior High Schools in the entire
Division of La Union. It will promote confidence in the education sector for sustainable
metacognition in Senior High School Department.

Research Questions
This study aimed to understand the prevailing conditions of metacognition and its implication in
Basic Education's goal and initiate possible “insertion” in the teaching-learning process beneficial
for the school language community.
Specifically, it sought answers to the following questions.
1. How does metacognition in Basic Education understand the varying difficulty of
comprehension in terms of
1.1 easy;
1.2 average;
1.3 difficult; and
1.4 critical?
2. What is the implication of metacognition in Basic Education for the
2.1 Senior High School learners;
2.2 English/Language teachers;
2.3 Classroom Advisers;
2.4 School Administrators; and
2.5 Parents and Relatives?
3. What Information Education Campaign (IEC) materials can sustain metacognition in
Senior High School?

Research Methods
This research was a qualitative approach using phenomenology and unstructured interview
research methodologies. Its primary objective was to understand the prevailing conditions of
metacognition in the Senior High School in one public school in the La Union Schools Division.
Research instrumentation underwent reliability testing before it used in the actual data
gathering, where the test confirmed 94% using Cronbach’s Alpha.
There was a pilot test conducted on the use of the research instrument in anticipation of
any modification.

Participants and Other Sources of Data and Information

The study focused on the graduating class in the Senior High School Department of Don Eulogio
de Guzman Memorial National High School, the piloted school, for the First Semester (June 03,
2019 – October 28, 2019) of the Academic Year 2019 – 2020 using the Total Enumeration
Approach.

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Researchers retrieved the number of participants from the Department of Education -

Learner’s Information System (DepEd – LIS) for the enrollment data.

Table 1. The Distribution of Participants

Senior High School Department Graduating %

Academics
Accountancy, Business and Management Strand A 63
General Academic Strand Strand B 30
329 60%
Humanities and Social Sciences Strand C 138
Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Strand D 98
Technical Vocation
Beauty Care/Hairdressing Strand E 32
Caregiving Strand F 43
222 40%
Home Economics Strand F 70
Information and Communications Technology Strand G 77
Total Registered LIS Enrollees 551 100%
*Data Retrieved from the DepEd - LIS 1S AY 2019 – 2020
Table 1 showed the total sampling with five hundred fifty-one (551) and assigned with
their dummies. The Candidates for graduation were the participants because they prepared
themselves for the college entrants.
The study had a hundred percent retrieval rate.
The basis for the test results of varying difficulty on a learner’s metacognition, the study
used the following screened scoring (PHIL-IRI inspired).
N=551
Screening Test Score*
Weighted
Comprehension Understanding Timer Understanding
Points
> 5 average;
Easy (EAS) 5 5 < 5 above-average
>10 poor
>10 average;
Average (AVE) 5 <15 10 <10 above-average
>15 poor
20 Repeat Testing
>15 average;
Difficult (DIFF) 5 (15/20=75%) 15 <15 above-average
>20 poor
>20 average;
Critical (CRIT) 5 20 <20 above-average
>25 poor
*Inspired by PHIL-IRI Screening Test Scoring (DepEd – BLR)

a. Data Gathering Methods

The study adopted the Instructional Materials (IMs) presented by the Philippine Informal
Reading Inventory (2018). PHIL-IRI aimed to provide an objective individual reading assessment
that helps to assess learner’s strengths and needs (frustration levels) in the areas of word

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recognition, word meaning, and reading strategies. PHIL-IRI is anchored on the flagship program
“Every Child A Reader Program” or ECARP.
ECARP supports the assessment of reading speed and comprehension, where test taker’s
comprehension skills (the ability to create meaning) may be gauged by having the learners answer
questions of varying difficulty. English is used in the study because this becomes our lingua franca
and medium of instruction.

Table 2. PHIL-IRI Selections - English Screening Test

Word Standardized Test Questions

PHIL-IRI Selection Titles*
Count Total Literal Inferential Critical
1 The Best Part of the Day 67 5 1 3 1
2 Ice Cream for Sale 65 5 1 4 0
3 At Last 84 5 1 4 0
4 The Owl and the Rooster 84 5 1 3 1
5 Early Start 82 5 1 3 1
6 Rice for Lunch 69 5 0 5 0
7 The Gift 83 5 3 2 0
8 One Stormy Night 58 5 0 5 0
9 Chameleons 82 7 2 3 2
10 The Philippine Eagle 89 7 1 3 3
11 Home to Millions of Fish 82 6 1 4 1
12 Telling Time 134 7 2 3 2
13 Counting the Hours 124 6 3 2 1
14 Nosebleeds 139 7 2 3 2
Total Screening Tests 80 19 47 14
Rejected 60 14 37 9
Research Instrumentation
Accepted 20 5 10 5
*Data Sourced from PHIL-IRI pp 57-75
Table 2 showed the sources of research instrumentation. From the 14 standardized
selections, the screening test questions accepted the four (4) standardized selections based on
expert panel judgment. For the varying difficulty of comprehension (easy, average, difficult,
critical), the questions taken from the English core selections entitled “The Philippine Eagle,”
“Telling Time,” “Counting the Hours,” and “Nosebleeds.”
PHIL-IRI test materials were categorized according to the varying of difficulty, such as
easy with 5 question statements, average with 5 question statements, difficult with 5 question
statements, and critical with 5 question statements.

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Comprehension Scoring
Total Items Weighted Scores Understanding
20.0 Passed
20 16.0 - 19.0 Enhanced
1.0 - 15.0 Repeat Testing

The instrument structured twenty (20) benchmark statements and validated by an English
expert.
Thirty (30) respondents considered the pilot test to increase the research instrument’s
reliability using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The nominated
school was Eulogio Clarence Martin P. De Guzman Technical Vocational High School (formerly
Acao National High School) with the School Head’s consent and approval.
The learners received a series of test instructions from the researchers on how to objectively
handle the English core metacognition questionnaires on a per strand during their vacancies
tapping their classroom schedules.
N=551
Time
Test Instructions Responsible Persons
Allotment
Instruction 1 Test Briefing Researchers/ Subject 15 minutes
Instruction 2 Test Proper Teachers/ Advisers/ 50 minutes*
Instruction 3 Test Materials Retrieval Master Teachers 10 minutes
Instruction 4 Test Assessment and Evaluation Researchers/ Master
Teachers/ SHS
2-3 months
Instruction 5 Test Results and Presentations Assistant Principal/
Principal
* 5 minutes for browsing the test materials, 45 minutes for the actual test-taking

The data was collected and treated for approximately nine (9) months (June 2019 –
February 2020).

Results and Discussions

This part presents the results, discussions, and interpretations to answer the Statements of the
Problem.

Understanding Varying Comprehension Towards Metacognition in Senior High

For Strand A, the English core metacognition revealed that learners passed the test with an above-
average result. The strand only had an 85% overall test score subject to a possible enhanced
intervention.
For Strand B, the English core metacognition revealed that learners passed the test with an
average result. The strand only had a 75% overall test score for immediate enhanced intervention.
For Strand C, the English core metacognition revealed that learners passed the test with an
above-average result. The strand had a 90% overall test score for possible enhanced intervention.
For Strand D, the English core metacognition revealed that learners passed the test with an

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above-average result and an impressive 100% overall test score.

For Strand E, the English core metacognition revealed that learners would repeat the test.
The learners only had a 65% overall test score subject to a priority intervention and repeat testing.
For Strand F, the English core metacognition revealed that learners would repeat the test.
The learners only had a 70% overall test score subject to a priority intervention and repeat testing.
For Strand G, the English core metacognition revealed that learners only passed the test
with an average result. The learners only had a 75% overall test score for immediate enhanced
intervention.
For Strand H, the English core metacognition revealed that learners only passed the test
with an average result. The learners only had a 75% overall test score for immediate enhanced
intervention.
In summary, the strands which needed priority interventions were E and F and due for
repeat testing. Simultaneously, Strands B, G, and H just passed the test that needed immediate
enhanced interventions. (see Appendix I)
The interview revealed that their primary concerns when using English were shyness,
bullying, low esteem, and difficulty understanding English instructions.

The Implication of Metacognition in Basic Education

The college entrants require the learner’s talents, competencies, knowledge, skills, and attitude
(KSA) honed already in the Basic Education level. The practical challenges in a college student’s
life should be holistic development in all aspects, such as physically, socially, emotionally,
spiritually, and mentally ready. College life assumes the training venue for the desired job in the
corporate world where the use of high-level mental abilities such as HOTS becomes a requirement
to finish the Degree.
The English and Language teachers shall motivate them to improve their teaching
strategies because they want their Lesson Plan (LP) to achieve its objectives for successful
learning. It encourages them to do more and produce more strategic learning interventions
designing one teaching-learning environment wherein resides engaging learners and having a well-
managed classroom as a venue for learning activation. If they found out that their learners have
progressed academically, they exert more effort to continually improve teaching strategies to
sustain learner's inclination at an increasing pace. Knowing the English core's prevailing
conditions of learner's metacognition will give them sufficient information when learners signal
differentiated instructions in the teaching process.
For the Classroom Advisers, it will give them a basis to request seminars and training that
may enhance the teacher’s performance, e.g., Early Language, Literacy, and Numeracy (ELLN).
It may also serve as a guide to augment effective reading programs and resources in the school
community. It may greatly help them formulating metacognitive activities to suit the learner’s
needs in developing more their reading comprehension skills. Advisers who understand the usage
of metacognitive strategies can positively impact learners who have learning disabilities by
developing appropriate learning information plans.
The School Administrators will have an objective basis to request funding for
metacognitive plans, activities, projects, and programs for the entire academic year. It will
positively impact their SIP/AIP reports because they could position one of the essential quality
education indicators. The School Administrators shall likewise position themselves in “setting the

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tone at the top” in implementing serious commitments upon understanding the implication and
requirements of genuine metacognition under their Instructional Leadership.
The parents and relatives concerned about their child's progress in school will help them
sustain their metacognitive skills even at home and understand its significance as a weapon to
succeed best in life. The proper coordination and open communication on the parents, guardians,
or relatives will update them about their academic status inadequacies, enjoining full support to
prioritize their child's education requirements. It is one way of showing interest in the child's
performance where the child can feel their parent's appreciation towards academic progress. Extant
already confirmed that parent's support is an essential indicator of the child's success where it can
achieve by establishing and monitoring the child's study habits both in school and at home.

The Information Education Campaign (IEC) for Metacognition

Metacognition is an essential ingredient in the academic life of a learner who envisioned a better
future. He invests half of his life in realizing its significance towards dreams and aspirations in
life. There must be an immediate solution or strategy to address learners’ multiple intelligences in
Basic Education. This study conceptualized where the authors also believed that quality education
is still on its way. It hoped that this platform would contribute to attaining the many goals of the
Department of Education.
The proposed objectives of the "retention policy" could benefit the school community. The
policy sets the tone for assessing metacognition in Senior High School to update the School
Administrators, English and Language teachers, Classroom Advisers, and the parents about the
prevailing academic status vis-à-vis mental cognitive abilities anchored from educational
philosophies. The assessment served as a basis for appropriate interventions that may employ or
teaching strategies may enhance to sustain the desired learner's metacognitive skills. This initiative
encourages policy formulation in Basic Education to nurture the learners' acquired multiple
intelligences throughout the years. It would provide evidence on the teachers to reposition teaching
approaches, strategies, and methods to address learners' needs, such as the academic essentials for
the identified frustrations, poor, slow, average, and struggling learners. The concept of diversity
in education requires differentiated instructions to cater to our learners' different behaviors and
intelligence, which must be rooted in setting the "tone at the top." The retention policy requires
school resources' realignment to provide our learner's basic mental demands, who may seem
observed to be failing. It highlights competent review materials, workbooks, workshops, and
school activities in successful metacognition to sustain it. Besides, retention policy suggests that
competent English and Language teachers must be supported with seminars and training before
they forefront all these objectives following the concept of "how they can provide if they do not
have it in the first place.”
The Strategic Intervention Materials (SIMs) following English core subjects have been
yearly designed even in lower years because of promising academic benefits. But the passage of
Kto12 that paved the way for the inclusion of Senior High School becomes an experimental period
for educators in the country to date. Technically, there are subjects offered in Senior High School
learners crafted from College Degrees, which means there is a need to customize and contextualize
Instructional Materials (IMs) to deliver the expectation of successful learning every day. The
subjects offered at hand are categorized into three, such as core, applied, and specialized. English
is just one of the core subjects. Therefore, this study encourages teachers who have specializations

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in English and Language teaching to design their individual SIMs to warrant metacognition under
their teaching supervision. At present, the offered subjects in Senior High School under the
umbrella of English core are Oral Communication, Reading and Writing, English for Academic
and Professional Purposes, and Creative Writing. Likewise, research suggested validating each
created SIM's effectiveness to check its contribution towards the attainment of metacognition in
Senior High School.
The Senior High School Reading Comprehension Learner's Profile (SHS RLCP) becomes
a tool for all the teachers and parents to religiously monitor any progress and success on reading
comprehension of the child structured from lower years. This tool enjoins stakeholders towards
attaining the learner’s metacognition, emphasizing the concept “it takes a village to teach a child.”
This tool supports the idea of developing a habit of reading that should start at a young age.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Based on significant findings and results of this study, these were the conclusions drawn.
Understanding both test scores and results on English core metacognition, the findings
contribute to the concepts of Efferent (information) and Aesthetic (reception) readings as theorized
by researcher Rosenblatt. The test score and result of Strand D followed the Aesthetic, while
Strands A, B, C, G, and H followed the Efferent. Strands E and F, which obtained failed test scores
and results, failed to achieve the lowest required metacognition illustrated by the reading test
materials for comprehension.
The Kto12 Program is not positioned for Academics but instead on upskilling of
competencies in the different Qualifications. It seemed learners coming from Technical Vocation
Education failed the expected scores in English core metacognition.
Some of the learners from the Technical Vocational Livelihood (TVL) track may always
be left behind in terms of Academics and school activities requiring the use of high metacognitive
skills such as the cognitive demands of Higher-Order Thinking Strategies or HOTS.
The Academic track may not win in the interschool skills competition, requiring technical
skills and competencies.
A practical learner chooses Technical Vocation Education towards life’s aspirations.
Technical Vocation Education is the first choice of a learner who may think s/he will never
excel academically.
The test scores of Strands E and F are not structurally well-versed in abstraction in English
subjects.
The Academic track excels in metacognition, but it does not mean they are all good at
English subjects.
Strand D got perfect scores, which means they do not need interventions to improve their
English comprehension.
In terms of performances in the Academic track, Strand B needs immediate intervention to
increase English confidence to be at par with Strands A, C, and D.
The learner’s primary issues revealed in terms of the English core’s expectations are
shyness, bullying, low esteem, and difficulty understanding English instructions beyond the
control of a teacher who positioned himself to continue to motivate and encourage each learner.
For a classroom teacher to attain an objective assessment of the learner’s metacognition,
he needs to know his learners first. He should be well informed in Psychology to understand that

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learner’s development and behavior potentially affect his metacognitive skills.

In light of the provided conclusions, this study humbly recommended the following.
Through the initiative of the Education Program Supervisor (EPS) may propose
metacognitive reading strategies in schools to provide learners with an early insight on its
importance to increase better learning as they gear. EPS may enjoin the English/Language Team
to create platforms to achieve sustainable metacognition in Basic Education.
This research strongly recommended for the installation of a Registered Guidance
Counsellor (RGC) to man the Science of learner’s Psychology and its subsequent monitoring,
supervision, counseling, and assessment on the different issues of learners that potentially impact
their metacognition. As per observation, the school has no yet Registered Guidance Counsellor
(RGC) installed in the Senior High School, considering it one of the big schools with 1,190 total
enrollees. Sometimes, the teacher’s time availability becomes a hindrance to counsel all his
learners, one at a time.
The researchers encourage the concerned teachers and parents to use metacognitive reading
strategies during class and at home to develop their reading comprehension skills. It may prove
difficult for a learner who has a limited vocabulary as one essential requirement of metacognition.
The School Authorities (Classroom Advisers, Master Teachers, SHS Assistant Principal,
and Secondary School Principal) ensure the availability of reading materials in the campus such
as Reading Hubs, Information Kiosks, Reading Corners, or installing a Learning Resource Center
(LRC) in Senior High School. The school has one (1) library with somehow limited space or
sometimes used as an extended classroom and may be shared by 3,887 enrollees. In terms of
Reading Corners, the School Heads always reminds Advisers to structure their classroom with
sufficient reading materials to ensure these IMs are available in the area.
The clubbing per strand (JEC, HUMSSA, LIGAS, SYSTEMA, Club of Young
Restaurateurs, and ICT Unity) must initiate to have their Accreditation area where archives could
be lodged and secured as teaching references. There should be collaboration among the strands to
elicit innovation on Instructional Materials used in the teaching process. Teachers also indirectly
learn from other teachers on their shared teaching ways, manipulations, and learning experiences.
For the remaining months of staying of the Candidates for graduation, this study’s results
become an opportune time for the concerned teachers to conduct experiments or observational
survey on his possible “insertion” in the teaching-learning process towards growth and changes in
the learner’s metacognition. Any findings shall document and communicate with the researchers
for the proper treatment of data.
The researchers humbly recommend having a “retention policy” in Senior High School,
highlighting the benefits it could give to all the concerned teachers, parents, and graduating
learners. The design of the objectives and test materials of the “retention policy” must be an
initiative of all the English/Language Team (for English subjects) fully supported by the School
Administrators appropriating a fund thereof.
School Authorities with Early Language, Literacy, and Numeracy (ELLN) of Mother
Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) training shall conduct the validation of an
objective metacognitive assessment.
For monitoring purposes for any progress in language literacy, a test (Pre-test/Post-test)
might compare the variance in terms of the effectiveness of any “insertion” made in the teaching-
learning process by the English Subject Teachers or Class Advisers. In this study, the concept of

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“insertion” is through SIMs, whether the learner is in school or at home.

This research supports the paper’s objectives, “Reading in Tandem,” where this initiative
may collaborate. Both goals may bridge the future of Reading Comprehension (JHS) and
Metacognition (SHS). An assessment individually is possible following the objective
identification of the Candidates considered poor, average, and above-average readers.
Through the School Administrator’s initiative, the study suggests assembling Language
advocates (JHS/SHS) to develop a Project Team in realizing the objectives of metacognition in
Basic Education. It may entail repositioning the school resources in its subsequent research-
project-funding.
The SIMs (English and Language) serve as examples for other core subjects or
specializations to validate learner’s existing metacognition. Additional SIMs (core, applied,
specialized) must continuously design, improve, and immediately disseminated for practice drills
of the learners to increase individual metacognition test scores.
The study recommends that future SIMs English core designs possess an increasing level
of Higher-Order Thinking Strategies (HOTS), inspired by Educational Philosophers, e.g., Bloom’s
Taxonomy, Anderson, and Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences. It must undergo both reliability and
validity tests to standardize instruments in the actual teaching-learning process under English and
Language teachers’ expertise. One suggestion is to use the promising benefits of technologies such
as Computer-Aided-Design (CAD) applications and Animations for visual appearance to increase
appeal and excitements from the readers. Illustrators and layout artists may seek assistance from
IT experts to achieve the expectation.
The designs of SIMs and other Instructional Materials shall aid the metacognition. It must
be customized and contextualized per strand, per subject, per content standard (CS), or per learning
competency (LC) to address the learner’s personal needs where exactly the part discovered that
the learners need immediate intervention or remediation.
The researchers emphasize (Principles of Remediation #05) establishing rapport with the
parents, guardians, relatives, Advisers, and English/Language/Subject teachers. Teachers keep
open communication for any progress and success of the learners following the concept “it takes
a village to teach a child.”
The study humbly suggests validating the SHS average population to be catered by
Language Educators that would probably require an additional workforce in the field. A proposed
timeline must provide, tapping the school calendar of activities.
The study encourages research continuity related to metacognition or metacognitive
strategies that will explore multi-grade level in Basic Education for sustainable genuine quality
education.

References
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Houtman, E. (2015). “mind-blowing”: Fostering self-regulated learning in information literacy
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International Reading Association. (2006). Choice Reviews Online.

https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.43sup-0546
Iwai, Y. (2010). Metacognitive awareness and strategy use in academic English reading among
adult English as a second language (ESL) students. Dissertation Abstracts International
Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
Iwai, Y. (2016). The Effect of Explicit Instruction on Strategic Reading in a Literacy Methods
Course. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education.
Karlin, L., Martz, M. J., Brauth, S. E., & Mordkoff, A. M. (1971). Auditory evoked potentials,
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Kasbekar, D. P. (2017). Sherlock Holmes, David Perkins, and the missing Neurospora inversions.
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Kelly, R. (2012). Sustaining the careers of New South Wales Department of Education and
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texts. Ocnos: Revista de Estudios Sobre Lectura. https://doi.org/10.18239/ocnos_2015.14.02
Manfra, M. M. G. (2019). Action Research and Systematic, Intentional Change in Teaching
Practice. In Review of Research in Education (Vol. 43, Issue 1, pp. 163–196). SAGE
Publications Inc. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18821132
Mehan, A. (2017). “Tabula Rasa” planning: creative destruction and building a new urban identity
in Tehran. Journal of Architecture and Urbanism.
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Merikoski, J. K. (2012). Calculus and Its Origins by David Perkins. International Statistical
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Patterson, K., Grenny, J., Maxfield, D., McMillan, R., & Switzler, A. (2008). Influencer: The
power to change anything: book summary. In ABB Review.
Petchko, K. (2011). Input enhancement, noticing, and incidental vocabulary acquisition. Asian
EFL Journal.
Reza Ahmadi, M., Nizam Ismail, H., & Kamarul Kabilan Abdullah, M. (2013). The importance of
metacognitive reading strategy awareness in reading comprehension. English Language
Teaching. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n10p235
Ricker, A. A., & Richert, R. A. (2021). Digital gaming and metacognition in middle childhood.
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Blended Learning in A Research Writing Class: Perceptions and Experiences

from ESL Secondary Learners

Bonjovi Hassan Hajan*

José Rizal University, Madaluyong City Philippines

Reynold C. Padagas**
José Rizal University, Madaluyong City Philippines

Abstract
The burgeoning of technology in the modern times has resulted in the development of a highly
dynamic and sophisticated educational landscape and foreign/second language classrooms are no
exception to this colossal pedagogic change. Blended Learning (BL) as a newly introduced
innovative pedagogy has been well noted in different fields of second language (L2) teaching and
learning including that of English for Academic Purposes (EAP). BL fosters student-student and
student-teacher interactions, reduces communication anxiety, encourages students to become self-
directed and independent learners, and enhances their academic writing skills in English. In the
context of Research Writing (RW), however, BL has received less attention not to mention that
research about BL in a RW classroom in secondary context especially in the Philippines has been
but scarce. This study assessed and explored the perceptions as well as the experiences of ESL
secondary students in using Canvas as an online platform in a BL RW class. Using sequential-
explanatory mixed methods research design, the Web-based Learning Environment Instrument
(WEBLEI) adapted from Chang and Fisher (2003) was administered to 136 Senior High School
(SHS) Students from five strands enrolled in Qualitative and Quantitative Research Subjects in a
private university in the Philippines. Three-round focus group discussions were conducted among
30 participants in order to obtain in-depth information as regards students’ experiences in their
blended RW class. Quantitative findings showed that students had overall positive perceptions
regarding the use of Canvas in their BL RWC. They found Canvas to be an efficient, practical,
convenient, and flexible Learning Management System (LMS) that afforded them social
interactions between their peers and teachers. Nonetheless, sifting through the experiences of these
students, certain challenges relating to internet connection, system interface, and lack of proper
training for both students and teachers were revealed. The study offers pedagogical implications
as to how the teaching and learning of research writing in a blended learning modality can be
improved.

Keywords: Blended learning, EAP, research writing, canvas, ESL secondary learners

*[email protected]
**[email protected]

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Introduction
The burgeoning of technology in the modern times has resulted in the development of a highly
innovative and sophisticated educational landscape and foreign/second language classrooms are no
exception to this colossal pedagogic change. Studies in the field of Computer Assisted Language
Learning (CALL) have shown that second language (L2) learning in a technology-driven world is
a very much alive topic for research (Chapelle, 2009; Egbert et al, 2009; Levy, 2009; Otto &
Pusack, 2009; Blake, 2009; Cummins & Davesne, 2009; Garrett, 2009; Levy, 2009; Otto & Pusack,
2009, as cited in, Larsen, 2012). CALL affirms several improvements in the learning of L2 such as
more language functions (Beatty, 2003; Chang, 2005), greater levels of participation (Gonzal´ez-
Bueno, 1998), reduced anxiety (Kessler, 2010), and more motivation and interest and greater
autonomy (Leakey & Ranchoux, 2006; Vinther, 2011).
However, despite these benefits of technology in L2 learning, little attention has been paid
to areas that directly relate to Blended Learning (BL). In fact, as Larsen (2012) argues, BL has been
treated as an isolated field of study by some CALL scholars. BL is defined as a relatively new
pedagogical approach that combines both conventional face-to-face learning with computer-
assisted instruction (Bonk & Graham, 2012). A recent literature review by Albiladi (2019) shows
BL as a promising tool that brings forth several benefits in the English classroom such as improving
the English learning process, developing language skills, and enhancing the English learning
environment. Furthermore, BL offers a worthwhile impact on L2 students’ performance as well as
increases students’ motivation and engagement in class (López-Pérez et al.,2012; Hughes, 2007).
As a hybrid of face-to-face and online learning modalities, BL has the ultimate potentials of
optimizing language learning since its power resides in the strengths of both approaches (Albiladi,
2019; Garrison & Kanuka, 2004; Glazer, 2011; Lim & Morris, 2009; Moskal & Cavanagh, 2014).
The usefulness of BL as an innovative pedagogy has been well noted in different fields of L2
teaching and learning including that of English for Academic Purposes (EAP). In the context of
EAP in higher education, for example, BL is perceived to boost instructive productivity through
which teachers are offered with a range of pedagogical possibilities to curate the best blend of face-
to-face and online learning for each course and set of learning activities (Mortera-Gutiérrez, 2006;
Stein & Graham, 2014). BL can also help foster interactions between and among students and
teachers, reduce or even eradicate communication anxiety, encourage them to become self-directed
and independent learners and enhance their academic English writing skills (Liu, 2013). In
addition, the viability of BL in an EAP classroom has to do with its nature as an internet-based
pedagogy. This is clearly explained by Garrison and Kanuka (2004) in their statement that “a
concomitant property of learning with internet communication technology is that it has a significant
educational implication resulting from the emphasis on written communication” (p. 97).
In the Philippines, very little is known about blended learning in an EAP context. Mabuan
and Ebron’s (2016) attempt to examine blended learning as regards using e-mail in teaching writing
among college students is noteworthy. Their results indicated that despite some inherent
motivational and technology-related restrictions, using e-mail in the classroom may help boost
learners’ interest and confidence in writing, enhance their technological and social skills, foster
learner autonomy and improve their attitudes towards learning the target language. However, since
the applicability of this new pedagogical approach already buttresses the gamut of secondary
education, research on blended learning that looks into EAP in secondary education setting is
necessary. In addition, while blended learning has become a thriving pedagogic platform within an

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EAP context in this era of technology, a specific EAP strand such as Research Writing where
blended learning is implemented has been less explored. It is this paucity in research that prompted
the current researchers to assess and explore the perceptions and experiences of senior high school
students as regards blended learning in a Research Writing class.

Research Questions
The study aimed to assess and explore the perceptions and experiences of senior high school
students in using Canvas as a blended learning tool in a Research Writing class. Specifically,
answers were sought on the following research questions:
1. What are the levels of perceptions of students about Canvas as an online platform in
Blended Learning Research Writing Class in terms of access, interaction, response, and
result?
2. What are the experiences of these students in using the said online platform?

Methodology
Research Design
This research used sequential-explanatory mixed methods design by Creswell and Plano-Clark
(2011). Quantitative data were collected first and findings from this method were substantiated
with qualitative data collected in the second phase. The use of sequential-explanatory mixed
methods design in this study was due to the strength that the project offers, ensuring the focus of
the study is sustained since more in-depth investigation was conducted to build on the quantitative
data results (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2011). This design also provided more sufficient and more
comprehensive understanding about the perceptions and experiences of students as regards use of
Canvas in Practical Research subjects. The collection of data from different means to corroborate
results is what Merriam (1988) referred to as triangulation, thus, ascertaining internal validity and
reliability since data are gathered from multiple sources.

Participants and Sampling

One hundred thirty-six (136) randomly selected Senior High School (SHS) students from 5
different strands in a private university in the Philippines participated in answering the survey
questionnaire. Three rounds of focus group discussions were conducted among 30 SHS students in
order to gain deeper understanding about their experiences in their Blended Learning Research
Writing class. These students were enrolled in Practical Research I (Quantitative Research Writing)
and Practical Research II (Qualitative Research Writing). Classes in these subjects were held using
blended learning approach with 1.5 hours face-to-face and 1.5 hours online using Canvas as a
Learning Management System (LMS).

Instruments of the Study

The researchers adapted the Web-based Learning Environment Instrument (WEBLEI) from Chang
and Fisher (2003) to assess the perceptions of students regarding Canvas as an LMS for their
blended learning. The questionnaire contained 32 items with four scales: Access, Interaction,
Response, and Result. Each scale consisted of 8 items measuring different areas about that scale.
The questionnaire was in a form of Likert scale with 4-point basis. However, the verbal
interpretations used for the scales differed. Access and Response Scales used 4.0-3.50= Strongly

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Agree; 3.49-2.50= Agree; 2.49-1.50= Disagree; and 1.49-1.0= Strongly Agree, whereas Interaction
and Result Scales used 4.0-3.50= Always; 3.49; 2.50= Often; 2.49-1.50= Sometimes; and 1.49-
1.0= Rarely.
In order to contextualize it to the present study, the instrument underwent expert validation
by a university researcher and a research teacher. During the validation process, some changes on
the wording of the items were made in order to suit them to the needs of the study. Despite the
modifications done, all 32 items were retained as they were deemed relevant and useful in helping
the researchers find answers to the problem at hand. Apart from the expert validation, the
instrument was also pilot tested to a group of 20 SHS students taking Practical Research subjects
to check on internal consistency and reliability and a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.88 across all
items was obtained which meant that items were internally consistent and reliable. As to the
qualitative data collection, the researchers used unstructured questions regarding students’
experiences in using Canvas in Practical Research. Although the researchers did not use structured
questions during the focus group, the discussion was centered on the four scales from the survey
since qualitative findings were meant to build on the quantitative results.

Data Collection Procedure

A survey method was used in determining perceptions of students towards Canvas while focus
group discussion was employed as a means of exploring the experiences of students in using
Canvas in their Practical Research subjects. Before the researchers conducted the quantitative
phase which is the survey, formal letter was sent to the Principal’s office for approval of the data
gathering activity. After approval was sought, the researchers distributed informed consent letter
to parents. It was necessary to obtain parental consent in this study because the researchers dealt
with students who were still considered minors. The researchers then retrieved the letters with
parents’ signature and administered the survey. However, before having the students answer the
survey, the researchers fully oriented and debriefed them regarding the purpose of the study and
their roles as participants. After a week of initial data gathering, the researchers proceeded to the
second phase which is the focus group discussion. Before the session started, the researchers
ensured that complete orientation and debriefing were conducted. The participants were also
informed that they were free to withdraw anytime they wanted, and that they had the freedom to
not share whatever they felt uncomfortable with.

Data Analysis
For the quantitative data analysis, the study used descriptive statistics, particularly measures of
central tendency and dispersion. Mean and standard deviation of each item in the survey were
computed in order to gain the weight of the items as based on students’ responses. Arbitrary scales
were used to interpret the mean scores and weighted means for each individual item and for each
scale. For the student perceptions of Canvas in terms of Access and Response, the scale generalizes
and interprets the mean scores and weighted means as Strongly Agree/Very high perception (4.0-
3.50), Agree/High perception (3.49-2.50), Disagree/Moderate perception (2.49-1.50), and Strongly
Disagree/Low perception 1.49-1.0). As regards student perceptions of Canvas in terms of
Interaction and Results, the scale was Always/Very high perception (4.0-3.50), Often/High
perception (3.49-2.50), Sometimes/Moderate perception (2.49-1.50), and Rarely/Low perception
1.49-1.0). Meanwhile, for the qualitative data analysis, the researchers used thematic analysis by

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Braun and Clarke (2006). Using thematic analysis, the researchers first audio-taped the
conversations that took place during the focus group discussion and then transcribed them
verbatim. Transcripts were read and re-read by the researchers to be immersed with the data. Initial
ideas especially which came from analytic observations were noted during this phase. Next, the
researchers coded the data, deciphered every data item and collated all the codes along with the
relevant extracts from the transcripts. The researchers constructed themes and assigned all the
coded data to the themes. The researchers then reviewed all the themes created to make sure they
do not overlap with each other. Once all the themes were critically reviewed, the researchers
formulated compelling and informative name for each theme, and each was written a full analysis
that supported the research questions. Then, the researchers discussed each individual theme
supported by its excerpts, linked it to the research questions and positioned it in the light of the
existing literature. It should be noted that each participant was assigned a pseudonym which was
used in labeling their answers in the discussion section. This procedure was done to ensure that the
participants’ identity was totally protected.

Results
Research Question 1: What are the levels of perceptions of students about Canvas as an
online platform in Blended Learning Research Writing Class in terms of access, interaction,
response, and result?

1. Access
Table 1 below reflects individual items as regards Access Scale of Canvas. As shown, students
rated their access to Canvas as generally with the grand mean of 3.10, interpreted as agree. This
may demonstrate efficiency and potential usefulness of Canvas as a blended learning tool in a
Research Writing Class.
The mean score of 3.21 for item 4, “I am allowed to work at my own pace to achieve learning
objectives” is the highest of all the responses in this scale. This result may indicate that Canvas as
a blended learning tool provides students with utmost autonomy and efficiency to customize
learning at their own pace. Accessibility of learning activities at students’ own convenience in
Canvas is also remarkable (3.14) parallel with the flexibility that they are afforded to achieve the
learning targets (3.14). This clearly shows that given blended learning, students do not have to
work under pressure to finish the activities since they can access them anytime even without
teachers’ presence.

Table 1
Student Perceptions about Canvas as an Online Platform in BL RW Class in terms of Access
Access Mean SD Interpretation
I can access the learning activities at my own convenience. 3.14 0.76 Agree/High
perception
The online material is available at locations suitable for me. 3.03 0.75 Agree/High
perception
I can use time saved in traveling and on-campus class 3.10 0.82 Agree/High
attendance for study and other commitments. perception

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I am allowed to work at my own pace to achieve learning 3.21 0.73 Agree/High

objectives. perception
I decide how much I want to learn in a given period. 2.99 0.78 Agree/High
perception
I decide when I want to learn. 3.10 0.75 Agree/High
perception
The flexibility allows me to meet my learning goals. 3.14 0.73 Agree/High
perception
The flexibility allows me to explore my own areas of 3.10 0.74 Agree/High
interest. perception
Grand Mean 3.10 0.76 Agree/High
perception

Legend:
4.0-3.50= Strongly Agree/Very high perception
3.49-2.50= Agree/High perception
2.49-1.50= Disagree/Moderate perception
1.49-1.0= Strongly Agree/Low perception

However, some teachers may implement stricter deadlines where students are given only
specific time to comply. This is consistent with what the students rated as lowest in item 5 (2.99),
“I decide how much I want to learn in a given period”. This implies that although blended learning
is self-paced, teachers still orchestrate the learning of students, i.e. they still own the control as to
what students should learn and how much time should be given for learning activities in Canvas.

2. Interaction
Displayed in Table 2 is the result of Interaction Scale of Canvas as perceived by students. The
grand mean (2.98) signifies a favorable agreement from student respondents about the
communication and collaboration that Canvas affords them in their Practical Research Classes.
This illustrates how Canvas can be an effective auxiliary tool for promoting academic interaction
between and among students and teachers

Table 2
Student Perceptions about Canvas as an Online Platform in BL RW Class in terms of Interaction
Interaction Mean SD Interpretation
I communicate with other students in this subject 2.77 0.98 Often/High
electronically (email, bulletin boards, chat line). perception
In this learning environment, I have to be self-disciplined in 3.30 0.69 Often/High
order to learn. perception
I have the freedom to ask my teacher what I do not 3.15 0.87 Often/High
understand. perception
I have the freedom to ask other students what I do not 2.99 0.89 Often/High
understand. perception

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Other students respond promptly to my questions. 2.60 0.91 Often/High

perception
I regularly participate in self-evaluations. 3.01 0.91 Often/High
perception
I regularly participate in peer-evaluations. 2.90 0.85 Often/High
perception
I was supported by positive attitude from my peers. 3.12 0.82 Often/High
perception
Grand Mean 2.98 0.86 Often/High
perception

Legend:
4.0-3.50= Always/Very high perception
3.49-2.50= Often/High perception
2.49-1.50= Sometimes/Moderate perception
1.49-1.0= Rarely/Low perception

Notably, item 2 which is “In this learning environment, I have to be self-disciplined in order
to learn” has the highest mean score of all the items in the Interaction Scale. This may portray the
obligatory role that students should play when using Canvas in a blended learning environment.
This further signifies that in order to be successful in such a demanding blended Research Writing
Class, students must have strong determination to initiate collaboration with their peers. They
should keep positive attitudes to be participative and interact with teachers through feedbacking.
While Research Subjects are highly writing in nature, it goes that students may take advantage of
Canvas to ask for clarifications and comments regarding paper revisions from their teacher. The
real interaction that is existent in Canvas during blended time is affirmed by the mean score of item
3 (3.15), “I have the freedom to ask my teacher what I do not understand”. This may suggest that
teachers of Practical Research are also participative in the online community. This is made even
more possible through the Canvas application which the teachers can install and use more
conveniently without relying on the web-based application from the computer. However, the
findings in this scale seem to indicate that there is less interaction as regards student-to-student as
shown by the mean score of 2.60 for item 5, “Other students respond promptly to my questions”.
This suggests that students may use Messenger or any other social networking applications which
are more convenient and hassle-free for them when dealing or communicating among themselves
online.

3. Response
Table 3 reveals students’ perceptions towards response potentialities of Canvas as used for learning
Practical Research. As can be seen, the grand mean of 2.82 suggests that Canvas is positively
responsive to students’ needs and thus, can be utilized as a medium for achieving satisfaction and
achievement among students. The mean score for item 1, “This mode of learning enables me to
interact with other students and the teacher” is 2.96 which is the highest of all the other items within
the Response Scale. This supports the Interaction that students can benefit from using Canvas.

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However, since interaction between students and their peers was minimal, still teachers should
encourage the use of Canvas for brainstorming or doing collaborative work during the blended
time.
It can also be gleaned from the table below that using Canvas in Practical Research has the
advantage of extending learning beyond the traditional classroom as students were able to acquire
more lessons using this blended learning platform. Of equal importance is that such a web-enabled
system could sustain the interests of students throughout the semester. Students also reported that
they felt a sense of fulfillment and success in using Canvas for their Practical Research
requirements. This may be practically true because, in research, students are often tasked to
produce multiple drafts that without the help of Canvas require hard copy submissions which can
be costly and inconvenient for many students. Despite this, however, item 3, “I enjoy learning in
this environment” which has the lowest mean score (2.74) indicates that teachers may need to
design more interesting materials that suit into the interests and needs of their students.

Table 3
Student perceptions about Canvas as an Online Platform in BL RW Class in terms of Response
Response Mean SD Interpretation
This mode of learning enables me to interact with other 2.96 0.84 Agree/High
students and the teacher. perception
I felt a sense of satisfaction and achievement about this 2.83 0.82 Agree/High
learning environment. perception
I enjoy learning in this environment. 2.74 0.92 Agree/High
perception
I could learn more in this environment. 2.87 0.86 Agree/High
perception
It is easy to organize a group for a research project. 2.75 0.88 Agree/High
perception
It is easy to work collaboratively with other students 2.79 0.86 Agree/High
involved in a research project. perception
The web-based learning environment held my interest 2.87 0.84 Agree/High
throughout my course of study. perception
I felt a sense of boredom towards the end of my course of 2.81 0.92 Agree/High
study. perception
Grand Mean 2.82 0.87 Agree/High
perception

Legend:
4.0-3.50= Strongly Agree/Very high perception
3.49-2.50= Agree/High perception
2.49-1.50= Disagree/Moderate perception
1.49-1.0= Strongly Agree/Low perception

While Canvas contents and modules are highly standardized, i.e. developed by one or two
subject heads, teachers who are assigned to teach the subject must consider modifying the content

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that they may find relevant and more meaningful to their students. This is important because in
senior high school, students come from different strands which indicate that they may share
different learning styles and interests. Teachers must, therefore, be sensitive to the needs of their
students should learning be successful virtually.

4. Results
The data in Table 4 display findings relevant to Results Scale of Canvas in learning Practical
Research. Overall, majority of students from the sample indicated agreement that Canvas meets
their learning goals in Practical Research as supported by the clear, organized and appropriate
lessons and activities provided by their Research teachers in Canvas (2.98).

Table 4
Student perceptions about Canvas as an Online Platform in BL RW Class in terms of Results
Results Mean SD Interpretation
The learning objectives are clearly stated in each lesson. 3.13 0.87 Agree/High
perception
The organization of each lesson is easy to follow. 2.93 0.80 Agree/High
perception
The structure of the Canvas learning environment keeps me 2.86 0.87 Agree/High
focused on what is to be learned. perception
Expectations of assignments are clearly stated in each 2.93 0.85 Agree/High
module. perception
Activities are planned carefully. 3.08 0.83 Agree/High
perception
The subject content is appropriate for delivery on Canvas. 3.06 0.79 Agree/High
perception
The lessons in each module are clearly presented. 3.10 0.78 Agree/High
perception
The quizzes on Canvas enhance my learning process. 2.82 0.95 Agree/High
perception
Grand Mean 2.98 0.84 Agree/High
perception

Legend:
4.0-3.50= Strongly Agree/Very high perception
3.49-2.50= Agree/High perception
2.49-1.50= Disagree/Moderate perception
1.49-1.0= Strongly Agree/Low perception
Remarkably, item 1 “The learning objectives are clearly stated in each lesson” has the
highest mean score which signifies that students were properly guided in their learning during the
blended time. This seems to indicate that the Research teachers were aware of the significance of
setting clear objectives that will help keep the students informed of what is expected of them during
the online learning. It is important to mention that blended learning is a highly independent and

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self-initiated process and so if students are provided with clear targets at the beginning, learning is
likely to thrive. Cognizant to this are clear presentation of lessons and carefully planned activities
that aim at meeting the objectives set. The proper sequencing and structuring of activities may be
an important consideration in an online learning because teachers are not expected to be around all
the time to facilitate the students. Certain factors such as internet connections or late responses
from teachers during the consultation time may impede the learning of students.
However, it appears that when tasks are sequentially and logically presented, students can
initiate themselves and finish the tasks even with minimal supervision from their teachers.
Although students considered “The structure of the Canvas learning environment keeps me focused
on what is to be learned” less valued (2.86), teachers’ efforts in integrating carefully planned
activities that are consistent with lesson objectives may still aid students in coping and achieving
the learning goals during blended time. Evidently, assessment in blended learning using Canvas
may be the problematic area to deal with for students. Item 8, “The quizzes on Canvas enhance my
learning process” has the lowest mean score (2.82) signifying certain limitations that online tests
may fail to capture as when compared to traditional tests. As research subject is more into writing,
teachers may sometimes fall short reviewing and correcting all student written outputs submitted
online. This may be primarily due to some issues related to internet connection which interfere
teachers in continuously and objectively evaluating students’ works. Even for students, internet
connection may be a huge problem to deal with when answering taking tests online. This suggests
that adopting Canvas as a blended learning in Practical Research takes several aspects to consider
if desired result is expected among students.

Research Question 2: What are the experiences of these students in using the said online
platform in their BL RW class?
The series of focus group discussions with the students conducted by the researchers led to
a deeper exploration of the experiences of these students in their BL RW class. These experiences
were recounted and analyzed by the researchers into two meaningful themes: (1) students sharing
favorable experiences regarding Canvas in their BL RW Class and (2) students experiencing some
challenges in using Canvas for their BL RW Class.

1. Students sharing favorable experiences regarding Canvas in their BL RW Class

From the series of focus group discussions, the participants expressed positive experiences
concerning the use of Canvas as a blended learning tool in their Practical Research subjects. Their
positions on how Canvas can be beneficial to them as based on their experiences are summarized
below:

One thing is the efficiency it gives us. We don’t need to print out our research articles. So, we could
save money and time. The submission can be made easier through online. (Mark:1)

Our teacher last first semester was busy with the University week. So, we did not often meet, but
Canvas served as a means for us to communicate. In our Quantitative Research this semester, we
use Canvas for submitting soft copy of our written works. So, it helps us save some costs. (Anne:3)

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If the teacher could not meet us, there are ppts, quizzes, and discussions that we can answer.
Canvas helps us even if teachers are not around. (Samantha:1)

Remarkably, it can be said that Canvas has the advantage of helping students in terms of their
finances. While it is true that research writing involves series of revisions, with Canvas which can
be used for online submission, students are no longer compelled to spend money printing out their
papers. The use of Canvas can also serve as best substitute when teachers are not around since all
the materials and activities needed for the subject are made readily available online for students.
This means that Canvas has the potentials of offering them convenience and accessibility of
information which they can use to enhance their learning about the lessons discussed during face
to face.

2. Students experiencing some challenges in using Canvas for their BL RW Class

Despite the usefulness and significance of Canvas as a BL tool in Practical Research, students
reported several challenges and problems which they encountered during their past and present
experiences. Most of these challenges were results of lack of orientation and training given to them
prior to the start of their blended subjects while some were limitations of Canvas in reaching the
targets for the subject. These challenges and problems are shown in the following statements by
the students.

When we started using Canvas, we had difficulty adjusting. We often used up our free time in
exploring Canvas. (Lara:2)

I did not know how to use Canvas then. So, I asked our teacher if we could use Gmail for
submission. We had issues with accessing Canvas, so we went to IT to report problems. It caused
us some trouble. (Samantha:1)

One of my classmates had issue with the online quizzes. She had internet connection, but it was
slow. She could not answer the quiz, and the time kept running so when the time was up, she was
unable to answer the quiz. (Sheila:2)
For me, it was not effective to use Canvas for feedback. Some teachers did not see the inquiries of
students, so they opted to use Messenger instead of Gmail. So, it turned out that Gmail becomes
more useful. The duration of teachers’ feedback is longer. They replied faster in Gmail.
(Gwyneth:3)

We could have misunderstanding if we don’t meet personally with the teacher for consultations.
So, since in research, we have to revise and revise, it is better if we meet the teacher personally.
(Lara:1)

For new students, there should be orientation or training so they would know or they could expect.
(Sheila:3)

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Apart from students, teachers should also be trained because there are instances that teachers are
not familiar with canvas interface. (Mark:3)

The problems reported above are multifaceted since they are of varied types. The first three
statements given by the participants indicate issues inherent in Canvas itself which could be
avoided when proper training is made before starting a blended learning subject. The difficulty
articulated by students in dealing with the LMS used was due to the lack of training provided by
the IT department. It is also important to note that issue with online quizzes was mentioned by
students all throughout the discussion. This may suggest that the school needs to improve its
internet connection, or the IT department should keep proper maintenance of the LMS from time
to time to ensure that all features are functional. In addition, feedback was seen to be advantageous
for students if delivered during face-to-face meeting. In fact, only one student during the focus
group explained how his previous teacher in Qualitative Research was able to make use of online
feedback in Canvas effectively while most contended that for feedback to work best, it should be
done face to face with teachers since online feedback can lead to misunderstanding. They
maintained that through personal consultations, they can clarify with their teacher the revisions
they are asked to do. Another thing is that teachers tend to provide late replies to their inquiries
when using Canvas and chances are, they are opted to use other means such as Messenger or Gmail
in order to communicate from afar.
Moreover, the students also mentioned that since Canvas is a new platform of learning for the
subject, it is important that the school provides orientation or enough training to students.
Interestingly, since teachers are expected to be partners of students in this innovative tool of
teaching and learning, there is also a necessity for them to be regularly trained. One student
contended that there were instances that their teacher was not familiar with how to operate the
system.

Discussion
The data generated from the quantitative findings suggest that students demonstrate positive
perceptions towards using Canvas as a blended learning tool in their Research Writing class. The
usefulness of Canvas in a blended Research Writing class as determined by the perceptions of
students is remarkable. Majority affirmed that Canvas is a viable tool for learning since the
platform serves them a room to customize learning according to their needs. As regards access to
Canvas, it seems to show that students find Canvas to be efficient and useful in reaching their
learning targets. In addition, students reported that they could save time in a blended class. This
finding corroborates Tuomainen’s (2016) study where it was found that students displayed positive
attitude and enthusiasm for blended learning, particularly for its convenience, flexibility and greater
allowances for individual time management. This result is also consistent with previous studies on
blended learning (see Albrecht, 2006; Moskal & Cavanagh, 2014; Sharpe et al., 2006).
Findings from the Interaction scale indicate that students have the freedom to participate
and initiate interactions with their teacher and classmates during the blended time. The interactive
benefits of blended learning in L2 classrooms have been also discovered in different studies
(López-Pérez et al., 2012; Hughes, 2007). In connection to this, Hirumi (2002) identified three
levels of interaction: (1) the interaction of the learner with himself; (2) interaction with human and
non-human resources in the learning environment; and (3) interaction of the learner with the e-

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learning strategy enforced. From the findings, it is clear that Canvas has the potential of buttressing
these levels of interaction among students in a blended Research Writing class. With free and
convenient content to access in Canvas, students have the advantage of interacting with themselves
as well as their peers and teachers. However, it is important to note that students’ self-discipline
while learning online was perceived to be vital which means that their determination to initiate
interactions with their peers and teachers is key to their learning success in such a highly self-
paced, independent learning environment.
Concerning the Response Scale, the study found out that students could interact with their
classmates and teachers which is in support of the findings obtained from the Interaction Scale. Of
equal importance is that, although it was slightly not easy to organize groups for research projects,
students could learn more through blended learning using Canvas and such LMS could hold their
interest in learning about the subject. This finding particularly resonates Alhazbi’s study (2016)
where a blended learning course was discovered to foster collaborative learning, i.e. capable of
rendering a high level of interaction between students and the teacher, providing students with
immediate feedback, and supporting students’ reflective practice. This is also consistent with Liu
(2013) who found that blended learning can help promote interaction between and among students
and teachers, lessen communication anxiety, encourage independence and autonomy, and enhance
students’ academic writing skills in English.
Interestingly, qualitative findings from the focus group discussions affirm the quantitative
results found in this study. As what the students revealed, their blended learning experiences using
Canvas in their Research Writing class enabled them to appraise the convenience and efficiency
that the learning platform afforded. This again resonates Tuomainen’s (2016) result which stated
that students displayed enthusiasm for blended learning due to its efficiency, convenience, and
flexibility. Given these potentialities of blended learning, students can learn more language
functions (Beatty, 2003; Chang, 2005), achieve greater levels of engagement (Gonzal´ez-Bueno,
1998), reduced anxiety (Kessler, 2010), develop more enthusiasm and attention, and gain greater
autonomy (Leakey & Ranchoux, 2006; Vinther, 2011).
While it is true that Canvas may serve as a promising learning platform for students in
learning Practical Research, however, it also comes with certain limitations and challenges which,
if not addressed properly, can lead to student frustrations and unsuccessful learning. One of the
problems that students consider to be important is the internet connection. The students reported
that during online quizzes, they often encounter issues with the system which is caused by unstable
internet connection. This sentiment shared by students is probably the cause why online quizzes
segment in the quantitative data was rated the lowest across all items by students. The issue with
internet connection in the school premises can be linked to what Kanuka and Rourke (2013)
consider as leadership issues where it is difficult for the administrators to support and sustain the
implementation of school initiatives such as blended learning. Since blended time is scheduled
during school hours where students are still in school, the school administration should seek
initiatives to increase the bandwidth of internet connection for a more effective blended learning
experience. Gatcho and Hajan (2019) on studying pedagogical potentialities of Facebook in an
English classroom avowed this stating that continual availability of electronic devices and strong
internet connection is necessary to ensure that students gain a reliable network to initiate virtual
interactions. “Organizational readiness” is pivotal in the successful operation of blended learning
and institutions need to be prepared to support online teaching (Marsh, McFadden, & Price, 2003).

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Another problem is that students had difficulties in dealing with Canvas due to lack of proper
training even prior to implementation of the blended learning. The complexity of Canvas interface
may be a huge factor for students which hampers them from learning successfully. Although
students are expected to be independent on their own during the blended learning, providing
students with basic competence regarding Canvas usage may save them time in navigating and help
them to become successful. This lends support to Austria and Alontaga’s assertion (2014) that for
an efficient and effective blended learning experience, students must be provided with full course
training/orientation of the LMS used. Apart from students, findings revealed that teachers
themselves were also found to have difficulty in dealing with the LMS. While it is true that the key
factor that can spell success in the teaching and learning process is the teachers’ approach and their
capacity to manage students’ language acquisition (Coffin & Pinchai, 2018), preparing teachers for
the effective designing and administration of blended instruction is an essential type of support
required for successful implementation (Kaleta, Skibba, & Joosten, 2007). As ascertained by Kim
and Bonk (2006), teacher training is key for quality online instruction. In addition, Dukes, Waring,
and Koorland (2006) suggested that teachers be given the opportunity to experience online teaching
beforehand and have a peer mentor as they design and implement an online course. If blended
learning is to be successful, not only should students be trained but also teachers who play a critical
role in the delivery of the blended learning program.
Feedback system was also problematic as students expressed that their teachers tended to
respond to their queries quite longer than the expected time. Tabor (2007) reported that students
who detested the blended learning platform revealed problems with locating materials, receiving
less instructor feedback, and considering the course content to be too advanced for independent
learning. It is significant to note that feedback in writing classes is very indispensable (Ferris, 199)
and writing teachers should know how to provide favorable feedback to students to ignite their love
for writing (Hajan, Castillo-Hajan & Marasigan, 2019).
As what Means et al. (2013) emphasized, blended learning is an educational platform that
attempts the integration of different learning environments, usually the use of learning via internet
and face-to-face teaching. This means that for blended learning to be successful, it requires the
presence and commitment of both teachers and students. This is parallel with what Ortega (2018)
claims about the concerted effort of “those in the trenches”: language and content teachers and
learners alike (p. 25). After all, “technology is nothing without a teacher and a plan” (Lewis, 2009,
as cited in, Johnson & Marsh, 2014. P. 28).

Conclusion and Recommendations

This study has affirmed the viability of blended learning within an EAP context in secondary
education specifically within a Research Writing class. Using Canvas as an LMS, students showed
favorable perceptions about their blended learning Research Writing class. The positive
perceptions given by students can be attributed to the efficiency, practicality, convenience, and
flexibility the blended learning platform provides and the social interactions it affords. The
potentiality of blended learning using Canvas in increasing student motivation and engagement is
also a remarkable discovery that has led to the positive viewpoints about blended learning offered
by students. Nonetheless, sifting through the narratives of these students during the focus group
discussions, some challenges that abound their blended learning experience in their Research

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Writing classes are noted. Internet connection, LMS interface and lack of proper training for
students and teachers were among the challenges discovered.
Despite the findings and conclusion of the study, certain limitations are noted. This research
has so far investigated the perceptions and experiences of SHS students as regards blended learning
in their Research Writing class. Perceptions and personal experiences from teachers who are
teaching Research Writing on a blended learning modality were not part of the study. However,
since teachers are supposed to be allies of students in the teaching and learning process, it is equally
important to explore areas concerning teachers in the blended learning environment. Teacher
training as regards blended learning is an interesting topic that obviously needs research.
Furthermore, it is important to note that the present study only examines a specific LMS which is
Canvas and this LMS needs institutional subscription for use. Other readily available LMS that can
be used for implementing blended learning in a Research Writing class may be worth investigating.
Lastly, this study is merely an assessment and exploration of perceptions and experiences of
students undergoing blended learning. An experimental research is necessary if the goal is to
examine actual research writing developments of students within a blended learning environment.

Pedagogical Implications
L2 teaching and learning is a fast-growing field, moving by leaps and bounds due to the advent of
emerging technologies and L2 teachers as front liners of the curriculum must always set three steps
ahead of their students. Blended learning as an innovative pedagogy in the 21st century should be
viewed by language teachers as what Nguyen et al. (2018) consider a form of professional
development and a way to keep themselves abreast with the different technological innovations.
However, it should remain that no products of technology replace the teachers. Although
innovations in teaching pedagogies are supposed to support the development of independence and
autonomy among students, the role of language teachers in an online learning environment
continues to be critical.
As with teaching research writing applying a blended modality, L2 teachers should ensure
that immediate feedback about student writing is provided. Students will feel motivated when they
know that their works are being monitored and, more importantly, acclaimed by their teachers. For
a successful blended research writing instruction, L2 teachers need be present virtually during the
online learning to monitor students’ progress. The potentiality of online learning to render a highly
dynamic and interactive atmosphere can be optimized by having teachers and students engaged in
meaningful online discussions or meetings/conferences. Online writing consultation may also be
adopted by L2 teachers provided that students are scaffolded to meet the expected written outputs.
This may help save much time during the face-to-face encounter. Essentially, L2 teachers should
allow students to do collaborative writing during the online learning. Since research writing
especially in the secondary education context is mostly a group collaboration, L2 teachers should
design real-life, authentic and interesting writing activities that can facilitate the development of
critical thinking skills and acquisition of contextualized linguistic resources that aid them in their
writing (Castillo-Hajan, Hajan & Marasigan, 2019).
The successes and failures of blended learning in any educational context are however not
entirely dependent on teachers and students alone. “Organizational readiness” is central to the
successful implementation of blended learning and institutions need to be ready to support online
teaching (Marsh, McFadden, & Price, 2003). Thus, school administration that practices blended

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learning must ensure that there is sufficient bandwidth of internet connection for a much reliable
and fast navigation of writing activities during online learning. Furthermore, student and teacher
training on the use of blended learning system should be conducted regularly so that both teachers
and students are updated with the technical know-how of the system used.
The findings of the study are also beneficial to Teacher Education Institutions (TEIs) as
they prepare their pre-service teachers in the actual world of work. Blended learning implies
tedious preparations in the areas of pedagogical, student performance assessment, and classroom
management skills of teachers. Teachers currently handling blended learning classes are no
different from their pre-service students as counterparts. In fact, Padagas (2019) indicated that
there is a need to empower the pre-service teachers in terms of their pedagogical, student
performance assessment, and classroom management skills in preparation to their actual work.
Using creative and innovative instructional strategies that are appropriate to a lesson’s objectives
and students’ abilities, interests, and learning styles is highly essential. Student assessments in the
forms of formative tests, summative tests and even authentic metrics of assessment are quite
important. Moreover, managing classroom in the virtual environment is necessary as this is
different compared to the traditional classroom set-up. Hence, the preparation is much desired.
With the massive technological innovations influencing the ways teachers handle their classes such
as the use of blended learning, pre-service teachers need to be equipped with updates and trends in
technology as well as their uses and advantages in order to maximize their utilization in hastening
teaching and learning processes. Lastly, when future teachers are well equipped with foundational
competencies in teaching, they tend to become more prepared and resilient in delivering quality
teaching in their classroom, virtual or face-to-face. The pre-service teachers need to establish
resilience in facing the adversities and challenges of the 21st-century classroom (Padagas, 2016).
TEIs should continuously develop pre-service teachers as resilient teachers because resilience is a
way of life in an unceasingly changing world of the teaching profession.

Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank the José Rizal University Research Office under the tutelage of
Dr. Vicente K. Fabella, the University President and Dr. Auxencia A. Limjap, the University
Research Director for the unwavering support and guidance which hugely contributed to the
completion of this research work. Special thanks also to Mr. Romel C. Navarro, the Senior High
School Principal for allowing the data collection in the Senior High School Division.

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Implementing Eco-translation to Build Translation Competence and Course

Design

Sugeng Hariyanto*
English Department, Politeknik Negeri Malang, Malang, Indonesia

Abstract
This research looks at eco-translation as a pillar of translation competence, as well as the design
of teaching materials for translation courses. Unsolved issues in translator education programs
include producing students with well-rounded translators who possess both translation (hard skills)
and skilled translator competence (soft skills). The majority of universities that offer translator
training programs place a strong emphasis on translation skills. To evaluate results, this study used
a case study with a qualitative approach. This study, which took place in Malang, Indonesia,
included four universities, 12 lecturers, and 80 students as participants. Observation, interviews,
and paper reviews were used to gather information. The key data analysis approach was content
analysis. The findings indicate that translation competence is primarily acquired by linguistics
knowledge. However, in practice, translation hard skills and soft skills must be refined in a social
setting where the environment and social context are the most competent. Eco-translation satisfies
the requirements in this way. Eco-translation has been shown to meet the needs of course design
and teaching methods in translation for teaching.

Keywords: translation competence, translator competence, translator training, translator education

Introduction
This research focuses on how a translation course has been used to teach English in Indonesia.
Translation teaching materials are evaluated in three different English study programs offered to
Diploma 3, undergraduate, and vocational students. This study also discusses how to improve
translation course design and how translation competence is viewed as a cornerstone. Essentially,
translation competence is the first insight a translator should gain (Newmark, 2004; Nord, 2005;
2007; Tan, 2008). This study attempts to apply “eco-translation,” a new translation approach
initiated by Prof. Hu Gianshen (2004) that has now become an insight into translation competence
(Zhang, 2021).
The translation aims to convert the same meaning of the source language (SL) into the target
language (TL) (Newmark, 1982; Fox, 2000). Translation as a human act puts two diverse
communities with different cultures and languages into intellectual contexts in the recent era of
technology (Hu, 2004; Arbain, 2020; Alolaywi, 2021). To address both issues, the translator's job
is centralized to encourage mental effort and ensure that everyone comprehends the TL he has
made (Jabsheh, 2021).

*[email protected]

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The translator's expertise, personal knowledge, and strategies as a specialist in cross-cultural

communication are human predictors of the translation act (Dogan, 2021; Fauzan, Lubis &
Kurniawan, (2020).
In a new perspective, researchers have done ecological, environmental, and evolutionary
translation. The emphasis of translation theory, according to Newmark (1982), is not on SL or TL
translation principles, but rather on SL choices and decisions. The topic of cultural turn was first
raised in 1900 by Lefevere & Bassnett (1990), who equated the translation sense with the cultural
setting. Cronin (2003) used "translation ecology" in his book Translation and Globalization, and
admitted that translating two languages should serve a "good balance."
The first draft of eco-translation by Hu (2004) was previously defined in 2001 and he
launched his concept in 2004. Hu (2004) maintains translation is how a translator selects and
involves adaptation to translational eco-environment. Adaptation and selection refer to cycles
to which the translation process takes place (Hu, 2013). The term 'ecological world' refers to
the SL and the TL. If the highlights on the language, social aspect of translation, the "the
client," and "the readers" (Hu, 2013), translation and optimization will be prevented. The
focus of the theory is on the translator's importance, the subjective role of a translator. Optimal
adaption of 3D translation strategies is indicated in micro (linguistic, cultural, interpersonal).
If more dimensions are adapted, the results will be more proper.
Translator education programs try to train and educate the students to be well-rounded
translators. Well-rounded translators are, according to Tan (2008), the ones who possess
knowledge and skills that enable them to re-express the intended meaning of SL to TL. Such
knowledge and skills are generally referred to as translation competence (Dogan, 2021). However,
people have different concepts of translation competence. In the past, people believed that
translation competence is the same as bilingual competence because translation is seen as a
communication between two languages. In the last few decades, however, more experts see
translation competence covers bilingual competence and beyond. Because this so-called
translation competence comprises several sub-competence or components, this can be called multi-
componential components (Maulana et al. 2020; Alolaywi, 2021; Jabsheh, 2021; Wang & Ji,
2021).

Review of Literature
Eco-translatology
Prof. Hu Gengshen (2004; 2013), a Chinese professor who was influenced by the recent ecological
movement of "return to nature" and borrowed Darwin's theory of natural selection in translation
studies, proposed eco-translatology, a new paradigm of translation research (Ma, 2019, p.14). This
attempt combines translation and ecology comprehensively and scientifically, and it has been
gaining increasing attention from translation theorists.
Hu (2013, p.485-499) admits that eco-translatology perceives translation as a symbiotic
eco-system that translates ecology, environments, ecological text, community, and their
interactions. The translation is a process of target texts derived from “natural” selection. In a
simple term, translation is defined as the following formula:

Translation=Adaptation + Selection (Gengshen Hu, 2013, p.86-87)

Eco-translatology advocates adaptation and selection in a holistic manner. This way, the

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translator includes as many translation considerations as possible, including the source/target

language's communication, cultural, social environments, and translator sense. The goal to apply
one of three-dimensional translation is to focus on the linguistic, cultural, and communicative
aspects (Yang, 2019, p.16). This “translation method” takes into account three things: linguistic,
cultural, and interpersonal dimensions. At the same time, there is a deep connection among these
three dimensions: language translation is the translation of cultures; the result of communication is
culture.

1. Linguistic transformation
Linguistic transition indicates the way to adapt and select meaning at different stages. It
involves rhetorical devices and punctuation, though not restricted to the language type of formality
or informality (Yang, 2019, p.20).

2. Cultural transformation
Cultural distinctions become the root of potential misunderstandings in translation. A
translator should take into account the cultural potentials and bridge to solve the problems.

3. Communicative transformation
Consideration of eco-translatology recommends communicative transformation as well
as linguistic and cultural transformation in translation. First, the communicative goal of the text
should be conveyed in the target language; secondly, meaning and expression should be in the
source language and culture (Yang, 2019, p.21-22).
The translator should also strive to expand in the three non-literal dimensions (i.e., go out of
their way to emphasize the symbolic and translate only the essential while leaving out the
insignificant) to achieve the balance and sustainability of the translated environment.

Translation Competence
Beeby (1996) identifies translation competence as comprising two main competencies: (a) transfer
Competence and (b) translation relevant competencies which consist of linguistic command in two
languages, cultural performance, factual knowledge, and technical ability. Hatim & Mason (1997)
state that translation performance consists of (a) SL processing skills to understand the meaning
and information in the SL, (b) transform skills to transfer the meaning into the SL for the intended
target readers), and (c) TL text processing skills to re-write the intended message in the target text.
This definition of translation skills seems to only consider that translation is only related to the
meaning or message transfer.
Based on the research in a translation teaching setting, some experts propose models of
translation competencies. Fox (2000) explains translation competence as containing
communication, culture, language learning, and problem-solving. Beeby (2000) outlines three sub-
competencies: transfer competency, linguistic competency, and situational competency Schneider
(2000) note that six translation abilities are required for teaching programs: linguistic competence,
cultural competence, textual competence, subject/domain knowledge, and general/field
knowledge.
Kiraly (2006) comes up with the term translation competence per se to refer to skills and
knowledge directly related to the actual process of translation. This includes language competence

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in linguistics, norms, textual theory, various types of documentation, techniques, competencies,

technology, and research strategies, and knowledge. He also finds personal competence and social
competence as capabilities not directly related to professional translation competence, but very
essential for the translator’s professional development. Personal competence concerns
intrapersonal skills, capabilities, and disposition. Being flexible, responsive, prepared for long-to-
learn, and attentive to quality issues are all part of an organization's preparation for long-term
success. Finally, social competence is more to interpersonal skills, comprising etiquette,
negotiation, and teamwork skills.
Kelly (2007) maintains that translation graduates must have subject-area, cultural,
intercultural, and strategic, as well as text-based and psychological and practical competencies. In
agreement, Tan (2008) affirms that translation competence consists of sub-competencies that
empower a person to be able to translate well. A big umbrella skill is termed transfer competence.
A good translator should have translator competence and sub-competencies as an expert,
integrating cognitive skill, bilingual communicative skill, pragmatic performance, transfer skill,
technological performance, and instrumental skills to make a ‘well-rounded’ translation specialist.
Translation skills proposed by a group of translation research called PACTE are very
popular. PACTE (2003) outlines translation performance and five sub-competencies, namely: (a)
bilingual sub-competence (ability to communicate in two languages, the components of which are
pragmatic knowledge, sociolinguistic knowledge, textual knowledge, and grammatical-lexical
knowledge), (b) extra-linguistic sub-competence (the knowledge about the two culture involved
in the text, encyclopedic knowledge, and knowledge about the topic to be translated), (c)
knowledge about translation sub-competence (knowledge about basic theory of good translation
and translation market knowledge), (d) instrumental sub-competence (skills to use translation
helping tools, and (e) strategic sub-competence (ability to apply all knowledge and skills to achieve
good translation). Hatim & Mason’s (1997) first and third skills are combined into one sub-
competence, namely bilingual sub-competence. Other sub-competencies are not related to
linguistics. It is the clue to say that PACTE (2003) sees translation as a holistic activity.
Considering the above discussion, this paper adopts the view stating that translation
competence comprises of several components. Further, it refers to translation competence for
translation teaching purposes is the use of translation competence terms. To have a better picture
of the translation competence for translation teaching, the researcher recategorizes those
competencies into several main competencies: (a) linguistics competence, (b) non-linguistic
knowledge, (c) transfer competence, (d) technical skills, and (e) personal skills.
The framework of components that make up translation competencies for translation
teaching purposes, see table 1.

Table 1. Components of translation

Proposers Translation competence
Linguistic Non- Transfer- Technical Personal
competence linguistic related skils skills
knowledge component
Christiann • Linguistic • Cultural • transfer • technical
a Nord in competence, competence competence competence
Beeby

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(1996)
Hatim and • source text • transfer skill
Mason processing skill
(1997) • target text
processing skill
Fox (2000) • socio-cultural • learning-
competence how-to-learn,
• language and • problem-
cultural solving goals
awareness,
Beeby • contrastive • extra- • transfer
(2000) linguistic linguistic competence
competence, competence ,
• contrastive
discourse
competence,
Kiraly • Linguistics • Culture • Quality • Technology • Autonomy
(2006) • Text typology • World control • Research • Preparedness
• Norms and knowledge for life-long
conventions learning
• Terminology • Sense of
professional
responsibility
• Etiquette
• Negotiation
• Teamwork
Kelly • Communicativ • Cultural • Professional • Attitudinal or
(2007) e and textual and and psychologica
competence intercultural instrumental l competence
competence competence • Interpersonal
• Subject area or social
competence competence

The terms presented above surely have some overlapping. For example, the linguistic
component is called bilingual sub-competence by PACTE (2003) and SL processing and TL
processing by Hatim & Mason (1997). However, this paper does not discuss the overlap but it
emphasizes that competence of both translation and as a translator are required in the teaching of
translation and, therefore, an alignment of a good translation teaching program shall accommodate
the development of those competencies.

Teaching Approaches
As for teaching, there are three approaches to consider in designing the whole set of courses. Miller
(1996) mentions three views or approaches to teaching: (a) teaching as transmission, teaching as a

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transaction, and teaching as transformation. Each approach however does not indicate the
superiority as a single model (Budiharso & Arbain, 2019), rather it is the procedure that makes
one differs from the others (Solikhah & Budiharso, 2020).
In a transmissionist’s view, teaching is seen as the process of transferring information from
Point A (the teacher) to Point B (the students). The teacher serves as a source of knowledge, fact
arbitrator, and ultimate evaluator of learning. From this view, a teacher's task is to provide students
with a predetermined body of knowledge in a predetermined sequence. Therefore, the teacher is
the center of learning (Budiharso & Arbain, 2019). Students are successful if they can demonstrate
or repeat the knowledge that has been received (Solikhah & Budiharso, 2020). In translation
pedagogy, this is usually called as transmissionist approach, conventional approach, or
performance magistrale approach. The various names of this approach can be found in many
literatures. This approach is criticized for demotivating, de-empowering students and lacking
features that can prepare students for professional life (Miller, 1996).
The class is teacher-centered. In the classroom, teachers play a dominant role to transmits
the knowledge of how to achieve equivalence of the source translation unit. The students are there
to obtain the knowledge of translation by listening to the lecture or the teacher discuss their
erroneous translation (product) of source texts selected by the teacher. Therefore, this approach is
also called a product-oriented approach.
With this approach, students do a lot of trial-and-errors mostly independently. Hence, it can
be stated that this view is consistent with behaviorism educational philosophy (behaviorist learning
theory). If not implemented in combination with other methods, the students may not be flexible
in solving problems and not make good team workers, nor problem solvers. This is the most used
approach in Indonesia and maybe also in many other countries.
The second view is teaching as the transaction. A transaction sees learning as successful if
students have an interaction with other persons and the materials to gain valuable experience to
construct more comprehensive knowledge by relating the new knowledge with the past knowledge
(Santrock, 2004). Hence, it is consistent with constructivism educational philosophy. Here,
learners build their understanding of new knowledge by taking part in activities and interaction
with their peers and teachers. The teacher, then, helps the students to gain new knowledge by
planning and crafting the rich experience. Students are successful if they can use the new
knowledge to solve problems.
In translation teaching, the instruction that can be classified into this approach category is
objective-based instruction (see Davies & Kiraly, 2006), translation process-oriented approach
promoted by Gile (1995), and also social-constructivist approach (Davies & Kiraly, 2006). In an
objective-based approach, the teaching objective is the first to determine. The training process is
more important than the product. During the process, students gain knowledge to interact with
other students and teachers. Further, the translation process-oriented approach bases the classroom
experiences on the process a translator experiences during translation. Students gained knowledge
from experiencing the translating process, including the process of selecting and applying certain
translation principles, methods, and procedures (Gile 1995). During the process, the teacher shows
appropriate principles, methods, and procedures as the students’ need for them arises. The strength
of this approach is the chance to help students deal with translation problems faced by the students
(King-kui in Hung 2002) using certain types of translation strategies. Therefore, the teacher is seen
as a resource person. He moderates discussion resolves conflicts and provides examples when

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needed. Students’ role is dominant here as they are responsible for the learning. Therefore, this
approach can be classified as a student-centered and teacher-guided approach, an approach that is
not a teacher-centered performance magistrale one (Kiraly, 1995).
The instruction may use several models, such as the translation sequential model (Gile, 1995)
where students do the assignment just like professional translators translate. In the classroom, there
is no discussion to compare students' work and ideal work, but the discussion is on how to solve
problems. During this process, the teachers, as resource persons, can show appropriate translation
principles, methods, and procedures to handle the problems (Gile, 1995).
The third view of teaching is teaching as transformation. This eye perceives teaching as
defining environments that can facilitate students through different cognitive, emotional, social,
intuitive, creative, spiritual. Students are to explore their full potential as learners, members of
society, and even human beings to develop the whole human being. In teaching, such an approach
should transform the student into a well-rounded translator. In translation education, project-based
learning is of great advantage as it gives students chances to strengthen their skills to function like
a professional translator (Kiraly, 1995) especially the one with the authentic project.
In agreement, Kiraly (2006) states that translator education could include all approaches in
its program to produce competent professional translators. Further, based on the case study at the
English Department of State Polytechnic of Malang, this current paper explicates how the
approaches are adopted in its translation course series to develop translation competence and
translator competence (soft skills).

Methods
Design
A case study design and qualitative approach were employed for this research (Cresswell, 2014;
Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009). The focus of this study included the development of translation
competence using theories from Nord (2004) and eco-translation from Hu (2004; 2013). The
model of translation teaching was adapted from Hariyanto (2015). Data of this study were analyzed
using a qualitative model focusing on converting the narrative texts, determining the unit of
analysis, data coding, and verifying the data for accuracy (Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009). This study
took place in Malang, Indonesia.

Participants
Participants of this study consisted of 12 translation lecturers and 80 students joining the
translation course. The participants were recruited from 4 universities in Malang. For ethical
purposes, the university was identified as State Uni 1, Uni 2, Uni 3, and Uni 4. The university and
the participants were selected using purposive random sampling. See table 2 to see the
characteristics of the participants.

Table 2. Participants of the Study

No University Lecturer Students Semester
N=12 N=60
F % F %
1 Uni 1 3 25
Diploma 10 12.5 5

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Undergraduate 5 6.25 5
Professional 5 6.25 5
2 Uni 2 3 25
Diploma - - -
Undergraduate 20 25 5
Professional - - -
3 Uni 3 3 25
Diploma - - -
Undergraduate 10 12.5 5
Professional 10 12.5 5
4 Uni 4 3 25
Diploma 10 12.5 5
Undergraduate 5 6.25 5
Professional 5 6.25 5
12 100 80 80

As table 2 suggests, the participants of the study were lecturer 12 and students 80. The
lecturers were distributed into 3 (25%) from each university, while the students were distributed
into diploma students 20 (25%), undergraduate students 40 (50%), and professional 20 (25%).

Data Collection
Data of this study were gathered using observation, interview (Cresswwll, 2014), and document
analysis (Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009). Observations were conducted to collect natural perspectives
in the implementation of the teaching translation in all 4 universities. The researcher visited each
university three times, once for general observation and twice to collect data. Each visit was
recorded using the audio-visual tool so that the comprehensive captures of the observation could
be analyzed comprehensively. The researcher collected 12 records on the observation, but he
selected one video that was best to represent the observation in each university. Finally, from the
observation, the researcher selected 4 videos for the analysis needs.
In addition, an in-depth interview was conducted in each university in collaboration with the
head of the study program. The interview was conducted in the office of the head program, taking
20-30 minutes for one interviewee. An interview with the curriculum designer team was done to
get an understanding of the ideas behind the choice of the course objective, content and delivery
which are not explained in the curriculum documents (Cresswell, 2014). At the final stage, a close-
ended checklist was distributed to students asking about their opinion related to the series of the
courses and especially to the advantage of the translation project as the translation project is a
unique course that is not offered in other similar translation course series. The interview result was
recorded using audio-visual aids that can convert the audio voices into text (Yin, 2012). This
software was very helpful for the researcher because all interview results were transcribed
verbatim. The results of observation and interview were modified as the database of narrative text
for the data analysis (Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009).
Finally, documents to be analyzed include syllabus, textbook, workbook, and students’ work
including paper, project, and daily assignments. The documentary study was done on the
curriculum documents to get maximum information about translation courses. The documents

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were identified their quality of the translation, teaching implementation, objectives of teaching,
criteria of evaluation, and synthesis of how translation techniques were performed. The
combination of narrative text data and results of documents analysis provided insights the
translation competence, eco-translation endorsement, and teaching perspectives.

Data Analysis
The basic data of this study were narrative texts extracted from the results of observation, interview
and document analysis (Cresswell, 2014; Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009). As a consequence, data
took form as document and content analysis was the most proper for the data analysis. The steps
of analysis were done as follows. First, data collected from observations, interviews, and records
were classified as numeric data and narrative data; after that, all data was classified as narrative
data. Second, the researchers decided on units of analysis to match with the research questions of
this study. Third, the researchers devised coding rules that included numbering and a sample of
the unit of study. Fourth, the researchers checked the accuracy of all narrative texts using the
coding system and sample data; if incorrect data were discovered, the improper data were
corrected. Fifth, the researchers used triangulation techniques to find the final data after checking
the reliability of each piece of information (Cresswell, 2014; Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009; Yin,
2012).

Results and Discussion

Description of the Translation Course Objectives
The three types of education in Indonesia are academic, vocational, and commercial. and sharing
of knowledge, not on holding on to it. Academic education centers on the acquisition,
development, implementation, and invention in certain fields of study. Vocational education
focuses on applied science and engineering. The objective is to prepare graduates to work in the
relevant industry. Profession education is designed for those who want to work in a specialized
field requiring specialized skills and licenses, e.g. dentist, pharmacist, public accountant, etc.
Translation-related courses are offered by language departments in academic and vocational
education programs, i.e. at polytechnics. English Department Diploma 3 Program of State
Polytechnic of Malang, Indonesia, offers a set of courses to train the students to be translators for
English – Indonesian language pair. The mastery of translation practical skills is very important in
this vocational school.
Drawing on translation competence and translator competence, this study reveals that the
department offers a set of courses not related directly to translation but surely support some
competencies identified above. Such courses include English skills courses, English grammar
courses, and introduction to linguistics. The main translation courses comprise 8 courses,
sequenced by considering the objective of the series of translations. Based on the document of the
current curriculum at the department, the courses offered are to build two main competencies, i.e.
translation and interpreting competence and English competencies for the hospitality industry to
achieve translation competence. To achieve the goal, several courses are offered. See the following
figure.

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Figure 1. Translation Related Courses

In general, translation courses at university levels (undergraduate programs) equip basic

theories (knowledge) on translation and translation skills through practical training courses
(Giaber, 2018). In this program, basic theories are given through a course usually entitled
Introduction to Translation or similar designations. This course gives the students basic theories
necessary to know the basic concept of translation and the translation process. At the English
Department of State Polytechnic of Malang, such a course is offered with the same name,
Introduction to Translation. The objective is to provide the students with basic theories of
translation and train them with basic skills (translation procedures) to find equivalents in the target
language.
English language skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking), Introduction to Linguistics, and
English Grammars are also offered to equip the students with the ability to process source texts.
To support the transfer skills, several courses are offered. The first is Introduction to Translation.
This theoretical course is offered three class hours (150 minutes) per week, discussing basic
theories of translation, from the definition of translation to levels of translation equivalence. It
contains basic principles in translation and how to find equivalences in translation. Especially for
the second part, this adopts a traditional approach. The students’ role is trainees and teachers’ role
is trainers who exemplify the art of basic translation skills. The second course is Information
Technology for Translation. It is offered to build a skill so-called instrumental sub-competence by
PACTE (2003), with a time allocation of 300 minutes per week. This is also delivered with the
traditional approach. Here students are trained to use the internet to solve translation problems
using the computer as a translating tool (CAT Tools).
The General and Literal Translation course offers two modules in a block system. The general

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text translation module is taught in the first half of the semester, with a 300-minute class meeting
per week for 8 weeks. The second half of the semester is for the Literary Text Translation module
with the same time allocation. This course is a practice course where most of the time is used to
translate rather than listening to lectures. It adopts a process-based approach where students are to
translate a complete text. Students assume the active role to experience the process during which
they try to solve translation problems. With a role as a resource person, the teacher can show good
translation principles and strategies when the need arises. The class procedure is derived from
Gile’s (1995) sequential model.
Scientific and Technical Text Translation course has the same time allocation and classroom
delivery. This includes the Scientific Text Translation module and Technical Text Translation
module. They are offered consecutively with the time allocation like that for General and Literary
Text Translation. The approach, design and procedure are the same as those of General and
Literary Text Translation.
To build professional personal skills, Professional Ethics (offered with transmissionism
approach) and Translation Project (offered with constructivist-transformationist approach, which
is called empowerment approach in translation teaching) courses are taught. To see the education
approaches adopted in each course, see the following table.

Table 2. List of courses and the teaching approach

No Name of course Semes- Teaching approach Classroom activities
ter
1. Intro to translation 2 Transmissionism Lecture and discussion
2. IT for translation 2 Transmissionism Lecture and practice
3. General and literary text 3 Constructionism Skill-based practice
translation
4. Business document 3 Constructionism Skill-based practice
translation
4. Scientific and Technical 4 Constructionism Skill-based practice
Text Translation
5. Subtitling 4 Constructionism Skill-based practice
6. Professional Ethics 5 Transmissionism Lecture and discussion
7. Translation Project 5 Transformationism Project-based practice
8. Consecutive interpreting 4 Transmissionism Skill-based practice
9. Simultaneous interpreting 5 Transmissionism Skill-based practice

From the eight courses, courses number 8 and 9 are not discussed here because they are dedicated
to building interpreting skills.

Design of the Courses

As has been presented above, the translation courses adopt three teaching approaches in different
levels of the courses. The design for each teaching approach is different. Essential items regarding
the design are analyzed. The essential items are adapted from Yang and Zhang (2017), including
learning outcomes, learning materials, teaching steps, and design analysis. The first three items are
found in the curriculum documents and the last items are based on the interview with the

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curriculum development team. Out of nine translated-related courses, only seven are analyzed and
the other two are designed for interpreting skill-building.

a. Introduction to Translation Course Design

Learning outcome
The learning outcomes are: (a) students are able to deal with translation as a linguistic procedure,
(b) students are able to link theory and practice in translating, and (c) students are able to have
contrastive knowledge and utilized it in translating

Learning materials
The learning materials include the definition of translation, basic concepts of translation theories,
equivalence and equivalent effect, meaning and translation, semantic adjustment, grammar and
translation, grammatical adjustment, translation strategies, and translation editing.

Teaching steps
Step 1: Preparation: The teacher prepares PowerPoint slides and an exercise sheet. Students are to
read the handout.
Step 2: presentation: Teachers give a lecture on each topic and students listen; discuss the topic;
the teacher gives exercises and discussed the result classically.
Step 3: Closing: The teacher summarizes the lesson.

Design analysis
This is the first course in the series of translation courses. The students are to gain basic theories in
translation and gain basic skills in translation. The approach used is transmissionism because the
curriculum designer thinks that students have no prior knowledge of this field yet. The design is
teacher-centered in nature where the teacher is like a guru that transmits the knowledge and skills
to the students. This is in line with Kiraly’s (2006) opinion stating that translation education can
also include the acquisition of basic skills through conventional teacher-centered instruction.

b. Information Technology (IT) for Translation

Learning outcomes
The learning outcomes are (a) the students are able to use computer technology to create and
manage documents, (b) the students are able to differentiate Machine Translation from Computer
Assisted Translation, and (c) the students are able to operate a Computer Assisted Translation tool
to process a translation project.

Learning materials
The learning materials cover an introduction to computer, touch typing, machine translation,
computer-assisted translation, operating a Cat tool, preparing a translation project, translating MS
Word files, translating PowerPoint files, translating PDF files, translating Html files, conducting
translation quality assurance, and using online CAT tools.

Teaching steps
Step 1: Preparation: The teacher prepares PowerPoint slides and exercise files.

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Step 2: Presentation: Teachers give a lecture on each topic and students listen; Teachers and
students have a discussion on the topic; the teacher gives the exercise file and students do
the exercise. Students ask the teacher when they find difficulties.
Step 3: Closing: The teacher summarizes the lesson.

Design analysis
This is the first course related to the use of IT in translation. The students are to gain skills in using
the computer to manage files, using Machine Translation (Google Translate and Microsoft
Translator), using CAT Tools to translate various kinds of text (in low complexity). As for
Introduction to Translation, the use of the transmissionist view here is reasonable. As Kiraly (2006)
states, translation education can use this teacher-centered classroom activity to help students gain
basic skills.

c. Simple Business Text Translation Course Design

This course is to prepare students to translate various simple-to-medium difficulty level business
documents from English Into Indonesian.

Learning outcomes
The students can translate various business documents with easy to medium difficulty levels from
English into Indonesian.

Learning materials
The learning materials cover translating curriculum Vitae, employment agreement, non-disclosure
agreement, minutes of meetings, business letters, transactional documents, financial documents,
and business contracts.

Teaching steps
Step 1: Preparation. The teacher prepares text to work on by the students. Students make a group
of 4.
Step 2: Main activities.
a. Students work in the group
b. Teacher supervise the work and answer students’ question
c. The group presents the result of the work; each group member is assigned a certain portion
of the presentation.
d. The class discusses the problems and solution
Step 3: Closing. The teacher summarizes the lesson.

Design analysis
This course is delivered with the skill-based approach in mind. From the perspective of the
teaching approach, it is of the constructivist approach. The translation skills are trained to the
students through translation practice courses with varied names, emphasis, and numbers subject to
the curriculum designer’s perspective and concept of translation and translation training.
Translation curriculum designers stress the importance of practice to build the so-called
translation skills. Therefore, practice becomes a core activity in a skill-based approach to

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translation. In a skill-oriented approach, the teacher addresses a certain translation skill at a time.
Translation skills needed may also vary with the text to be translated. Therefore, the classroom
teaching scenario includes doing exercises to strengthen skills mastery to solve certain problems
or translate certain types of texts. Due to the above reason, many translation courses are delivered
with modules offering translation practices.
This course applies Gile’s (1995) sequential model of translation, which is divided into two
phases: (a) comprehension and (b) reformulation. This model is helpful to identify in which
translation phase an error occurred. In the comprehension phase, the student reads the ST segment
and formulates a meaning hypothesis based on his knowledge. When the meaning hypothesis is
reached, it must be tested for plausibility. This means that the translator examines critically the
idea or information he believes that the translation unit expresses to see whether the idea is
reasonable or not. If it is found not reasonable, a new interpretation must be generated and checked
for plausibility until a satisfactory one is found.
In the reformulation phase, the confirmed interpretation, called a meaning hypothesis, is
verbalized in the target text (TT) using the target language (TL) knowledge as well as extra-
linguistic knowledge. A fidelity check will ensure that the TT version complies with the source
text (ST) unit, that no information is removed from the translation, and that no unwarranted
information has been added in the TT. The students must make sure that the translation unit is
written in correct language usage and appropriate style in line with the text type or convention.
This process can be repeated again and again until the students achieve satisfactory TT. The
students are supposed to report the problems faced and the solution has taken (along with the
reason) in translating to the teacher for class discussion. Thus, in the class, the teacher can
understand in which process the students have gone wrong and need help.
The use of this model for this particular course is in line with Gile (1995), stating that this
sequential model of translation and the process-oriented approach to translation are useful at the
beginning of translator training because teachers need only to comment on the processes
concerned. With this model, the teacher can maintain the motivation of the students. However, as
a drawback, it is said that process-oriented teaching cannot ensure that students reach high-level
expertise.

d. General and Literary Text Translation Course Design

The translation is the act of conveying meaning from languages, cultures, and a category of words
or phrases into another. Literary translation (interlingual) occurs frequently in our everyday life.
Action in any one language or a message in any other can be viewed as a form of translation
because each of them involves the formulation, transfer, and recoding of encoded messages. In
this course, the researcher concentrates on translation in both Indonesian and literary contexts.

Learning outcomes
The learning outcomes are: (a) learners are able to know the main practice on general text
translation, (b) learners are able to see the main practice on literary translation, (c) learners are able
to know common handicaps of general and literary text translation, (d) learners are able to use
techniques and strategies of producing general and literary text translation, and (e) students can
translate general text from English into Indonesian. Students can translate literary text from
English into Indonesian.

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Learning materials
Pre-translation research, the use, and role of sacred and sensitive texts in translation, philosophy
in translation, text-level errors, translating common books, and translating literary works are all
covered in the learning materials.

Teaching steps
The steps are the same as those of the Simple Business Text Translation Course.

Design analysis
The analysis result is the same as that of the Simple Business Text Translation Course.

e. Scientific and Technical Text Translation Course Design

The Scientific and Technical Text Translation (ST3) course is compulsory is provided to form
students’ skills in translating scientific and technical texts. It is a course that directly builds the
core competency of the students.

Learning outcomes
The learning outcomes are: (a) the students are able to understand about theoretical frameworks of
scientific and technical text translation, (b) the students are able to translate texts about technical
services in the field of the hospitality industry, (c) the students are able to translate texts about
marketing techniques in the field of the hospitality industry, (d) the students are able to translate
the abstract of scientific articles from international journal of the hospitality industry, (e) the
students are able to translate the scientific articles from international journal of the hospitality
industry, and (f) the students are able to translate scientific book chapters which are in relation to
the hospitality industry

Learning materials
The learning materials cover (a) theoretical frameworks for scientific and technical text translation,
(b) texts about technical services in the field of the hospitality industry, (c) text about marketing
techniques in the field of the hospitality industry, (d) abstract of scientific articles from
international journal of the hospitality industry, (e) scientific articles from international journal of
the hospitality industry, and (f) scientific book chapters which are concerning hospitality industry

Teaching steps
The steps are the same as those of the Simple Business Text Translation Course.

Design analysis
The analysis result is the same as that of the Simple Business Text Translation Course.

f. Professional Ethics
This course provides an understanding of ethics in workplace interactions.

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Learning outcomes
The learning outcomes include: (a) students know general ethics and professional ethics and (b)
students can apply the values in actual life.

Learning materials
The learning materials cover understanding ethics and morals, general professional ethics
(Indonesian translator’s code of ethics), office administration professional ethics, norms on good
and bad attitudes and actions, corporate culture, attractive personality.

Teaching steps
Step 1: Preparation: The teacher prepares PowerPoint slides and an exercise sheet. Students are to
read the handout.
Step 2: presentation: Teachers give a lecture on each topic and students listen; discuss the topic;
the teacher gives exercises and discussed the result classically.
Step 3: Closing: The teacher summarizes the lesson.

Design analysis
The approach used is transmissionism because the curriculum designer thinks that students have
no prior knowledge of this field yet. The design is teacher-centered where the teacher gives a lecture
and a discussion follows.

g. Subtitling Course Design

Learning Outcomes
The learning outcomes are (a) students are able to analyze a range of audiovisual material (e.g.
films, TV shows, documentaries, movie clips, etc.) for subtitling purposes, (b) students are able to
carry out the main tasks involving subtitling namely spotting or time-cueing (i.e. deciding on the
in- and out-time of subtitles) and the actual translation of audiovisual material, (c) students are
able to deal with the spatial and temporal constraints of subtitling by appropriately condensing and
reformulating the original text, (d) students are able to tackle certain translation challenges on the
handling of dialects, cultural specificities, and verbal humor, (e) students are able to select among
different techniques and justify translation decision, and (f) students are able to produce subtitle in
the chosen target language (especially in Indonesian) using subtitling software.

Learning Materials
Learning materials of this course consist of an introduction to the key concepts of audiovisual
translation and subtitling, subtitling mechanics (spotting and time-cueing), layout and formatting
conventions, translating dialects, verbal humor, and cultural specificities, and working in the
subtitling industry.

Teaching steps
Step 1: Preparation. The teacher prepares PowerPoint slides for explanation and a movie to work
on by the students.
Step 2: Main activities.
a. Lecture by teacher

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b. Students subtitle the assigned movies individually

c. Teacher supervise the work and answer students’ question
d. The student presents the result of the work
e. The class discusses the problems and solution
Step 3: Closing. The teacher summarizes the lesson.

Design analysis
Subtitling is one of the most creative types of translation. Studied within the field of Audiovisual
Translation, subtitling is a very intriguing profession that requires both translation skills and a deep
understanding of the technical considerations involved, and the conventions applied. This course
helps students introduce themselves to the basic subtitling strategies and technology, understand
the industry and the mechanics of the profession. This course aims at equipping students with basic
subtitling skills by introducing them to subtitling and providing hands-on training with audiovisual
material taken from different authentic contexts. This is task-based instruction where a teacher acts
as a facilitator.

h. Eco-Translation Project Course Design

This course is designed to develop the students’ abilities in translation and tourism. The students
will do a project based on their interests, such as technical translation, scientific translation,
financial translation, front office and tour-guide project. Eco-translation competence is the basic
model of this course.

Learning outcomes
The learning outcome is students can finish a translation project well in groups.

Learning materials
The learning materials covers (a) translation project management, (b) teamwork, (c) frameworks
for text translation (general, literary, business, scientific, technical), and (d) negotiation skills.

Teaching steps
There is no particular teaching step. The course runs as the project develops in the field. The class
adopts the learning model proposed by Hariyanto (2013) and Hu (2013). Students work in groups
of four or five. Each student assumes a different role, which is like a position in a translation office.
The positions are project manager, translator, and editor. Student 1 is the project manager, students
2 and 3 are translators and the last student is the editor. The project manager organizes a meeting
to discuss the steps to get a translation project and other meetings. The project manager (PM) asked
the editor to be the secretary of each meeting and make a minute of the meeting. The roles were
rotated with every new translation work so that every student could develop his/her potential in all
roles. The assignment of the role is in line with Int (2005) as a strategy to enable students to know
exactly what the working world and a professional translator works are. Then, the group will visit
several companies to get a translation project.
For a better picture of the actual flow of work of the students see Figure 2 below.

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Figure 1. Flow of communication among students, client, and teacher (adopted from Hariyanto
(2013))
From the figure, it can be seen that the group obtains a project from the client. The client
assigns it to PM. The PM assigns the translation to the translators (students 3 and 4) who will
submit the translation result to the editor (student 2) to review, who will check and discuss the
revision with the translators. The roles are rotated with every new translation work so that every
student can develop his/her potential in all roles. Upon finishing the revision, the editor submits
the result to the PM.
It is expected that this learning model will nurture students’ cooperative skills (teamwork),
professional responsibility, creativity (especially in looking for the clients if the ones are not
provided by the teacher and in solving the problem), and skill in project management. These all
are important aspects of professional translator life.
The theory of translation training adopted is that translation training shall promote the students’
acquisition of translation and translator competence to empower them into professional translators.
From the design level we can have the following description:
a. The objective of the methods: strengthening translation competence, acquiring translator’s
competence in the form of employability skills
b. Syllabus model: the syllabus contains steps of carrying out the project, i.e. constructing a
group, deciding the topic, planning the project, investigating for the project, developing the
product, presenting the product, evaluating the project.
c. Types of learning and teaching activities: discussion, problem-solving, translating
d. learner roles: as a group, students represent a translation agency. Within the group, they
play roles as translator, editor, project manager.
e. The teacher’s role is as a consultant to the team.
f. the role of instructional material. There is no specific instructional material. However,
students can refer to the material for preceding translation courses and any other material
found during the investigation to support their work.

From the level of procedure, this method employs group discussion and teacher-group
consultation in a scheduled time and mostly communicating and discussing with the translation
client at the client’s place. This is also the reason this model is also named situated learning. The

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details of the project can be seen in Table 2.

Table 2. Translation Project in Translation and Hospitality Industry Project Course

No Item Detail
1 Project Category Translation project
2 Aim Improve translation competence and translator
competence
3 Student’s role Member of a translation group of four, who must obtain
a translation project, and complete the project.
4 Teacher’s role Facilitator/consultant
5 Product A completed translation text and submitted to the client
6 Outcome Improve translation competence and translator
competence of the students

This working procedure will nurture students’ cooperative skills (teamwork), professional
responsibility, creativity (especially in looking for the clients if the ones are not provided by the
teacher and in solving the problem), and skill in project management. These all are important
aspects of professional translator life.

Design analysis
Project-based courses are much encouraged in the vocational college in Indonesia. In translation
courses, project-based learning was used as the final touch to strengthen the student's translator
competence. It may help the development of hard skills (translation competence) and also soft
skills (translator competence) (Alolaywi, 2021). This mode of teaching is also in line with the
empowerment approach once proposed by Kiraly (2005). This approach revolves around
‘authentic project-work. Authentic project work here refers to the translation work completed
collaboratively by students for actual clients. The goal is, according to Kiraly (2005), to facilitate
semi-professional level autonomy and expertise acquisition by the students via authentic
experience as they manage the entire translation activity, underlaying the description of the three
different types of management of three project roles to be taken: information, methodology, and
teamwork. In the end, they will be assessed by the client representative or teacher (Jabsheh, 2021;
Wang & Ji, 2021; Solikhah & Budiharso, 2020).
Kiraly (2005) states that project work would bring along radical changes in students’
relationships with their teachers, their fellow students, and the professional community, their
understanding of the learning, and teaching process and their self-concept as developing
professionals. The students do not only think of linguistic equivalence within a sentence level, they
would be forced to consider a lot of real-world factors including time pressure, professional
responsibility, and self-assessment (Dogan, 2021; Jabsheh, 2021). This would be a great credit
from a professional point of view. Based on the study done by Hariyanto (2021), this activity can
also improve employability skills.

Pedagogical Implication
Translation competence puts its emphasis on the knowledge of linguistics and practices on
transforming SL into TL. Techniques of translation have been developed centering on the

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linguistics aspects of English. This study has proved that eco-translatology or eco-translation
developed by Hu (2004) has inspired new insights into how translation could be applied by
involving the environment and societies. Pedagogically, this study has promoted pieces of
evidence that eco-translation has strong evidence to teaching translation in practical uses and the
projects contribute substantial contents for the teaching materials and teaching strategies in
translation.

Conclusion
In summary, the translation courses are designed to achieve the prescribed goal and objective. The
sequencing of the courses and the course contents is in good order, ranging from the contents to
provide the development of basic knowledge, to hard skills and finally the soft skills. This
sequence is like a scaffolding strategy, where at the beginning students are dependent on the
teacher until, at the end of the course series, students can work independently. In addition to this
scaffolding strategy, students are also provided with a professional-like environment where they
must develop a professional and entrepreneurship attitude.

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Guided Peer Tutorial Fosters Subject Mastery and Builds Essential Soft Skills

Margie Ugaddan Alcaide*

College of Liberal Arts, Criminology, and Education Jose Rizal University
Mandaluyong City, Philippines

Abstract
The teaching and learning process is an ever dynamic cycle. Moreover, there is neither a specific
teaching method nor a strategy that could fit in all types of learners. The researcher has always
wanted to find out how learners can fully optimize students’ learning. This prompted the researcher
to use guided tutor-tutee Peer Tutorial which might help those students who struggle academically
in English. Twenty (20) respondents consisting of ten (10) student-tutees and ten (10) student-
tutors were chosen from the Seventh Graders among four sections in a private Junior High School
in the Philippines. This was an action research which employed descriptive method. The use of
purposive sampling was based and focused on tutees’ grades in English 70 during the First Quarter.
In addition, a survey questionnaire was used to find out the similarities of favorites for the pairing
mechanism of tutor-tutee guided English tutorial program.
The effectiveness of the intervention program using Guided One-on-One Peer Tutorial has
not only improved students’ grades but also has enhanced them holistically with soft skills like
empathy, intrapersonal skills, responsibility, patience, among other valuable skills.

Keywords: guided, peer tutorial, pairing mechanism, holistically, soft skills

Introduction
Learners learn differently has been an overused statement. This holds true in Gardner’s
theory of Multiple Intelligences, this theory states that each person has different ways of learning.
All have individual differences, various needs, backgrounds, and learning preferences. With these
considerations, the researcher aims to find out if a guided one-on-one peer tutorial would help
those students who found difficulty in passing the English subject. It is believed that teachers are
the main players in disseminating knowledge to their learners; however, it does not necessarily
follow that teachers are almost always successful in fulfilling or in developing the fullest potentials
of their learners. There are many avenues where students could learn given the time and guidance
to do so. It is with fervent hope that at the end of this guided one-on-one peer-tutorial program, the
researcher hoped to be able to provide a more holistic and much freer learning environment among
selected seventh graders. The researcher as an educator herself is open-minded through any means
that could develop, influence, and transform learners to be better citizens through the effective
transfer of learning be it in classroom situation or outside classroom setting. The researcher has
pondered on the use of guided peer tutorial so they could be exposed to their co-age group for them
to ask freely and to develop their self-esteem and good study habits eventually.

*[email protected]

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Having been a teacher for long years, the researcher has discovered through close
supervision that students do not only enjoy working with their peers but also achieve better
learning results to reach their educational goals more effectively.
In the traditional classroom setting, it is most always presumed that teachers are the ones
who provide learning solely while students seem to be just the receiving ends. Sadly, when these
students are given tests or assignments to complete, students usually do poorly when asked to do
more than simply recalling their previous lessons. This idea has been disputed in many researches,
the most effective learning way is when learners learn by themselves has been tested and proven.
It is further believed that once persons actively participate in their own learning experience they
will see an improvement in their academic performances. As Bourner (1997) states “teaching
methods are not an end in themselves, but a means to an end, they are the vehicles we use to lead
our students to particular learning outcomes.” The teaching method used in the class is one of the
factors that make students become passive and have less interaction with each other in doing tasks.
With this notion, teachers should find ways to optimize learning through guiding them in
scaffolding their self-paced learning. This prompted the researcher to actively involve learners to
learn with fellow learners to find out if such mechanism will prove effective. Therefore, to enhance
the understanding of subject matter, students must be given support outside classroom learning
like tutorial sessions within their peer-age group to enhance better their understanding when they
are freer to ask, to express their thoughts, and to take charge of their own learning without being
pressured to do so by their teachers. Students should be given the opportunities to develop, to
interact, and to share with their peers through this guided One-on-One Peer Tutorial Program.

Background of the Study

The researcher was enthused to conduct this study based on the low rating scores of some seventh
graders during the first monthly examination which lead to low academic performance during their
First Quarterly grades in English 70. The researcher contemplated on how some students could
cope with their low grades through a well-guided One-on-One Peer Tutorial in English 70. It is for
this purpose that the researcher chose this topic for study to come up with the findings necessary
to help student-tutees improve their low performance grades by pairing them with high performing
student-tutors who belong in the same year level and co-age group. The researcher did not only
consider the grades of high achievers but also their similarities in terms of their favorite sports,
favorite actors, or favorite pastimes for better pairing mechanism. The researcher gave all student-
tutees and student-tutors questionnaires to answer honestly and analyzed their answers to come up
with their best pair- buddy system within their co-age student tutee-tutor to start with.
Research has shown that peer tutoring can be a means of intervention in which students
can work with a peer to master academic skills or content. Peer tutoring can involve partners who
are of the same age or different ages (cross-age). In the same-age tutoring, in which students of
the same age tutor each other, more skilled students may be paired with less academic-performer
students, students with stronger skills may provide the first responses, providing a model for the
less skilled partner. Peer tutoring is differentiated from tutoring between adults, such as community
outreach volunteers. It is also differentiated from cooperative learning, in which students work
collaboratively in groups. This Peer Tutorial is exclusively by pairs which means one student-tutee
paired with one student-tutor.

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The researcher believes in peer teaching as a doable tool to assist learners. In the classroom
setting, students find easier to ask fellow classmates about a difficult lesson rather than asking the
teacher because of the fear of embarrassment or to commit mistakes in the face of his or her
classmates. Moreover, when a teacher teaches in class, there seems to be a different approach to
teaching which is more disciplined, structured, and often intimidating on the part of children.
According to Boman & McCormick (2001) regardless of the teacher’s subject area, grade level, or
number of years of experience, the coaching process equips teachers to become collaborators, and
collaboration provides students with expert instruction. While Boman and McCormick (2001)
focused upon peer coaching’s use with pre-service teachers, Huston and Weaver (2007) echoed
this belief and further suggest that peer coaching is an opportunity for a more experienced faculty
to renew thinking, integrate the latest instructional advances, and adapt to the ever-changing façade
of the students in the classroom. Furthermore, Zwart et al. (2008) contend that the peer coaching
model is versatile enough to be imbedded in any larger project that results in overall school
improvement.
Coleman et al, (1997) found that when students were told to teach a peer by explaining,
they learned better than students told to teach by summarizing and better than students who did
not teach. Similarly, Fuchs et al. (1997) showed that training students to give each other
conceptually-rich explanations during reciprocal tutoring was more effective than classroom
instruction and reciprocal tutoring without such explanations. Additional evidence indicates that
tutoring may also encourage students to engage in metacognitive self-monitoring, which helps
learners to detect and repair missing knowledge and misconceptions. For example, King et al.
(1998) trained reciprocal tutors to give quality explanations and to ask each other questions that
stimulated critical thinking and self-monitoring. They found that these explaining and
metacognitive activities resulted in better learning than explaining activities alone. Explaining and
self-monitoring have also been shown to improve learning in solo studying (e.g. Chi, 2000; Chi,
et al 1994) and collaborative learning (e.g. Coleman, 1998; Webb, et al 1995), which further
highlights the efficacy of these activities.
It is with these current research readings and personal experiences which prompted the
researcher to initiate this Guided Peer English Tutorial among her seventh graders in order to find
ways in maximizing the hidden potentials of her learners. Since the researcher handles these
respondents from four sections namely sections D, E, H, and I. The researcher pre-selected tutees
based on their class performance in English 70 from their first monthly examination to check
whether or not a Guided One-on-One Peer Tutorial could be used effectively as a supplemental
strategy to help learners learn better as compared to only the teacher teaching or facilitating lessons
in class. This Peer Tutorial was very personalized and/or customized since learners had their own
ways of communicating with their peers or co-age groups through their own communicating ways
that made tutees learn easier and faster.

Research Participants
This study focused on Twenty (20) respondents consisting of ten (10) student-tutees and ten (10)
student-tutors were chosen from the Seventh Graders among four sections in a private Junior High
School in the Philippines. Since this study used a purposive sampling in selecting student-tutees
and student-tutors from four different sections of Seventh Graders from a private university in the
Philippines. The student-tutees were selected based on their grades during the First Quarterly grade

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which were the bottom ten or those who got low rating grades in English 70 class. Similarly, the
selection of student-tutors was based on students’ academic grades during the First Quarter in
English 70 who ranked top ten or the high achievers in the English 70 in each section.

Research Instrument
The researcher gathered pertinent data in variety of ways like survey forms and questionnaire
which were descriptive in nature. This action research started with the identification of a problem
within the seventh graders in terms of their academic performance. Using the results of the First
Quarter Grades of student-tutees who were bottom ten in English class and compared to their
Second Quarter Grades when the Peer Tutorial Program was used to intervene in order to provide
the necessary tools and means for students to achieve more effective and lasting effects on their
learning.
The use of pairing mechanism between higher-achievers, a.k.a. student-tutors and lower-
achiever students termed as student-tutees was applied in this study. The researcher did the initial
survey in the form of a simple questionnaire to find out the characteristics of student-tutors like
“Who is your favorite actor/ favorite actress”, “What is your favorite past time or sports?” in
order to gather data as to who among the student-tutees and student-tutors have similar answers or
preferences for best pairing in this One-on-One Peer Tutorial Program.

Data Gathering Procedure

Prior to the administration of this research study, the researcher sought the approval of the Junior
High School Principal of a private university in the Philippines to initiate a project proposal of a
Guided Peer Tutorial in English. Simultaneously, the researcher composed letters of consents to
be given to the parents of those qualified Student-Tutors and Student-Tutees who are all minors.
Gladly, some parents signed and returned the forms promptly.
Upon the principal’s approval, the researcher personally administered the survey test to the
student-respondents to determine the best pair for the low-achiever (student-tutee) to be paired
with a qualified high achiever (student-tutor). The questionnaire was accomplished by the selected
Seventh Graders of a private university. Every tutorial session, each student-tutee wrote his or her
personal reflection as a feedback about what he/she liked in the tutorial and what he/she disliked
during the peer tutorial session.

Treatment of Data
In between the duration of the First Quarter grades of student- tutees and the Second Quarter
grades, the Guided Peer Tutorial Program was administered. Since the First Quarter grade was the
basis for identifying the student-tutees (bottom ten) and student-tutors (top ten) in the English 70
subject, their grades were collected, as well as after the Second Quarter grades were released and
collected. These grades were computed, analyzed and interpreted if there were a significant
difference between the First Quarter Grade with their Second Quarter Grade when Guided Peer
Tutorial was administered by pairing students with specific tutee-tutor pairing mechanisms.
The student-tutees’ English grades from both First Quarter and Second Quarter were
computed by weighted mean where the results were compared by using T-test of difference of two
means. To support the data which were gathered from the survey-questionnaire, the researcher
conducted journal entry writing on what they like learning at the end of each tutorial session.

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Moreover, the researcher gathered other pertinent data in variety of ways like survey forms and
questionnaire which were descriptive in nature like patience, perseverance, socialization skills,
communication skills, good study habits, stronger ties with co-peers, lasting friendship, maturity
and sense of responsibility among others.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study had initially targeted the improvement of academic performance specifically the low
quarter grades among selected low achievers (student-tutees) in English 70 class and the
enhancement of self-esteem among selected high achievers (student-tutors) seventh grader-
respondents of a private university in Mandaluyong City, Philippines. However, deeper concerns
were addressed on this research like problem of study habits and social skills between and among
the respondents.
The researcher identified the respondents by using a purposive sampling based on the
ratings of respondents’ First Quarterly grade among student-tutees (low rating grades) and student-
tutors (with high rating grades). The pairing of the tutees with their tutors was based on their
similarities among favorites (like sports, past times, movie actor or actress) through a
questionnaire. The student-tutees and student-tutors also answered a Likert scale regarding their
personalities. The researcher carefully considered all aspects of mental, intellectual, and emotional
capacities of both the student-tutor and their student-tutees.

Conceptual Framework
This research study was anchored on the researcher’s belief that students will achieve academic
success if they have more freedom in learning on their own or are assisted by their peers because
it would promote much freer learning. The figure below focused on the use of Guided Peer Tutorial
program as a means of intervention for student-tutees in order to obtain better understanding as
compared to traditional setting. The student-tutees were closely supervised in one-one peer tutorial
sessions with exercise and activities for enrichment and mastery of lessons tackled in their regular
classes. The individualized drills and written exercises were customized and checked daily after
each tutorial session to find out if the student-tutees mastered the lesson. If they passed the drills
for mastery they were able to improve their performance while if they failed, re-teaching by using
other personalized activity to achieve mastery was given.

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Figure 1

This figure explains the selection of student-tutees and pairing them with appropriate
student-tutors. The organizing of the first ever Guided One-on-One Peer Tutorial Program among
selected seventh graders of Junior High School in a private university in Mandaluyong City,
Philippines was very challenging yet very fulfilling. The role of tutor-tutee peer tutorial is to
identify whether or not there is a significant difference in the academic performance after these
learners will have been enrolled in this Guided Peer tutorial program by preparing activities for
mastery and retention. The end goal of this study is primarily to help those students who struggle
academically in order to find ways as means to cope with their academic performance in English
70. Moreover, more than the improvement of their academic performance was the honing of both
student-tutees and student-tutors soft skills like patience, perseverance, socialization skills,
communication skills, good study habits, stronger ties with co-peers, lasting friendship, maturity
and sense of responsibility among other essential skills.

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Results and Discussions

As mentioned earlier, the selection of tutee-tutor respondents in this study was primarily identified
by looking into closely students’ academic grades for the First Quarter in English 70 who needed
real help for student-tees belonging to bottom ten in class, as well as, the selection of top ten high
achievers, a.k.a. student-tutors. In an aim to find ways and means to assist learners strengthen their
study skills by introducing an intervention through a Guided Peer Tutorial Program was
challenging at first because this intervention has not been used in the Junior High School
department yet.
This action research started with the identification of a problem within the seventh graders
in terms of their academic performance and the researcher wished to provide the necessary tools
and means for students to achieve more effective and optimized learning. The researcher used the
pairing of higher-achievers, named as student-tutors and low-achievers which is termed as student-
tutees. The researcher did the initial survey in the form of a simple questionnaire to find out the
characteristics of student-tutors like “Who is your favorite actor/ favorite actress”, “What is your
favorite past time or sports?” to gather data as to who among the tutees and tutors have similarities
for best pairing in this One-on-One Peer Tutorial Program.
The aim of pairing these set of students was intended so students gain knowledge from
each other through practice and reinforcement (students are still within the same skill level, there
is not a huge discrepancy between ability levels). The poor results in the academic grades of bottom
ten in English during the First Quarter was a determinant factor why the respondents were chosen.
In addition, the prospect respondents’ regular attendance in class was also used as criteria since
the researcher needed every student-tutee to attend each tutorial session regularly.

Table 1

Comparison of Grades of Students in English 70 Between Pre-intervention and Post-

intervention

Second Quarter
Student-tutee Number First Quarter Grades Grades
1 77.55 80.1
2 76.95 77.4
3 79.35 80.25
4 75.45 75.55
5 78.9 81.1
6 77.2 79.4
7 76.3 84.55
8 75.15 77.65
9 75 75.55
10 79.05 82.8

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The above data contained the results prior and after the respondents’ peer tutorial program
as reflected on their First Quarter and compared to their Second Quarter grades in English 70. On
the basis of “Method of Difference Principle” their Second Quarter grades has shown an increased
significant difference in their grades generally. As the table implies that each student-tutee seemed
to have increased their grades from the first to the second quarter grades. This result was used to
compute their significant differences further on Table 2 below.

Table 2

Test of Significant Difference between the First and Second Quarter Grades in English 70 of
Student-tutees

Critical
t – VALUE
̅ Value
𝑿 𝒔𝒅 (Computed P - Value Decision Interpretation
(Tabular
Value)
Value)
1st Quarter 77.09 2.66 Reject
3.19 2.26 0.01 Significant
2nd Quarter 79.44 8.76 𝐻0

𝛼 = 0.05; two tailed

Based on Table 1 above, using the Two - Tailed Test, Table 2 showed that the T - Stat is
greater than T – Critical; it is without doubt to conclude that there was a significant difference
between the grades of respondents from the First to the Second quarter. This only implies that
indeed, the use of Guided Peer Tutorial had a great positive impact in improving the low grades
among the student- tutees. This implies a great need to use peer tutorial as a teaching strategy for
learners who have difficulty learning a particular subject.

Table 3

Summary of Student-tutees’ Answers on the Evaluation Questionnaire on Peer Tutorial in

terms of the given factors as follows:

Factors Result (Percentage)

Time of Tutorial 9 out of 10 or 90% agreed that the time of

the tutorial session started on time.

Place of Tutorial Sessions 10 out of 10 or 100% agreed that the

respondents know the venue of the tutorials

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Topics Discussed (Variety) 8 out of 10 or 80% agreed that the topics

discussed were varied.

Tutor’s Way of Teaching 8 out of 10 or 80% agreed that they learned

better with their paired tutor rather than in
traditional classroom setting.

Overall Impact 10 out of 10 or 100% agreed that the

respondents want the peer tutorials will be
part of the classroom strategies.

The table above illustrates how the student-tutees evaluated or assessed some factors that
contributed to their views in relation with the Guided Peer Tutorial Program. All student-tutees
were well-informed of the time the peer tutorial sessions during Wednesdays from 4:00-5:00pm
and Fridays from 3:00-4:00pm after school hours. Hence, majority were conscious to start the
tutorial sessions promptly so they could learn much more. The venue was always held in two
classrooms at M401 and at M402 so they immediately went on these assigned rooms immediately
after their last subject. In terms of the topics being discussed on each tutorial session were varied
so as not to cause boredom to both the tutor and his/her tutee. The student-tutors displayed varied
techniques to clarify any doubts of their tutees in their own communication lingo. The researcher
had seen bright faces of student- tutees with some reactions like “Oh, I see!” or “I got it now!” as
almost shouted by student-tutees once they understood the topic being discussed by their student-
tutors. In the final analysis, all of them (student-tutors and student-tutees) have recommended to
use peer tutorial program to be part of the teaching strategies since all of them agreed that they
have all been benefitted in learning better through their peers.
At the end of this peer tutorial program, respondents were given an evaluation survey. This
is a questionnaire which was constructed to find out the respondents’ overall impressions,
feedbacks, and suggestions for the entire administering of this One-on-One Peer Tutorial Program.
In relation to the construction of questionnaire for data collection, the researcher did a lot of
research readings on samples of related studies before constructing and coming up with the final
questionnaire. After preparing the first draft of the questionnaire, the researcher presented it to
some of her colleagues in the English Department, to her English chair, and to one of her Graduate
Professors for any comments, suggestions or criticisms for test validation. Comments and
suggestions from among them were considered. A pilot testing of the survey test was administered
among thirty Seventh Graders from Grade 7 section A who were not part of this Peer Tutorial
Program before coming up with the final draft. The researcher personally administered and
retrieved the test form the student respondents. This was done to personally supervise and to give
clarifications in case questions were raised by any respondents.
The duration of the peer tutorial sessions lasted for five months. Each tutorial session had
different topics and activities as planned by the student-tutors with their tutees. The researcher
facilitated in the supervision; however, the student-tutors’ administration with their individual
tutees were totally different. The researcher had observed initially that some student-tutors have
difficulty clarifying matters over and over with their student-tutees but gradually changed to better
tutors-tutees connection with each other that eventually led to amicable and friendly relationships.

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This was supported by the study of Nguyen, H. T. M. & Baldauf, R. B. (2010), which provides
further evidence for the position that learning does not take place in isolation but rather through
interaction, i.e., it occurs through communication and collaboration with other people in social
settings. However, the study also raised the awareness of the need for well-structured support for
interaction among peers.

Table 4

Improved Characteristics as a result of Tutees’ Involvement in Peer Tutorial Program

Characteristics Percentage
Diligence 40% of the student-tutees
Hard work 30% of the student-tutees
Better study techniques 30% of the student-tutees

When the researcher asked tutees about this question, “In what specific ways have you
improved in your class performance due to the English Peer Tutorial Program?” Each
student-tutee answered individually and differently as categorized above. The responses were all
positive in terms of their participation to the Guided Peer Tutorial in English. Although some
student-tutees struggled to learn, they admitted that they were able to acquire good study habits.

Table 5

Improved Characteristics as a result of Tutors’ Involvement in Peer Tutorial Program

Characteristics Percentage
Patience 60% of the student-tutees
Friendship 40% of the student-tutees
Responsibility 40% of the student-tutees

Not only did the student-tutees benefit from this guided peer tutorial, but also their student-
tutors. When student-tutors were asked this question, “In what specific ways have you improved
your attitude or personality due to the English Peer Tutorial Program?” Their answers were
astounding. Majority of them had learned the value of patience, responsibility, diligence, sense of
maturity and socialization skills as they administered difficulty in explaining lessons with their
student-tutees. Some had even struggled with the attitude of their student-tutees but kept their
patience because they wanted to help their student-tutees. Furthermore, some have gained great
friendships with their tutor-tutee relationship after this Guided Peer Tutorial Program. Their
responses showed sense of maturity in terms of being patient and sociable since some turned out
to be their real friends.

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Table 6

Overall recommendations for Peer Tutorial as a teaching-learning strategy from tutees and
tutors’ answers

Percentage Percentage
Category (from Student-tutees) (from Student-tutors)
Strongly Agree 100% 90%
Agree 0% 10%
Neutral 0% 0%
Disagree 0% 0%
Strongly Disagree 0% 0%

During the last peer tutorial session, the researcher asked both tutees and tutors the most
important question if they would like to recommend Peer Tutorial as a teaching-learning strategy
or method in class. The table above painted the entire picture of their overwhelming answers on
the Strongly Agree which means that they really liked the guided peer tutorial with their tutor-
tutee buddies in its entirety.
Although the primary objective of this peer tutorial program is for tutees to be given help
or assistance through a peer tutorial program, the student tutors have also been benefitted from it,
as they acquired the skills of responsibility and enhance their self-esteem and patience. There were
strong evidences based on previous researches about the benefits of peer tutorial not only for tutees
but also for tutors for many reasons. The results of what the student-tutors learned in the process
of peer tutorial made them more patient, understanding, and more responsible. In fact, some tutors
admitted to the researcher that they have learned patience by heart since they wanted to help their
tutees. In fact, one student-tutor even told the researcher that she found a new real friend through
her tutee since they don’t belong to one section, during recess time they mingled with each other
to converse and to exchange greetings. On the other part, the student-tutees struggled a great deal
in the first few weeks of the peer tutorial since some had individual differences with their tutors.
Some even wanted to quit because the tutors seemed reluctant to re-teach because some tutees had
difficulty understanding the ways tutors taught them. Eventually, these student-tutees managed to
understand those differences in personalities as the tutors tried to be more patient, adapted a more
practical way of explaining while the tutees were more receptive in the lessons and activities. In
fact, the student-tutees expressed their feelings on the question, “What did you like most in
attending the English Peer Tutorial Program?” Among the answers provided were as follows:

Tutee A mentioned, “I learned about our lesson from my tutor whenever we had the
tutorial session because of his feedbacks.” This signify that their interactions between
a tutor-tutee has more in-depth discussion and freer as they engage with the relearning
process.

This statement of Tutee A supports the study of Susanto, Soengkono, and Assalma (2019)
in regard to their more relaxed atmosphere, “Peer feedback made the learning environment less

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anxious and stressful, it helped the students collaborate with each other more, then, it could help
to learn more. Henceforth, the students who were taught by using peer feedback had lower writing
anxiety than those who were taught without using peer feedback.” (Susanto, Soengkono, and
Assalma, 2019)

Tutee B stated that, “When we have our exercises for the activity on that day, I really
like it!” This statement appears that even during assessment they enjoy. Unlike in the
actual setting when students were asked by teachers to answer worksheets as exercises,
students dislike the idea of being evaluated or assessed.

Tutee C expressed, “I like studying hard and having high scores.” This student is a
typically shy student and almost always gets low score. It boosted her spirit when she
gets high scores after the exercises are checked.

Tutee D told, “When teaching me it was fun when I go in the peer tutorial.” Time and
correct management requires minimal to maximum tolerance. This student initially did
not like joining the peer tutorial sessions; eventually, he liked the process of
involvement when he found enjoyment after few tutorial sessions. He thought that he
was more relaxed and more engaging with his tutor and could ask any questions. The
reinforcement activities with other tutees has triggered his interest.

Tutee E stated, “I learned how to speak in English and how to use it in correct sentence
and to improve my vocabulary.” This statement came from a student who hardly speak
in class due to limited vocabulary and his fear of committing grammar errors. With a
fellow student correcting his errors consistently on subject-verb agreement made him
confident as days go by.

Tutee F uttered, “Being excited and focused and I like is to learn a lot.” This student
has been highly empowered to improve better. He expressed his enthusiasm vocally
that he has learned a lot.

Their answers reflected positive impacts that they really liked this peer tutorial program
which lead to student-tutees 100% recommendation of a peer tutorial as a teaching-learning
strategy. The researcher found out that pairing students with some of their similarities in favorites
or interests in real life may have given them better opportunities to work more productively. Close
supervision while peer tutorial sessions were extremely advised by the researcher to make sure
that lessons and activities were administered to the fullest. Although English was supposedly the
means for tutoring, the researcher did not impose such but rather allowed the tutors to use even
their mother tongue to speak and to explain with their tutees in order that their tutees grasped better
the lessons to optimize better understanding between the tutees and the tutors to achieve the desired
learning results.

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Conclusion
Peer teaching and learning has been a well-researched topic worldwide. After the researcher used
the Guided Peer tutorial with her English 70 class, she undoubtedly saw the positive and
remarkable results from her tutee-tutor respondents who had both been benefitted. Apart from the
good study habits and social maturity established among the student-tutees, the researcher
observed that the previous peer learning activities yielded additional results for both tutor and tutee
like having more supportive relationships; greater psychological well-being, social competence,
communication skills, higher achievement and greater productivity in terms of enhanced learning
outcomes. As a result, the researcher highly recommends the use of guided peer tutorial not only
in English but also in other core subjects at the Junior High School Division with a more improved
program and additional effective strategies.
The student-tutees and student-tutors’ responses, both on questionnaires and from their
discussions throughout the peer tutorial program indicated that all participants felt strongly that
peer tutorial was indeed helpful for them. They all agreed to recommend peer-tutoring to be
implemented again for next school year. One of the key elements in this peer tutorial is how
important it is for students to be able to talk with each other not only about their lessons, concerns
but also about their progress. They had established effective working relationships and learned
how to improve their practice through these discussions. This supported the social constructivist
approach to learning and recognizes peer coaching or teaching as a process. It encouraged a
learner- driven climate where students were able to identify their goals towards better learners.
In the duration of the peer tutorial sessions, it was tedious to start and run the program, but
by organizing systematically, the hardships outweigh the good benefits. First, is to see that some
of our student- respondents had formed close peer relationships with other students within their
age and grade level, as this showed that they were able to transfer skills to foster effective and
healthy working relationships with peers in differing contexts. Next, the fact that they proactively
sought out individuals with whom they wished to establish a peer coaching relationship with was
a real success of this project. It illustrated that the student-tutees as well as student-tutors did value
the support of a peer tutorial to identify areas of their personal as well as academic improvement,
social skills, and build their confidence to study independently given the time. Not only do the
student-tutees benefitted, but also the student-tutors who admitted that they became more
responsible, open-minded, more sensitive to others’ needs, more sociable, more mature to handle
things and the list goes on.

Recommendations
This Guided Peer Tutorial offered learners possible ways to help them academically which
educators, like me would not have otherwise imagined. As a researcher who deeply navigated and
observed student-tutees and student-tutors towards their academic performance, I highly
recommend this Peer Tutorial Program regardless of age or grade level. Indeed, not only has this
peer tutorial program helped to nurture student-tutees to cope with their subject difficulty through
peer tutorial enrichment and retention mastery exercises of lessons in English 70 but also has
developed some soft skills like socialization with peers, freer communication with others and
optimistic perspectives, to name a few in facing their academic performance difficulties. Student-
tutees were not only the ones benefitted but also the students-tutors who have obtained more

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patience, more responsible with tasks, more caring, more emphatic to their fellow students who
may be needing assistance in class.
As an output of this study, the table below is a recommendation of the researcher to work
on for future implementation of this peer tutorial sessions across all content subjects like English,
Mathematics, and Science as shown on the crafted Guided Peer Tutorial / Enhancement
Program. This enhancement program is designed to help learners who may have difficulty
learning English, Science, and Mathematics inside their regular class. Since this will be a peer or
small group tutorial program, this are administered after class hours but will be closely monitored
and supervised by assigned teachers in English, Science, and Mathematics. The table has specified
key points to monitor and to prepare by the assigned teachers in English, Science, and
Mathematics.

Guided Peer Tutorial/ Enhancement Program for Seventh and Eighth Graders

PRIORITIES CHALLENGE OBJECTIVES PROJECT MEANS OF PEOPLE SUBJECT TIME RISK RISK BUDGET VENUE
INDICATOR VERIFICATION INVOLVED COMPETENCIES FRAME ASSESSMENT MANAGEMENT

Enhancement Students who To help students Better Monthly Dry run test English, Weekly Lessons are June 2020- Attitude of -Needs parent
and mastery of struggle in enhance their academic prepared by subject Science, and prepared by teachers March 2021 student-tutees consents’ approval Php 1,500 Junior
students who understanding lesson results in teachers of English, Mathematics in English, Science, may be totally as High
have difficulty in English, difficulties in Monthly and Science, and Teachers and Mathematics in Activities: different with honoraria School
English, Science, and English, Quarterly Mathematics advanced student-tutors -Orientation on the for each Bldg M-
Science, and Mathematics Science, and Tests of Subjects to be Grade Level 7 -Orientation benefits of peer assigned
Mathematics regular classes Mathematics English, administered before & 8 >They train specific on the -Handling tutorial not only on teacher to M401-
through pairing need to re-teach subjects Science, and the Quarterly exam. Coordinators student-tutors on how nature and conflicts academic monitor English
or buddy lessons for Mathematics and to re-teach a difficult benefits of performance but closely
mechanism. mastery and To equip them Subjects Chairpersons lesson Peer -Organize also in honing other tutorial M402-
retention. with systematic Feedbacks through in English, Tutorial systematic essential lifelong sessions Science
scheduling to verbal or journal Science, and Teachers in English, -Orientation tutorial sessions skills like: in
either master Better writing which are Mathematics Science, and of student- English, M03-
English, communicatio read and closely Mathematics will tutors’ role -Prepare more -socialization Science, Mathema
Goal: Science, and n, socialization monitored by subject prepare additional and activities -responsibility and tics.
To encourage Mathematics among peers. teachers of English, Seventh and exercises for mastery responsibilit prepared in -maturity Mathemat
students to subject one at a Science, and Eighth and retention to be ies advanced for -patience ics.
strengthen skills time Mathematics. Graders who administered during mastery and -perseverance
in English, have the tutorial sessions Teachers in retention -sensitivity
Science, and academic after class hours. English, -communication
Mathematics To encourage problems in Science, and -Monitor and -study habits
Subjects through students to set Assigned teachers English, Mathematic supervise gently -independent-
tutorial sessions personal goals in must schedule a Science, and STEPS: s will teach by getting learner
using: helping oneself process0 small Mathematics 1. Be sure to train tutor students’
and help other group learning chosen student-tutors through feedbacks and
a.) buddy system students as well. by using dialogical modelling try to refine
b.) small group Seventh and and scaffolding strategies tutorial sessions
(3-4 members) Eighth techniques of based on
Graders who teaching through negative
are high modeling. feedbacks
academic 2. Explain directive
performers versus nondirective
and are tutoring.
willing to be 3. Discuss an array of
student-tutors teaching strategies.
in English, 4. Prepare appropriate
Science, and learning exercises
Mathematics suited to all tutees.

Acknowledgment
The researcher is very much grateful to the University President of Jose Rizal University (JRU)
Dr. Vicente K. Fabella and to all her research mentors Dr. Auxencia Limjap, Research Director of
JRU, Mr. Jovito Anito Jr, Research Associate of JRU, to Dr. Barbara Wong Fernandez, Former

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Research Director of JRU, to Mr. Romel Navarro, Senior High School Principal, Mrs. Carissa
Enteria, former English Department Chair in the Junior High School-JRU and to her friends
Roberto Layague Jr., Mr. Jovito Anito, Bonjovi Hajan, Dr. Reynaldo Padagas and Ms. Claire
Guevara. Greatly, she extends her profound gratitude to all her student-tutees and student-tutors
as participants in this study. To her husband, Gerry Alcaide and to her three children, Hazeline
Jewel, Genevive and Gerald Matthew Alcaide for all their unconditional love, understanding, and
support.

References
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Bowman, C. & McCormick, S. (2000). Comparison of peer coaching versus traditional supervision
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Fantuzzo, J.W., Davis, G.Y., Ginsburg, M.D. (1995). Effects of parent involvement in isolation
or in combination with peer tutoring on student self-concept and mathematics achievement.
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Gerber, M., & Kauffman, J.M. (1981). Peer tutoring in academic settings. In P.S Strain, (Ed.), The
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on August 15, 2019 @ http://rse.sagepub.com/content/31/6/450.abstract
Outhred, T, & Chester, A. (2010). The Experience of Class Tutors in a Peer Tutoring Programme:
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10.1145/2076450.2076459
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Topping, K. (1988). The peer tutoring handbook: Promoting cooperative learning. London: Croom
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Appendix A

Daily Reflective Journal of English Peer Tutorial Program

Name ___________________________________
Journal Entry # ________

1. What lesson/s have you learned in English Peer Tutorial Program today?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. What did you like learning or doing in this Peer Tutorial Program session today?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

3. Did you dislike any activity during the peer tutorial program today? State Yes or No and explain
why?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

4. Would you like to continue attending this English Peer Tutorial Program? State Yes or No and
explain your reasons.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

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Flipped Learning Approach in Teaching Writing in a University Setting:

Students’ Experiences, Preferences, and Perspectives

Gregorio P. Ebron, Jr.*

Far Eastern University – Manila Philippines

Romualdo A. Mabuan**
Far Eastern University – Manila Philippines

Abstract
Writing is a complex language skill to develop, but students must learn it if they are to be
successful in school, at work, and in their personal lives. Beginning from the cognitive era to the
socio-cognitive era of teaching writing in schools, new teaching and learning models for students’
writing skill development have emerged. This paper presents findings of a study designed using a
flipped classroom approach in teaching writing in a university ESL context. Research participants
were seventeen college sophomore Accountancy students enrolled in a Writing in the Discipline
class during the first semester of the academic year 2016 – 2017 in a private university in Manila,
the Philippines. For a period of four months, the class utilized a flipped classroom approach by
‘doing the class work at home and doing the homework in the class,’ where students viewed online
video lectures on academic English writing via their electronic devices and completed pre-class
quizzes at home or outside of class, and participated in in-class and in-person practical activities
and lesson applications with the teacher’s guidance. Data drawn from surveys and focus group
discussions revealed that despite some technological limitations, the flipped classroom approach
in a writing class received an overall positive feedback from the students, citing students’ preferred
activities and features, based on their experiences and perspectives. Pedagogical implications in
the teaching of writing with technology integration are provided in the light of these findings.

Keywords: Blended learning, Flipped classroom, Flipped learning, Teaching writing, TESOL

*[email protected]
**[email protected]

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Introduction
Teaching and Learning Writing in the ESL/EFL Context
Writing skills are crucial for students’ academic, social, and professional success. Writing is a
complex process which needs knowledge, skill, and creativity. It is also one of the skills that
ESL/EFL learners have to develop because it is a medium for learning other subjects and for
communicating with their teachers (Vurdien, 2020). Writing is also the skill used mostly to assess
the students’ performances in virtually all phases of educational levels: Primary, secondary, and
tertiary levels, as well as in entrance examinations, application letters, theses writing, and for a
variety of purposes (Al-Jarrah et al., 2018; Ibrahim et al., 2016). Writing is indeed becoming
necessary not only in L2 in school settings, but also in our daily life, particularly owing to the
prevalence of information technology, such as writing e-mail or business letters overseas.
However, writing is considered as the most complicated language skill to be learned and taught,
as developing the ability to write is a demanding process that requires considerable support from
teachers (Coelho, 2020).
Learning to write coherently, fluently, and effectively particularly in one’s second language
such as English even becomes more demanding in the tertiary level as students need to adhere to
academic writing conventions for specific genres that they need to compose such as different types
of essay and research projects. Writing, being an authoring skill, requires employing a variety of
strategies and activities such as careful planning, preparation, and execution. Needless to say,
academic writing has become a challenging intellectual price of being in college, since students
not only must learn to write, they also must to learn to read – and even to think – in complex new
ways (Greene & Lidinsky, 2012). Brown (2000) also conjectured that in school, writing has
become a way of life. Without some ability to express oneself in writing, one does not pass the
course. Hence, because of the linguistic and cognitive demands of learning the writing skills,
students tend to view writing as the bête noire in their English language learning journey.
Cognizant of the need to facilitate and assist students in their learning of academic writing
skills, teachers have already begun to explore several approaches in the teaching of writing, which
have emerged decades ago until the recent years: process approach (Flower & Hayes, 1980; Hayes,
1996; Richards, 2002), product approach (Brown, 2000), genre approach (Nunan, 1998), process
genre approach (Badger & White, 2000), post-process approach for L2 writing (Atkinson, 2003;
Matsuda, 2003), inter alia. However, despite considerable research into the writing process,
Hyland (2003) commented that we still do not have a comprehensive idea of how learners go about
writing a task or how they learn to write. Hence, much more research should be conducted to
further explore alternative means in teaching students good writing skills.

Flipping the Traditional Writing Classroom

Drawing on the aforementioned issues in the teaching and learning of writing skills and the
growing demands for the development of multiliteracies among students amidst the backdrop of a
globalized, networked, and interconnected society (Mills, 2009), there is a need to explore
alternative approaches in the teaching of language skills. With the intrusion and disruption of
technology into virtually every facet of humanity including the educational landscape, teaching
and learning with technology has become not just a must-try, but a must-have and a must-do for a
vast majority. Nowadays, it is not impossible to encounter an upsurge of technology-driven modes
of communication via interactive networks like the new/social media including Facebook, Twitter,

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Instagram, LinkedIn, WhatsApp, YouTube, blogs, wikis, and even TikTok. Teaching and learning
have also transcended to the next level with Zoom sessions, Hangouts, GoToMeetings, massive
open online courses (MOOCs), webinars, synchronous and asynchronous learning management
systems (LMS), to name a few. Indeed, teaching and learning with technology has become the
‘new normal’, a sine qua non for many of us.
With the prevalence and affordances of technology-mediated and technology-enhanced
teaching and learning mechanisms, comes Education 4.0 powered by smart technology, attuned
with the need to evolve with the times and to adapt with the new realities (James, 2019). In
recent years, new pedagogical frameworks and models have surfaced proposing the integration of
modern technologies into education: TPACK Framework (Koehler et al., 2014), UNESCO ICT
Competency Framework for Teachers (2018), ISTE Standards for Educators (2019), Blended
Learning Models (Horn & Staker, 2012), and SAMR Model (Puentedura, 2013).
Anchored on the tenets of blended learning, this study explored the educational affordances
and potentialities of mixing off-line and on-line modes of teaching academic writing with higher
education students. Staker and Horn (2012) defined blended learning as “a formal education
program in which a student learns at least in part through online delivery of content and instruction
with some element of student control over time, place, path, and/or pace and at least in part at a
supervised brick-and-mortar location away from home” (p.3). They presented four models of
blended learning that categorize the majority of blended-learning programs emerging across
educational institutions today: the rotation, flex, self-blend, and enriched-virtual models. The
rotation model is further categorized into four sub-categories: the station-rotation, lab-rotation,
flipped-classroom, and individual-rotation models.
Of the aforementioned blended learning models, this study subscribed to the principles of
the flipped-classroom model (FC Model) which is a sub-category of station-rotation model in
which within a given course or subject (e.g., writing class), students rotate on a fixed schedule
between face-to-face teacher-guided practice (or projects) on campus during the standard school
day and online delivery of content and instruction of the same subject from a remote location (often
home) after school (Staker & Horn, 2012). Bergmann and Sams (2012) also defined the FC Model
as a new pedagogical model where the instructor shares predetermined digital resources with
students through a platform outside the classroom, and related content is also taught through this
outside platform asynchronously. Inside the classroom, active, collaborative, and interactive
problem-solving activities and consolidation practices are carried out (Toto & Nguyen, 2009).
Additionally, Bishop and Verleger (2013) described the FC Model as an educational technique
which consists of two significant components: (1) the use of computer technologies such as video
lectures, and (2) the involvement of interactive learning activities. Meanwhile, EDUCAUSE
(2012) defined the FC Model as a “pedagogical model in which the typical lecture and homework
elements of a course are reversed” (p.1); whereas, according to the Flipped Learning Network
(2014), “Flipped Learning” must have “Flexible Environment,” “Learning Culture,” “Intentional
Content,” and “Professional Educator.”
FC studies show that videos are often used as a means of teaching outside the classroom,
while interactive tasks in which students are actively participating are used as in-class activities
(Herreid & Schiller, 2013; Basal, 2015; Zengin, 2017). Harnessing the power of technology,
instructors both create video materials and curate open-access videos available on the Internet for
their classroom use (Sherer & Shea, 2011). The instructional videos used as lecture materials

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ensure students’ active participation and student-centered learning since videos could maintain
students’ attention and enable them to concentrate on the content (Herreid & Schiller, 2013) and
consequently, enhance students’ performance, engagement, learning outcomes, and motivation
(Baepler et al., 2014; Sun & Wu, 2016; Mabuan & Ebron, 2017; Yilmaz, 2017).
The FC Model has been widely explored in various settings and subjects including the
English language classroom. In particular, it has been used in the teaching of different writing
tasks: general composition activities (Baranovic, 2013), academic/research writing (Engin, 2014),
IELTS writing tasks (Mireille (2014), writing paragraph patterns of development (Li-xia, 2016),
argumentative paragraph writing (Ekmekci, 2017), argumentative essay writing (Soltanpour &
Valizadeh, 2018), and e-mail etiquette (Kostka & Wang, 2020), among others. Generally, these
studies suggest that students have expressed positive feedback towards flipping the writing
classroom. However, while studies on flipped classroom or flipped learning are already
widespread in several parts of the world, a survey of literature in several research databases
suggests a dearth of blended learning studies with particular focus on the implementation of the
flipped learning approach in academic writing classes in the Philippine setting. This is the gap that
this study intends to fill in.
Even though English is used as one of the two official national languages in the Philippines,
and as a medium of instruction across disciplines and subjects, Filipino students learning English
as a second language still struggle in achieving proficiency in the macro skills. The Philippines’
fall from the 14th place in 2018 to 20th in the 2019 English Proficiency Index (English First, 2019)
suggests a declining trend that educational sectors should also be concerned about. Hence, the
Department of Education (DepEd), the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), state
universities and colleges (SUCs), and other stakeholders should step up efforts to improve the
teaching and learning of English, and develop it as a vital skill among Filipinos.
Cognizant of the aforementioned trends and issues, this study implemented a modern
approach in teaching academic writing skills among Filipino university students using the flipped-
classroom model. It aimed not only to contribute to the improvement of Filipino students’ English
proficiency, but also to explore and expand teaching and learning paradigms and pathways that
could provide new ways and means in delivering quality and effective language education. In
particular, this study focused on privileging students’ voices and exploring their experiences about
this new learning model because, ultimately, they are the ones who will dictate the type of
education delivery that best suits their needs. Specifically, this study sought to answer the
following questions:
1. What are the students’ preferred learning activities in a writing class with a flipped learning
approach?
2. What are the students’ preferred features of flipped learning in a writing class and their
perceptions about them?

Method
Research Design
This study utilized a descriptive qualitative method as it aimed to determine students’ preferences
and perspectives in terms of activities and features in a writing class taught with a flipped learning
approach. Creswell et al. (2007) defined qualitative method as a research method that relies on text
and image data, has unique steps in data analysis, and draw on diverse designs. Qualitative

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researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews, observations, documents,
and audio-visual information rather than rely on a single data source. By utilizing the qualitative
research design in this study, the researchers gathered ‘thick’ data through research tools such as
surveys and focus group discussions; organized the data into categories or themes; and analyzed
them to answer the research questions.

Research Participants
This study’s participants were seventeen university sophomore students taking the course Bachelor
of Science major in Accountancy in a private university in Manila, the Philippines. The
participants were in mixed gender, with ages ranging from 17 to 18 years old. Their English
proficiency level ranged from low intermediate to intermediate level based on their TOEIC (Test
of English for International Communication) scores. The study was conducted during the first
semester of the academic year 2016 – 2017 in a Writing in the Discipline class, which was a
required communication subject in the course curriculum. Before the implementation of the study,
an informed consent was sought from the participants, the participants’ parents and/or guardians,
and from the school administration.

Research Instruments
Two surveys with open-ended questions were administered to the students before and after the
flipped learning. The pre-flipped learning survey aimed at capturing demographic profiles of the
students, the frequency of their access to online technology, their virtual profiles, and their
previous experience on using technology in the classroom. The post-flipped learning survey aimed
at determining students’ preferences on the flipped classroom activities and features based on their
experience in the class. It also aimed to explore the challenges that the students encountered in the
flipped classroom, as well as the limitations of the model as far as their learning the English
academic writing is concerned. Kelley et al. (2003) concurred that surveys can produce data based
on real-world observations, they can obtain sufficient data generalizable to a population given the
breadth of coverage of many people, and they can produce a large amount of data in a short time
for a fairly low cost. Finally, an informal classroom discussion after the flipped learning was
conducted with the students to further explore students’ experiences that were not captured by the
surveys. The FGD data was used to triangulate the findings in the study. Hughes and DuMont
(1993) conjectured that focus groups are in-depth group interviews employing relatively
homogenous groups to provide information around topics specified by the researchers, which can
be used to pick up relevant themes around a topic.

Research Procedure
Students were first oriented about the nature and process of flipped learning. The classroom rules
were established including the roles of the teacher and the students. Students technological
readiness was also determined by ensuring that everybody had access to Internet-connected
devices. Applying the basic principles of the flipped classroom, the traditional approach in
teaching writing was ‘flipped’; that is, there were in-class and out-of-class activities for the
students. The lectures were not done in the classroom by the teacher; instead, students were
assigned to watch video lectures of the lessons outside the classroom, on their free time or at home.
The video lectures were curated from the five-course massive open online course (MOOC)

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specialization called Academic English: Writing Specialization

(https://www.coursera.org/specializations/academic-english), which was developed by the
University of California, Irvine and offered through Coursera. The researchers downloaded
selected video lectures from the courses Getting Started with Essay Writing and Advanced Writing,
and used them in the class following the Creative Commons attribution guidelines.
In order that students watch the video lectures, they were tasked to complete worksheets
and answer pre-class quizzes. For in-class engagements, interactive activities that applied the
concepts presented in the video lectures were accomplished in the class under the teacher’s
guidance. The focus of these in-class activities was concept application through problem-solving
activities and application activities performed individually or in dyads, triads, or small group
activities. Consultations and mini-conferences with the teacher about the lesson were also
conducted. A private Facebook group exclusive for the members of the class was created, as it
served as an online class convener to facilitate continuous interaction, collaboration, and
engagement among the teacher and the students. The video lectures were posted by the teacher on
the Facebook group, where students accessed them. Students could either play the videos directly
on Facebook or download them in their devices. Students could also post their ideas, ask questions,
chat with other students, or send their teacher a private inquiry related to the video lectures. Pre-
class worksheets corresponding the video lectures, as well as other class instructions, updates, and
announcements were also posted on the Facebook wall.

Data Analysis
To identify students’ preferences on the flipped classroom features and activities, the ranked data
from the survey questionnaire were averaged. The ranking on the flipped classroom features and
activities from the most preferred to the least preferred ones was determined and explained using
students’ explanations. To determine students’ viewpoints on the benefits, challenges, and
limitations in learning in a flipped writing class, the FGD data was transcribed, codified, and
thematized, and was used to substantiate, support, and triangulate the findings in the study.

Results and Discussion

Students’ Preferred Flipped Learning Activities
After four months of flipped learning in the academic writing class, the students provided their
feedback about the different activities that they performed inside and outside of the classroom. The
students ranked the activities from their most preferred to their least preferred ones and provided
explanations about their choices. The summary and details of the five most preferred activities by
the students are shown in the following table.

Table 1. Students’ preferred activities

Activities Average Rank

Writing an essay using the Process Approach 3.59 1
Consultation or mini-conference with the teacher 3.82 2
Viewing pre-class video lectures 4.06 3
Ten to fifteen minutes of in-class discussion prior to activities 4.47 4
Answering pre-class worksheets or quizzes 4.65 5

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Table 1 presents students’ preferred activities in the academic writing flipped learning. As
can be seen from the table, the most preferred activity by the students is writing an essay using the
Process Approach (Nunan, 1991) with an average of 3.59. According to the students, writing their
essay using the Process Approach was on top of their choices due to a number of reasons: It
developed their organization skills, promoted their writing confidence, and enhanced their writing
skills. According to them, writing their essays using the Process Approach helped them to be more
organized with their ideas.Writing an essay using such approach was systematic; it also engaged
them actively from the brainstorming to the writing of the draft and to the peer feedback phase.
For instance, the series of revisions that the students made after receiving peer feedback and
teacher feedback allowed them to refine their essays. Consequently, their essays became more
structured and substantive. In addition, students reported that this activity also promoted their
confidence in writing. Going through the different stages of composing an essay such as
brainstorming, outlining, drafting, revising, editing, and giving and receiving feedback on their
work before coming up with the final version have developed their confidence. Although students
mentioned that it was time consuming, repeatedly going through the different stages of the Process
Approach provided them greater time to practice different writing skills. They commented that
they became more confident in writing thesis statement, and they became familiar with the
conventions of citing sources correctly using the APA citation guidelines, as well as they became
mindful in observing coherence in presenting their arguments. This finding shows that the different
activities inside the classroom such as discussion, brainstorming and rewriting coupled with the
guidance of the teacher and feedback from peers were important factors that may have led to the
development of students’ writing skills and confidence in composing. Through the Process
Approach, students could see their individual mistakes as they obtain immediate response from
their peers or teacher and more importantly, all the comments reached out to students themselves
and not just their writing (Papilaya, 2018). As a result, they figured out what was needed to be
improved, as the teacher facilitated revision and improvement through providing comments.
Another activity preferred by the students was having consultation or mini-conference with
the teacher. Having mini-conferences with the teacher appears to be favored by the students, as it
made them feel empowered, cultivated supportive environment, established rapport between them
and their teacher and increased student-teacher collaboration. According to the students, the mini-
conferences between them and their teacher made them feel empowered because it afforded them
opportunities to consult with the teacher and ask questions openly, get individualized
advice pertaining to their writing development, and have an immediate access to an expert
whenever they needed it most. Supportive writing environment was also cultivated which made
the students more engaged and motivated to further improve their writing skills. This finding
echoes some authors’ observation (Ellis, 2009; Bayraktar, 2012) delineating the usefulness of
mini-conferences as an essential part of the students’ writing process as it gives affective support
among the learners and motivates them to continue learning.
Aside from conducting consultation or mini-conference with the teacher, the students also
preferred viewing pre-class video lectures, which they ranked as third with an average of 4.06.
Responses from the students show that they favored this activity for some reasons: first, it allowed
them to preview the lessons and to study in advance; second, it gave them some sense of ‘control’
on the lesson because they could play, pause, and replay video lectures whenever they felt the need
to do so; and finally, it provided them flexibility in learning. These findings reveal that the flipped

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classroom setup facilitates educational preparation, which students recognized to be important as

they could preview lessons to be tackled in the class, making them prepared and ready to engage
in learning. Hence, students felt confident in attending their class because viewing the lecture
videos at home provided them knowledge about the lesson, allowing them to be prepared to work
on activities inside the classroom. In the same manner, students considered this activity beneficial
because they had the chance to preview and review the key points of the lesson using their gadgets
whenever and wherever they felt the need to do it. As a result, they had a better understanding
about the lesson because they viewed the lecture videos repeatedly until they thoroughly
understood it. This shows that the pause, rewind, and replay features of the lecture videos allowed
them to learn at their own pace, place, and space. It allowed them to go through the lessons at their
own speed. When they were having trouble understanding the lesson, they just paused and
reviewed the videos. They also slowed down the pace and watched the lecture videos numerous
times, which is not possible with a teacher-led in-class direct instruction. When direct instruction
is delivered in class, some students need the teacher to slow down, but doing so would leave others
restless and potentially disruptive (Caicco, 2016). Furthermore, students also liked this activity
because they learned in a more flexible way. They appreciated the flexibility that was afforded by
the flipped learning, as it allowed them to choose how and when they receive direct instruction.
Furthermore, students who had processing issues watched the videos many times until they had
thoroughly understood the lesson material. However, despite the students’ positive feedback on
watching pre-class video lectures, some of them reported a number of technological challenges
that they encountered, which include Internet connectivity and bandwidth issues.
The fourth most preferred activity by the students is having 10-15-minute in-class
discussion prior to hands-on activities. Students’ comments suggest that it was a useful activity for
them because it allowed them to review the major ideas in the video lectures, and it provided them
opportunity to clarify points and to raise lesson-related questions to the teacher. Furthermore,
students reported that the short in-class discussions gave them a chance to engage in a meaningful
clarificatory talks about the topics in the video lectures. It also assessed their understanding of the
important concepts in the video lectures, which was important in performing the hands-on and
practical activities in the class. Students also mentioned that since they viewed the video lectures
individually without the presence of the teacher, some students might have interpreted parts of the
videos differently. Through the lightning discussions, students had the chance to correct
misinterpretations and clarify unclear parts of the video lectures. Consequently, mistakes
committed by the students during hands-on activities may have been reduced because it gave the
teacher time to provide specific instructions and clarifications on the activity guidelines to be
followed by the students.
The fifth most preferred activity by the students was answering pre-class worksheets or
quizzes, with an average of 4.65. Students’ responses revealed that they viewed this activity as a
means to evaluate their comprehension of the video lectures. They considered the pre-class
worksheets as helpful tools to check their understanding of the content delivered prior to class. It
gave them idea on what they had already understood and what they still needed to revisit. This
finding corroborates Brame’s (2013) observation that assessments on materials allow students to
gauge their own understanding of materials and allows them to see what items need more of their
focus. Students also reported that the pre-class worksheets facilitated autonomy of their learning.
Since completing the worksheets took place without the immediate intervention of the teacher,

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they needed to be proactive and motivated in setting and fulfilling objectives. They mentioned that
if there were parts of the learning materials that were unclear to them, they took the initiative to
conduct additional reading and research to answer the questions in the pre-class worksheets
correctly. In addition, answering the pre-class worksheets also helped them prepare for the
upcoming lessons in the class, as this task reinforced students’ understanding of content that
supported in-class activities and improved students’ engagement during class. However, while
some students viewed this activity to be advantageous, some of them expressed concerns about it.
They stated that answering pre-class worksheets was time-consuming, and that it only added to
the many tasks they needed to complete during the semester. This implies the importance of the
teacher’s role in explaining the significance of this activity to the students and in making them
understand their active role in their learning journey. Students must see it as an essential stage in
preparing them for deeper exploration of the subject content and application of their knowledge
and skills inside the classroom.

Students’ Perceptions on the Features of Flipped Learning

After four months of flipped learning in the academic writing class, the students listed their
preferred features of the flipped classroom. They were also asked to rank these features based on
their most preferred to their least preferred ones. Table 2 presents the summary of these findings.

Table 2. Preferred features of the flipped classroom by the students

Flipped Classroom Features Average Rank
The teacher spends more time in lessons coaching and facilitating 3.88 1
learning and less time providing whole class instruction and
demonstration
There is learning that involves the use of digital technology such as 4.71 2
videos, to provide direct instruction on new concepts outside the
classroom.
The teacher gives immediate feedback to the students’ outputs. 4.88 3.5
The teacher always makes himself available to all students for 4.88 3.5
individual or group consultation.
The class time is spent on hands-on activities rather than the 5.24 5
traditional lecture type.
The students are allowed to engage in meaningful activities without 5.41 6
the teacher being central.
Homework time is typically used to prepare for lessons through 5.47 7
students watching online instructional videos and presentations on
a particular topic prior to lessons
The teacher is flexible in his expectations on the academic progress of
the students. 5.76 8
Students receive feedback not only from the teacher but also from 7.24 9
their classmates or peers.
Students have the chance to interact online with the teacher and other 7.67 10
students through the class Facebook group.

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The positive and negative outcomes gained by the students based on their experiences on
each of the identified features of flipped classroom were identified. The summary and details of
these findings are shown in each of the following tables.

Table 3. Teacher spending greater time in lesson coaching and facilitating learning and less time
providing whole class instruction and demonstration

Perceived effects f
Enhanced learning 7
Improved written outputs 5
Autonomous learning 3
Deepened student-teacher relationship 2

Table 3 shows students’ perceptions on the features of flipped learning where the teacher
spent greater time in lesson coaching and facilitating learning and less time providing whole class
instruction and demonstration. Based on students’ responses, the most important benefit that they
gained from this feature was learning enhancement. This benefit was attributed by the students to
the guidance and instructions they received from the teacher during coaching sessions. Students
commented that their learning enhanced due to the constant monitoring accompanied by feedback
and personalized instruction provided by the teacher during coaching sessions. Aside from this
benefit, students also believed that this feature of flipped learning helped them enhance their
written outputs. Since they were allowed to ask questions freely and clarify information with the
teacher, they felt thoroughly guided during the writing activities. According to them, the time spent
during hands-on activities and the sufficient time rendered by the teacher to answer questions were
crucial for their production of better written outputs. Furthermore, this feature was beneficial as it
promoted autonomous learning for the students. Although the teacher spent greater time in
coaching and monitoring students’ work during activities, they were still given freedom to act and
learn on their own. Students were given chance to interpret concepts and ideas with the teacher
ready to aid and help them, particularly when they did not understand portions of the lesson.
Consequently, although the teacher acted like a coach during activities, the students did not
become dependent on the teacher. The teacher’s comments on students’ tasks were formative
feedback about their work; hence, the students still had their autonomy to direct their work. In
addition, this feature was also beneficial among students because it created a better relationship
with their teacher. With the greater time the teacher spent on interacting with the students through
lesson coaching and facilitating learning, they built a more comfortable relationship. Thus,
students were more encouraged to learn. As students felt comfortable with the teacher, it was easier
for them to ask questions and raise concerns. This classroom may lead to a healthy, proactive, and
responsive relationship between the teacher and students, which is an important element for
students’ learning.

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Table 4. Using digital technology such as videos to provide direct instruction on new concepts
outside the classroom

Perceived effects F
Learning flexibility 8
Failed to watch lecture videos due to weak Internet connectivity 7
Better understanding of lessons 4
Greater familiarization of essay writing conventions 3
Productive and meaningful time at home 3

Table 4 deals with students’ perceptions on the feature of flipped learning where digital
technology was utilized to deliver direct instruction on new concepts outside of the classroom. In
this feature, the teacher preloaded content-based lectures in the form of instructional videos before
students attended class. These preloaded instructional videos aimed to introduce the students a
specific lesson, as part of the lecture of the teacher, serving as a stimulus to group or whole-class
discussion, as chance for them to work at their own pace, and as a review or extension activity
(Eady & Lockyer, 2013).
Employing this feature of flipped learning brought various benefits among the students.
One is the flexibility of learning for the students. Students reported that this feature made them in
control of their learning. They watched the lecture videos as often as they liked, rewinding or
pausing them whenever necessary, until they acquired a better understanding of the lessons. This
finding corroborates with Lazareva’s (2015) observation that having an asynchronous learning can
help overcome the short attention span of students and promote better understanding and
remembering of the materials by the students. Students also mentioned that the content of the
videos were of great help in their writing because they had the chance to study the different
examples repeatedly, including the techniques and strategies of writing provided by the video
lectures. Since they can view the sample essays repeatedly, they acquired greater familiarization
of different essay writing conventions. The use of technology in this feature also gave learning
convenience among the students by accessing the lecture videos through their devices. It freed
them from carrying heavy books and other learning materials. Furthermore, this feature made
students’ time at home more meaningful and productive. Instead of spending their time
unnecessarily in different social media platforms, they watched instructional videos and learned
something new.
However, despite the general positive feedback from the students on the use of digital
technology, a major concern pointed to the lack of Internet access at home or weak Internet
connectivity. There were times when they had a hard time viewing the videos due to unreliable
Internet access. Some students also reported that they would spend longer time to complete
watching even a seven-minute video, which caused delays in learning and inconveniences.
Consequently, there were times when they missed watching the video lectures or failed to watch
them completely due to bandwidth problems.

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Table 5. Teacher giving immediate feedback to the students’ outputs

Perceived effects f
Improved writing performance 11
Greater motivation to produce better written outputs 2
Conserved time 2

Table 5 presents students’ perceptions on the feature of flipped learning where the teacher
consistently provided immediate feedback to students’ outputs. Employing this feature in a flipped
learning classroom brought various benefits among the students. As shown in the table, the major
benefit that the students received was a more improved writing performance. Students reported
that the written feedback provided by the teacher on their compositions helped them discover the
aspects of their writing that needed improvement. The specific written feedback from the teacher
served as guide to improve their essays. In addition, students also commented that the written
feedback of the teacher motivated them to produce better outputs. They explained that the
immediacy and centeredness of the feedback on the task were important factors on their
motivation. This finding is supported by Ellis’s (2009) conjecture underscoring the usefulness of
corrective feedback as it fosters learner motivation and ensures linguistic accuracy. Another
benefit evident on students’ responses in employing this feature was the greater opportunity it
afforded them to communicate with their teacher, which made them feel more interested to learn.
They reported that when they see the effort and willingness of the teacher to spend time listening
and exchanging ideas with them, they felt more encouraged to learn to write good essays and
develop greater interest in writing. Students also believed that the immediate feedback conserved
their time. Since they already had an idea on what part of their essays needed further revisions
based on the feedback of the teacher, they just directed their focus on revising rather than looking
for parts that needed further revisions. This helped them manage their tasks and avoid classroom
requirements to pile up.

Table 6. Teacher always making himself available to all students for individual or group
consultation

Perceived effects F
Fully and consistently addressed strengths and weaknesses of 12
students
More empowered students 2
Deepened relationship between the teacher and his students 2

Table 6 shows students’ perceptions on the feature of flipped learning where the teacher
always made himself available to all students for individual or group consultation. In this feature,
the students were allowed to approach or engage with the teacher for consultation during writing
activities or even outside the classroom through face-to-face consultation in the faculty room.
Employing this feature, students cited a number of benefits. One benefit is the feeling that their
strengths and weaknesses were addressed more consistently and fully. Students reported that they
had longer time to understand lessons through the guidance and advice of their teacher inside the

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classroom because the teacher was always willing to have consultation. This suggests that although
necessary learning materials were already provided among the students, the guidance of the teacher
was still very crucial. Students also commented that this provided them some sense of
empowerment. The willingness of the teacher to accommodate questions and concerns made them
feel comfortable at consulting their teacher. They explained that passive learning was reduced
when they were heard and accommodated openly. They became more confident to ask questions
which privileged their voice and facilitated agency in the learning process. Furthermore, as
aforementioned, students claimed that through consultations, the connection between them and
their teacher deepened; hence, the teacher had the chance to know them better. This implies that
student-teacher relationship is connected to learning. The longer the time a teacher spends among
students, the more he understands his students. Positively, the teacher can determine appropriate
approach for students, which can be associated to the improvement of their outputs.

Table 7. Spending class time on hands-on activities rather than the traditional lecture type

Perceived effects F
Reduced boredom inside the classroom 6
Enhanced learning 5
Increased productivity 4
Time-consuming 1
Tiring 1

Table 7 deals with students’ perceptions on the feature of flipped learning where the class
time was spent to hands-on activities rather than the traditional lecture type. In the traditional
classroom, students complete handouts, sit through lectures and take endless notes, whereas in this
feature of flipped classroom, class time was spent on hands-on activities. After employing this
feature in the flipped learning class, students reported several benefits. One benefit cited by the
students is reduction of boredom inside the classroom. They explained that they preferred a
classroom setting where they were challenged to think and perform rather than just sit and listen
passively to lengthy lectures of the teacher. They also acknowledged the hands-on activities to be
the source of greater learning than class lecture. They linked greater learning and enhancement of
knowledge through hands-on activities because the activities helped them discover their mistakes
and correct them eventually. The hands-on activities such as creating outlines and composing
essays helped them identify whether they had acquired the competencies expected of them in every
writing lesson. They used the quality of their written outputs in the hands-on activities as basis and
assurance of their writing skill improvement. Furthermore, students also felt energized in this kind
of set-up and they thought that their writing productivity increased because they had longer time
for hands-on activities inside the classroom to produce more outputs.
However, while hands-on activities may be beneficial to student learning, some students
suggested that it must be complemented with some discussions as performing hands-on activities
several time could also tire them and consume their class-time. They suggested that it should not
always be hands-on activities inside the classroom. It must be a combination of discussion and
hands-on activities. Nevertheless, even though some students considered the hands-on activities
tiring and time consuming, they noted that the learning was worth it.

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Table 8. Engaging students in meaningful activities without the teacher being central

Perceived effects f
Empowered learning 11
Confusion 3
Decreased productivity 2
Greater opportunity to understand lesson 1
Enhanced critical thinking 1
Active collaboration 1
Improved communication and leadership skills 1

Table 8 presents students’ perceptions of the feature the flipped learning where students
engaged in meaningful classroom activities without the teacher being central. In this feature,
student-centered learning approach was utilized. This means that the teacher moved from
conveying information towards facilitating students’ personal discovery through discussion,
consultation and mentoring. The teacher acted as a facilitator of learning and not simply as a
provider of knowledge. Through this, the students were exposed to classroom interactions,
cooperative learning activities, and hands-on projects.
As can be seen from the table, one benefit of this feature based on students’ responses is
empowerment. It allowed them to take control and responsibility of their own learning with
teacher’s guidance. The students reported that the different learning activities provided them the
opportunity to understand lessons personally without the teacher constantly directing them to do
things. This suggests that the move from being teacher-centered to student-centered in the
classroom set-up may facilitate student control of their learning and may provide opportunities for
the students to digest and understand lessons at their own pace. As a result, students felt
empowered to take charge of their own learning. They were encouraged to explore learning
independently and take greater responsibility of their own learning. Another advantage shared by
the students was the enhancement of their critical thinking skills. Students learned to work and
think beyond what the teacher provided; hence, it made them think critically during activities.
Aside from developing the critical thinking of students, this feature also promoted collaboration
and social interaction among students. The different collaborative activities allowed students to
interact with their classmates and acquired familiarity with each other. As Hedge (2000)
emphasized, one important factor for the learners to produce comprehensible output is interaction
because it allows the students to practice their language inside the classroom. This language acts
as input for other students; therefore, in language learning, group work has an important role as it
facilitates language input and output among learners. Furthermore, this feature of flipped
classroom gave the students the chance to practice their communication, and leadership skills,
supporting Taous and Samira’s (2013) claim that classroom interactions assigned to students play
an important role in developing students’ holistic language skills, as it facilitates peer-to-peer
engagements. Furthermore, the different collaborative writing activities allowed the students to
practice their leadership skills, because in mini-group tasks, students take control in leading and
directing their teams in accomplishing certain tasks. Bisland (2004) posited that developing
leadership among students involves providing students chance to practice leadership skills in a

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supportive, learning and social environment. This means that both “successes” and “errors” of
students are processed and reviewed.
However, despite the benefits seen by the students in this feature, some of them thought
that it might create confusion because students working in a group were coming from different
perspectives and interpretations. This suggests that the role of the teacher as a facilitator and
consultant is very important. Continuous monitoring by the teacher is crucial to avoid confusion
among the students. The teacher could ask the students if instructions are clear and if they have
concerns before proceeding to the tasks. Students could also be encouraged to raise questions
whenever they feel confused. Another concern mentioned was the less productivity that it might
cause among students because instead of concentrating on the activity, they might discuss things
beyond the topic. Therefore, the students must be constantly reminded that they need to accomplish
a task, achieve a certain objective, and perform their roles actively.

Table 9. Homework time is typically used to prepare for lessons through students watching
online instructional videos and presentations on a particular topic prior to lessons

Perceived effects f
Confidence to perform in-class activities 10
More flexible learning 6
Lack of Internet connection 4
Time-consuming 3
Greater time management requirement 2

Table 9 shows students’ perceptions on the feature of flipped learning where homework
time was used to prepare for lessons through students watching online instructional videos and
presentations on a particular topic prior to lessons. In this feature, students were expected to have
already completed pre-class tasks prior to attending the class. They were assigned to watch video
lectures that typically ranged from seven to ten minutes covering a particular topic on academic
writing. Aside from video lectures, students were also provided handouts and PowerPoint
presentations as supplemental reading materials. Students were also assigned to answer worksheets
related to the video lectures in order to assess their understanding of the topics. Furthermore,
students were encouraged to prepare questions to clarify misconceptions they may have had about
the lectures. All these pre-class activities were given to the students in preparation for deeper
understanding of topics in class.
Students reported varied responses about this feature in the flipped classroom. Generally,
students noted that the pre-class activities encouraged them to study in advance, making them
prepared for classroom discussions and interactions. Because students have watched the video
lectures and completed the pre-class tasks related to the lectures, they felt ready to attend the class.
They were confident to perform writing activities and interact with other students because they
had already understood foundational concepts necessary in performing those activities. Students
also liked the openness and flexibility afforded by this feature, as it gave them flexible time to
study because they were able to access the video lectures at their own time and pace. The flexibility
of studying provided by this feature was advantageous among the students because they had the
freedom to choose the time and place to learn with the video lectures. Hence, students reported

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that they acquired better understanding of the lesson since they can replay and pause the video
lectures, which they cannot do with the teacher in the traditional lecture setting.
However, despite the positive feedback of the students pertaining this feature, students raised
issues on technological limitations Some of them experienced weak internet connection, which
affected their downloading and viewing of the videos. Consequently, they spent greater time in
accessing the video lectures, which was time-consuming, causing delays and interruptions in doing
their chores and accomplishing other subjects’ assignments.

Table 10. The teacher is flexible in his expectations on the academic progress of the students

Perceived effects f
Reduced learning anxiety 14
Motivated to learn 3
High expectations are more preferable 1

Table 10 deals with students’ perceptions in the flipped learning feature where the teacher
showed flexibility in his expectations of student timelines for learning. With this feature, students
reported various benefits. The flexible expectations of the teacher among the students reduced
pressure and stress. Consequently, students felt more appreciated and considered the classroom as
a nurturing learning place that promoted meaningful learning. This illustrates that when students
are less pressured and stressed inside the classroom, they consider learning to be more meaningful
because they do not need to pretend as if they have already understood everything. This is
supported by Krashen’s Affective Filter hypothesis (1981), which suggests that low-level anxiety
may facilitate learning among students because it can enhance their motivation and self-confidence
and reduce their stress. The students also reported that this feature increased their participation
inside the classroom, allowing them to comfortably express themselves. Students felt encouraged
to participate because they felt that the teacher considered individual differences. Also, students
commented that the continuous monitoring of their teacher about their writing performance made
them feel more understood. They felt that the teacher had a better understanding on their strengths
and weaknesses in writing. In addition, the flexible expectations of the teacher among the students
made them feel the objective treatment of the teacher among them. It made them feel that they had
the equal chance to learn and to grow in the classroom.
However, despite the various benefits students experienced through the flexibility of
expectations of the teacher, one student admitted that she still preferred high expectations from
teachers. She mentioned that high expectations can increase her motivation to perform excellent
work and produce better compositions.

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Table 11. Students receive feedback not only from the teacher but also from their classmates or
peers

Perceived effects f
Developed open-mindedness in accepting criticisms 11
Improved written outputs 6
Peer feedback activity not taken seriously by some students 3
Increased confidence in writing an essay 1
Embarrassed in receiving negative feedback on written outputs 1

Table 11 presents students’ perceptions on the flipped learning feature where students
received feedback not only from the teacher but also from their classmates or peers. In this feature,
peer feedback was done in pairs and small groups. The students composed their essays following
the Process Approach in writing (Nunan, 1991). When students were finished writing their drafts,
they engaged in peer feedback sessions, where they exchanged their essays with their classmates
for reading and commenting following a rubric.
Students’ responses on this activity showed advantages and disadvantages of doing peer
feedback. One of the advantages mentioned was the opportunity to write better. Students reported
that the feedback they received from their peers aside from the feedback of the teacher exposed
them to various comments and suggestions, as it presented them different choices on improving
their essays. Students commented that the peer feedback induced some sense of awareness for an
audience among them and opened an opportunity to determine how their peers viewed their work
as reflected in the evaluation of their essays. The feedback students received from their peers was
considered a validation of their work, rendering them a chance to refine and polish their written
outputs. Furthermore, this feature also helped the students to develop open-mindedness, as it
provided them the opportunity to give and receive feedback with their classmates. Students also
cited that peer feedback could complement with teacher feedback, as their peers may have seen
elements that their teacher has missed due to the bulk of essays to be checked. This finding suggests
that engaging students in peer feedback may help improve their writing, as they become aware of
the evaluation criteria and how they can write effectively following the conventions. In addition
to the above findings, students commented that this feature also increased their confidence to write,
since their work had already undergone a number of revisions not only based on the expertise of
the teacher but also on the helpful evaluation of their peers.
While there may have some advantages about this feature, one concern raised was that
some students did not take the peer feedback activity seriously. Some students did not give
meaningful feedback to their classmates’ essays. Some even made fun of providing feedback. In
addition, some students admitted that they were not used to giving and receiving peer feedback.
They felt embarrassed whenever they receive negative feedback from their peers and just preferred
to have teacher feedback.
This finding implicates how the teacher in a flipped classroom should implement and
monitor peer feedback. The teacher may identify the reasons why some students do not provide
meaningful feedback. These reasons may include lack of skills in giving feedback and lack of
knowledge about what constitutes a meaningful feedback. The teacher may discuss again with the

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students the elements of rubric used in the class, demonstrate how to provide constructive
feedback, and provide clear and stricter guidelines in doing peer feedback.

Table 12. Students have the chance to interact online with the teacher and other students through
the class Facebook group

Perceived effects f
Allowed open communication 12
More accessible learning materials and important class updates 4
Missed activities and updates due to lack of Internet access 3
Unavailability of the teacher and peers online 1
Social media dependence and interference 1

Table 12 shows students’ perceptions on flipped learning feature where they were given a
chance to interact online with the teacher and other students through the class’ Facebook group. In
this feature, a closed Facebook group was created, which served as a class convener. It was where
the video lectures were uploaded for viewing or downloading by the students. Handouts,
supplemental reading materials, online activities, announcements, updates, and schedules were
also posted on the group. The group was used by the students to communicate with their teacher
and classmates outside the classroom.
Students’ responses on using Facebook as a class convener revealed some advantages. One
benefit cited by the students pointed to the open communication between the teacher and students.
The class’ Facebook group facilitated student-teacher and student-student communication. As
students freely interacted with their teacher and their peers, outside the classroom, it also served
as a virtual classroom extension that complemented the face-to-face class interaction. Another
useful function of the Facebook group was the accessibility of learning materials. Since Facebook
can be accessed anytime and anywhere through Internet-connected devices such as mobile phones,
tablets, laptops, or desktops, communication with the teacher and other students was always
possible, facilitating mobile learning that is always on-the-go. This feature also allowed students
to be updated with the lessons, even if they were absent from the class. Students only needed to
log in their Facebook account and visit the class Facebook group to be updated with class
announcements.
However, despite positive feedback regarding this feature, students mentioned some
challenges in using the class’ Facebook group. One of these was the lack of internet connection at
home or outside the campus that resulted to missed activities and announcements. Another
challenge was the availability of the teacher and their peers online, since connection among the
teacher and students occurred asynchronously only; hence, the teacher may not be always available
for questions or consultation. Using Facebook group might also make students dependent on social
media, which may distract students from viewing the video lectures, diverting their time to do
other things instead such as chatting with their friends or browsing through their Facebook
newsfeeds.
In summary, although a number of challenges were mentioned by the students about this
feature, the role of technology such as social media platforms in facilitating classes cannot be
totally dismissed, as there are always pros and cons in every classroom choice. It implicates

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educators to plan carefully the effective delivery of the curriculum with technology integration
vis-à-vis in-class face-to-face classroom.

Conclusion
This study explored the pedagogical viability of implementing a flipped learning approach in the
teaching of academic writing in the higher education context. In particular, it explored students’
experiences to unravel their views that aim to identify their preferences and perspectives as regards
the flipped learning classroom activities and features. In terms of flipped learning activities, the
three most preferred by the students include the use of the process approach (Flower & Hayes,
1980; Hayes, 1996; Richards, 2002) in composing different types of academic essays,
consultations or mini-conferences with the teacher, and viewing of pre-class video lectures at
home. As regards the features of flipped learning, the following ranked the highest from the
students: the teacher giving more time in coaching or facilitating learning and less time doing
whole-class instruction; the use of digital technology such as videos in delivering lectures; and the
teacher giving students immediate feedback on their written outputs. These findings, while limited
in sample and coverage, suggest students’ preference for a facilitative, consultative, and engaging
teaching style which uses a systematic approach to teaching writing. Such style requires time for
student-teacher interaction, which in turn is compensated by the flipped learning approach that
allows students to access, view, and study the lessons in advance. Hence, as students responsibly
and religiously use their time to learn lessons outside, more quality time for teaching and learning
are afforded inside the classroom. Technology may not be the ultimate solution; rather, it may pave
the way for a more meaningful and effective education. The teacher ultimately possesses the
paramount role to rethink and redefine his pedagogical decisions and to subscribe to approaches
that are appropriate for his context and classroom.
Some limitations of this study must be noted. First, this study was conducted with a small
group of class comprised of only seventeen students in a private university setting in an academic
writing class. Hence, the findings of this study may limit their external validity to other contexts,
course subjects, populations, and settings. Second, the point of inquiry was only about students’
preferences in terms of activities and features of the flipped learning as implemented in a writing
class; thus, it may have limited its scope to other factors such as students’ writing skills involving
grammatical and vocabulary skills, writing styles, and the involvement of other macro skills such
as listening and viewing skills. Lastly, the videos used in this study were only curated from an
existing academic writing online course, so it may also have limited the findings as compared to
the use of teacher-created video lectures. Future studies may look into the viability of the flipped-
classroom model as applied in bigger classes, with different course subjects, in both public
and private school settings. Researchers may also take into account other factors such as
technology readiness of the students, as well as their linguistic abilities and writing styles. Teachers
may also create their own personalized video lectures following existing course curriculum and
syllabi and upload them in a school-based learning management system that is accessible to the
students anytime and anywhere.
Finally, it is hoped that the findings of this study on the use of the flipped-learning model
inspire educators to explore new pathways for teaching and learning and inform their pedagogical
decisions and practices for their students. The contemporary times present us new-normal

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conditions as the new realities. The real educator embraces the status quo, sees and seize
opportunities, adapts to changes, takes chances, and propels forward positively.

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The Use of Blended Learning System in Teaching Language

Ma. Claire M. Guevara*

Jose Rizal University, Mandaluyong City, Philippines

Abstract
This study aims to attain the following objectives: determine the impact of Blended Language
Learning System in the academic performance of the pupils, distinguish factors that affect the
usage of Blended Language Learning System or BLLS implementation, identify its advantages
and disadvantages and know teachers’ perceptions regarding the new pedagogy in teaching
Language. Based on the findings, the researcher derived the following conclusions; technology
integration improves pupil motivation, Blended Language Learning System has found to be
effective as reflected in the level of academic performance of the pupils. It does fit the need of the
digital natives in learning language, the pupils’ grades prior and after BLLS had a significant
difference with regard the influence of the said system in the pupils’ English language learning.
BLLS helped significantly in improving the pupils’ performance in learning language. Language
Teachers regarded blended learning as advantageous to the school, pupils, teachers, and parents.
They strongly agree that technology integration improves pupil motivation. In lieu of the findings
of the study, the researcher recommended the institutionalization of BLLS with the consideration
of the three aspects- technical, administrative and academic. The collaboration of the said aspects
would enhance BLLS and would result to quality education.

Keywords: Blended Language Learning System, pedagogy, technology integration,

institutionalization

Introduction
Learners breathe in this world where computers and other gadgets reign. Children are more
knowledgeable of internet games than of traditional games such as hide and seek, touch base and
jump-over-the-cow. Today’s learners, who are now called as digital natives, prefer to have a gadget
in hand than a printed book. The rating of library research has decreased while the rating of internet
research has gone-up fast. That’s why Google.com is on top in the list of “Most Visited Websites
in the World 2015” according to http://www.insidermonkey.com. Digital learners around the
globe have manifested their great desire of integrating the use of internet in the current teaching
approaches. Thus, Blended courses or learning have sprouted like mushrooms in different
countries including the Philippines.

*[email protected]

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While the concept of blended learning has probably been around since the beginning of
Instructional Design, the term was not coined until the late nineties. The earliest reference that was
located was a press release on March 5, 1999, in which Interactive Learning Centers announces a
name change to EPIC Learning. The article reads in part, “The Company currently operates 220
on-line courses, but will begin offering its Internet courseware using the company’s Blended
Learning methodology” (PR Newswire). Because e-learning did not turn out to be silver bullet that
many of its proponents were hacking it to be, they needed another silver bullet to add to it, thus
the concept of blended learning. However, blended learning is probably the closest thing we have
to a silver bullet.
Driscoll (2002) defines blended learning as “to combine any form of instructional
technology; such as interactive activities, web-based training, network portals, with face-to-face
instructor-led training. Blended Learning is the use of two or more distinct methods of teaching. It
may include combinations such as:
• blending classroom instruction with online instruction
• blending online instruction with access to a faculty member
• blending simulations with structured courses
• blending textbook with interactive activities through network portals
In the Philippines, the first blended learning center was spearheaded by Joanne Tupas-
Parsons in Cubao back in 2007. Although, Parsons has put a twist in the concept of blended
learning approach, where their centers effectively combines classroom and home schooling, her
idea of blending the best of many worlds: the home – where pupils learn values, get their sense of
self, build their foundation – and the school – where the core subjects are taught, paved way to
different blending learning system. School administrators and educators have noticed the
effectiveness of such approach.
Currently, several teachers are employing BL, which enable them to face challenges at the
same time take advantage of the stimulating new learning opportunities that are now accessible.
As a consequence, these educators are encouraged to develop their instructional competence by
using blended learning, which they found to be effective, affordable, and cost-effective. Other
studies have likewise found that people choose BL for three reasons: enhanced pedagogy, better
access and flexibility, and amplified cost-effectiveness (Graham, Allen & Ure 2005).
This study aims to attain the following objectives: determine the impact of Blended
Language Learning System in the academic performance of the pupils, distinguish factors that
affect the usage of Blended Language Learning System implementation, identify its advantages
and disadvantages and know teachers’ perceptions regarding the new pedagogy in teaching
Language.

Background of the Study

Filipino learners of English face tough challenges in learning the language. Current teaching
methods can be boring for 21st-century learners. This realization has served as an stimulus in the
minds of the English Language teachers to develop Blended Language Learning System or BLLS
which comprehensively develops language competencies and 21st-century skills and it combines
tried and tested methods with current teaching practices and technological advancements,
delivering the best theory and practice to the learners.

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Each language teacher was handed the evaluation copy of their textbook according to their
grade level. Each was also given a username and password to access interactive games and
educational resources online. The following comments were acquired; this modality or system
deserves further exploration, it inculcates varied skills that would be useful for the pupils in the
future, it provides teaching resources that are helpful to educators and it adds enjoyment to
learning. Among these observations, one vital evaluation was made, the Blended Language
Learning System is aligned with our institution’s vision- JRU will be a market leader in the use of
technology in teaching and learning to produce graduates of social importance. With the vision in
mind, teachers as well as pupils will be more motivated in developing the five macro skills-
reading, speaking, listening, writing, and viewing. This way, no particular skill gets left behind.
In today’s fast-paced world, teachers often struggle to keep students engaged inside the
classroom thus requiring the use of various materials and techniques to develop target
competencies. There is a need for educators who are known as digital immigrants, while learners
are digital natives, to be flexible and develop teaching styles that would fit into the learning styles
of the pupils. With the use of Blended Language Learning System, English language teachers are
expected to produce effective communicators who can understand and produce meaningful
discourse while enjoying rich and vibrant learning experience.

Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of Blended Learning System illustrated below is anchored on the four
philosophies of education. Based on Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning, where dogs salivate
when he rang a bell, a pupil gets excited once his or her teacher tells them that they are going to
do an interactive activity. Pavlov was one of the major proponents of Behaviorism. Another major
theme in the theoretical framework is the Constructivism of Bruner, he stated that learning is an
active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past
knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes
decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure provides meaning and
organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given". As
far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to discover
principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialogue. Bruner's
constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of cognition
which leads to Cognitivism. Jean Piaget was one of the most influential cognitive psychologists.
Piaget did many experiments on children’s way of thinking and concluded that human beings go
through several distinct stages of cognitive development. Each stage involves the acquisition of
new skills and rest upon the successful completion of the preceding one. Essentialism, on the other
hand, refers to the "traditional" or "Back to the Basics" approach to education. It is so named
because it strives to instill students with the "essentials" of academic knowledge and character
development. The term essentialism as an educational philosophy was originally popularized in
the 1930s by the American educator William Bagley (1946). Essentialists believe that the
intellectual disciplines are the necessary foundations of modern life. The aforementioned
philosophies have become the bases for the foundation of Blended Learning System. Integrating
them make Blended Learning System effective.

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While, on the other hand, Blended Language Learning System includes three core features that
ensure comprehensive, relevant, and engaging learning. It is a structured program based on a spiral
curriculum, therefore it is aligned with what is written in Republic Act 10533 or The Act
Enhancing the Philippine Basic Education System which states that curriculum shall use the spiral
progression approach to ensure mastery of knowledge and skills after each level. It is designed to
increase in complexity and depth as learners go up a grade level, specifically facilitating and
challenging learners’ mastery of the language competencies, as well as the book’s scope and
sequence are all aligned with the new K-12 standards by the DepEd. One of the salient features of
K-12 according to http://www.gov.ph/k-12/ is Nurturing the Holistically Developed Filipino where
every learner will be equipped with a) Information, media and technology skills, b)Learning and
innovation skills, c) Effective communication skills, and d)Life and career skills. Every pupil will
be armed with 21st-century skills and that is where BLLS in teaching language fit.

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Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of this study guided the researcher into understanding relationships
between change in tools and teaching practices. It also shows possible effects of Blended Language
Learning System before, during and after its adaptation in JRU’s Elementary School Division.
This school year, a combination of traditional learning and digital learning was experienced among
first to sixth graders. The tools of effectiveness were measured based on the following; Quarterly
Grade results, Learning Competencies were achieved and the improvement of their skills
manifested in their classwork grades (CW).

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Implementing a blended learning initiative was a significant undertaking; it has brought

transformation not only in the English Department but to the whole division as well. A critical
element to the blended learning concept is that it is learner’s skill-centered. Therefore, pupils
became more challenged, motivated and driven which produce several benefits such as:
1) The potential to manage instructional and facility resources more efficiently.
2) This approach is beneficial for students, providing the convenience and flexibility associated
with online learning,
3) Blended learning develops a skill set for students that otherwise would not be possible in
exclusive face-to-face instruction. Skills include digital citizenship, information management
skills, self-directed learning, and web research and collaboration skills.

Statement of the Problem

The present study attempted to find out if the Use of Blended Language Learning System Among
the Selected Intermediate Pupils in Jose Rizal University has created an impact in the academic
performance of the learners, the investigation sought answers to the following specific questions:
1. What is the level of academic performance of Grades 5 and 6 pupils prior to BLS?
2. What is the level of academic performance of Grade 5 and 6 pupils after the
implementation of BLS?
3. Is there a significant difference between the level of academic performance prior and
after the BLS?
4. How do the teachers find the implementation of BLS?
5. What policies can be formulated and prepared with regards to BLS?

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Hypothesis
The following hypotheses were tested in this study at 0.05 level of significance:
1. There is no significant difference between the level of academic performance of
Grades 5 and 6 pupils prior and after the BLS.
2. BLLS has a significant impact in the QG results of selected intermediate pupils in
Jose Rizal University and in the performance of elementary faculty.

Significance of the Study

Elementary School Division. The most significant contribution of this research to the
field of education and to the Elementary School Division is its effectiveness as it would be the first
time of implementation. The complexity of blended learning and its features and the issues
involved in its integration into teaching and learning will be introduced and overviewed in relation
to the topics covered in the K-12 competencies.
Pupils Learning Style. Another significance of this study is the transition of language
learning from traditional to blended. Blended learning represents a significant departure from
either face to face or fully online learning experiences" (Garrison & Kanuka). The current trend
towards blended learning is fuelled by a combination of pedagogical, practical and strategic
factors. Professional development must therefore interact with a complex combination of separate,
yet interdependent factors.
Faculty Members. This research contributes in the development of language educators’
skills in the terms of technology. Language faculty will be trained in the usage of the EnglishTek
website. Each will also be required to include each activity in their daily lesson plans. Computer
skills of the teachers will be honed, thus making them productive and hybrid educators. Blended
learning program can make better use of instructional resources and facilities, and increase class
availability thus speeding up the pathway to success for students.

Scope and Limitations

This study was designed to focus on changes in pupils’ way of learning English, specifically
Language, and teachers’ perceptions and pedagogy as the school learning environments changed.
The school, where the interviews and sampling were conducted, did not represent the overall
condition of the entire Elementary School Division.
The limitations of using computer; access to the internet, portal concerns such as retrieving
usernames and passwords and teachers’ and pupils’ level of computer skills, were also considered.

Definition of Terms
To understand and clarify the terms used in the study, the following are hereby defined:
Behaviorism. This is a theory of learning which primarily concerned with observable and
measurable aspects of human behavior. Behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in
behavior that result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner.
Blended Learning. This refers to a mix of delivery methods that have been selected and
fashioned to accommodate the various learning needs of a diverse audience in a variety of
subjects.
Cognitivism. This is a theory of learning which emphasizes human cognition or
intelligence as a special endowment enabling man to form hypotheses and develop intellectually.

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Constructivism. This is a theory of learning based on the idea that knowledge is

constructed by the knower based on mental activity. Learners are considered to be active
organisms seeking meaning.
Digital Learners. This term involves knowing THAT something is the case – that J is the
tenth letter of the alphabet, that Paris is the capital of France. Declarative knowledge is conscious;
it can often be verbalized.
Declarative Knowledge. This term involves knowing THAT something is the case – that
J is the tenth letter of the alphabet, that Paris is the capital of France. Declarative knowledge is
conscious; it can often be verbalized.
Procedural Knowledge. This term involves knowing HOW to do something – ride a bike,
for example. We may not be able to explain how we do it. Procedural knowledge involves implicit
learning, which a learner may not be aware of, and may involve being able to use a particular form
to understand or produce language without necessarily being able to explain it.

Review of the Related Literature and Studies

The review of the related literature focuses on the concept of blended learning and its different
forms. This chapter also discusses relevant literature that shows reported benefits and rationales
for implementing blended learning in schools. The chapter begins with the definition of blended
learning, followed by its dimensions, categories, benefits, rationales, and the perspectives on
learning and technology use. It also tackles the relationship among learning beliefs, perceptions
and practice of blended learning.

Related Literature
Foreign
The Concept of Blended Learning. Blended learning has several definitions (Heinze, 2008;Oliver
& Trigwell, 2005;Sharpe, Benfield, Roberts, & Francis, 2006), with the most basic as one defined
by Graham (2006) as “blended learning systems combine face-to-face instruction with computer-
mediated instruction” (p.6). Heinze (2008) proposed another definition to include its purpose:
“Blended learning is the delivery of teaching/learning through the combination of online and face-
to-face interaction resulting in improved student learning” (p.35). This definition, however, merely
focused on delivery modes with neither regard to pedagogy nor the perspectives of the different
users of the system (Heinze, 2008; Oliver & Trigwell, 2005; Sharpe et al., 2006).
Graham (2006) identifies dimensions of space, time, fidelity and humanness in analyzing
interactions in F2F and online learning environments. These dimensions, however, does not
describe blended learning as conceived by different types of users, use of pedagogy and other
elements common to educational contexts. Sharpe et al. (2006), goes beyond the nature of
technologies and human interaction and identified the following eight dimensions:

Dimensions of Blended Learning (Sharpe et al., 2006, p. 18)

• Delivery: different modes (face-to-face and distance education)
• Technology: mixtures of (web-based) technologies
• Chronology: synchronous and a-synchronous interventions
• Locus: practice-based vs. classroom-based learning
• Roles: multi-disciplinary or professional groupings

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• Pedagogy: different pedagogical approaches

• Focus: acknowledging different aims
• Direction: instructor-directed vs. autonomous or learner-directed learning.
Many authors have proposed various categories of blended learning, often based on the
role of technology from the perspective of face to face instruction and in some cases, in the context
of how pedagogy changes when physical learning environments change. Three fundamental
concepts were proposed that could be utilized for a blended language learning environment;
student engagement, collaborative learning and flipped classroom (Ahkam & As’ad, 2019).
Graham (2006), for instance, distinguishes different forms of blended learning based on
purpose. Enabling blends are those that provide the same content through different modalities,
enhancing blends are those that provide additional content or strategies to the established pedagogy
in face to face instruction and transforming blends are those that involve change in pedagogy (p.
13).
Several studies have reported some benefits and rationales for implementing blended
learning in schools –improvement in pedagogy, increased access to content knowledge, increase
in social interaction and support for diversity, flexibility, cost-effectiveness, increase in efficiency,
personalization of learning, improved assessments (Graham, 2006; Horn & Staker, 2011; Sharpe
et al., 2006; Watson, n.d.). Blended learning was able to improve students’ understanding and
interest in learning English for Specific Purpose at Islamic Education Study Program (Idris et al.,
2019). Blended learning, however, if not planned well, may lead to poor quality of instruction
(Graham, 2006). Teachers expressed frustration in adjusting themselves and coping with blended
learning approach (Pinchai & Coffin, 2018). Since blended learning requires change in delivery
mode and tools, it may also necessitate new ways of teaching, assessing student performance and
interactions as well as approaches to research and policy (Horn & Staker, 2011; Watson, n.d.).
Deeper Learning Principles. Drawing on the work of several prominent learning researchers
developed a core set of deeper learning principles. These principles can provide a conceptual
framework when you plan your teaching strategies. Learning is social when it involves cognitive
apprenticeships, it promotes reciprocity and cooperation among students, it offers prompt
feedback, it encourages contact between students and faculty and when it emphasizes rich, timely
feedback. Learning is active when it is engaged in solving real-world problems, it is intertwined
in judgment and exploration, it is situated in action, it uses active learning techniques, practice and
reinforcement are emphasized and when involvement in real-world tasks is emphasized. Learning
is contextual when new knowledge builds on the learner’s existing knowledge, new knowledge is
integrated into the learner’s world, knowledge is applied by the learner, new knowledge is
demonstrated to the learner, when students have a deep foundation of factual knowledge, when
there is awareness that students come to the classroom with preconceptions about how the world
works, when students understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, and
when learning is concrete rather than abstract. Learning is engaging when it respects diverse
talents and ways of learning, when it communicates high expectations, when it is done in high-
challenge, low-threat environments and when it emphasizes intrinsic motivation and natural
curiosities. Learning is student-centered when students organize knowledge in ways that facilitate
retrieval and application, when students take control of their own learning: noting failures,
planning ahead apportioning time and memory to tasks, it emphasizes time on task, it emphasizes

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learning independence and choice, it allows time for reflection and when it emphasizes higher-
order thinking (synthesis and reflection).
Perspectives on Learning and Technology Use. Laurillard (2009) provides an analysis on
the relationship between assumptions on learning and use of technology. She noted four distinct
learning theories – instructionism, constructionism, socio-cultural learning, and collaborative
learning. Laurillard (2009) illustrates how the practice of learning theories change interactions
among the teachers, students’ and other students’ conceptions set in within the bounds of teacher-
designed environment: “Instructionism prioritizes the teachers’ presentation, and their corrective
responses to the learners’ performance on the task, either in terms of what they present, or in terms
of a new task” (p.9)
“Constructionism prioritizes the learners’ activity in the practice environment, adapted by
the teacher to their needs, where it provides intrinsic feedback on their action in relation to
the task goal, enabling them to reflect on internal relation in the light of their action adapted
by their current understanding” (p.9)
“Social learning prioritizes the learner’s exchange of ideas with a peer or peers, where the
teachers’ role is to initiate a topic for discussion” (p.10)
“Collaborative learning combines the pedagogies of constructionism and social learning to
provide richer interactions between learners and their concepts and practice.” (p.11)
These assumptions provide the basis for instructional design decisions, specifically in the
areas of content, teaching strategies and assessments (Bain & McNaught, 1996; Laurillard, 2009).
(Laurillard, 2009) proposed the Conversational Framework, that “provides a simplified
representation of what it is to learn” (Laurillard, 2009, p. 11). The framework implies that one
perspective of learning is not more advanced or superior than the other, as each learning theory
plays an important role in the learning process. The challenge for teachers, according to Laurillard
(2009) is to recognize the components of learning situation, the transactions among teacher,
student, other students and content and apply the most appropriate teaching strategy and
technology, informed by learning theory, in each element of teaching-learning transaction.
Evaluation of Computer-Based Education. In instructional design, teachers may or may not
be explicitly aware of these learning theories and in practice; their choice of teaching strategies
may vary as they move from one content topic to the other. Teachers are aware that they do not
necessarily have to stick to one particular theory to drive their choice of teaching strategy. It is
also possible that there may be other factors that could very well drive their instructional design
decisions, such as contact time, curriculum standards, teacher-student ratio, availability of
resources and perhaps, even the lack of experience, confidence, and knowledge on teaching
strategy.
Relationship among Learning Beliefs, Perception and Practice of Blended Learning. The
practice of blended learning requires a change in teaching approaches (Comas-Quinn, 2011;
Condie & Livingston, 2007) and teachers’ pedagogic beliefs strongly influence their choice of
technology tools and learning activities. However, beliefs alone are not the sole drivers for design
decisions. The following key elements that may possibly have relationships with design: teachers’
general and specific assumptions about the technology or system used, alignment of the technology
used with the curriculum and assessments, reasons why the technology is being used, and
perceived benefits of using the technology. In blended learning environments, teachers’
perceptions of student learning and teaching are linked to their design approaches (Ellis, Steed, &

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Applebee, 2006) Culture and perception on learning -teaching and blended learning, however, do
not seem to be the sole predictors of technology use and design approaches. In the Philippines,
“perceived skill level” seems to be a significant predictor of ICT integration and age was shown
to have a positive correlation on ICT integration (Peralta & Adriano, 2008). In the Open
University, U.K, Comas-Quinn (2011) found that language teachers who have started teaching
using an online learning environment generally had negative attitudes due to technical problems,
misalignment of the new online tools (e.g.blogs and forum) with their current practices of
assessments and the increased amount of time required to create the courses. Findings of the study
indicate that there was a lack of understanding of the affordances of the online tools that they were
asked to use and that “teachers’ willingness to change is powerfully influenced by learner
expectations and traditional ideas shared by teachers and learners about what language learning is
and what their respective roles are” (p.228). The study recommended that training should be able
to provide opportunities for teachers to understand affordances of the tools in relation to how they
understand the purpose of online teaching, aside from the change in physical environment. This
coincides with the result of the research work of Brent, et al. (2018), and it states that more training
should be provided for both technicians and teachers, more collaboration should be encouraged
among teachers, and facilities should be reinforced in order to create more favorable conditions
for the use of blended learning. These studies, however, did not look at these relationships from a
developmental perspective.
Culture also influences student and teachers perception of learning and their use of
technology in that (Latchem & Jung, 2010) “...many Asian learners regard their teachers or set
texts as the principal authoritative sources of knowledge, regard themselves as inferiors, and prefer
to learn passively rather than interact with their teachers in person or online (Wang, 2007). In the
Western world, by comparison, teachers, and learners regard themselves more or less as equals
and partners in learning.”
While Zhang (2007) agrees that culture may shape pedagogy, it may be unreasonable to
conclude that all Asian learners and teachers practice authoritarian teaching approaches. Teachers’
exposure to technologies with affordances that go beyond direct instruction or transmission of
knowledge allows them to explore other ways of teaching that reflect changed perception of the
roles of students and teachers. He also describes the process of assimilation and accommodation
(Piaget) among teachers in the selection of technologies and its adaption to current practice:
“educational practitioners in a culture tend to assimilate new technologies by, although
unconsciously sometimes, selecting technologies that fit the existing pedagogical culture,
designing them in familiar patterns, and adapting them in line with the features of the local
educational system” (Zhang, 2007, p. 310). Knutzen and Kennedy (2008) take relationships
between pedagogical perspectives and practices from a developmental perspective as they
examined how the use of an online learning environment combined with social engagement
activities can change teacher perspectives on teaching and learning. Data generated from the study
supports the view that teachers with more experience, combined with exposure to online learning
environments that facilitate more constructivist approaches are more likely to change their
pedagogical practice. Educational Reform through Pedagogical Change Technology integration in
education among developing countries is usually associated with issues of financial sustainability;
provisions of access to technology by schools and training for teachers on how to use these

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technologies for teaching (DEPED, n.d.; Mentz & Mentz, 2003). This is due to the fact that these
programs often focus on closing the digital divide, and aligning themselves with
those of developed countries with respect to access and that of equipping learn-
ers with 21st-century skills that would enable them to thrive in the global society.
What is missing, however, is a discussion on the potential of technology and changed
pedagogical practices in enabling educational reform. While the stakeholders in education
recognize the need for educational reform, its stand on what exactly within the system needs to be
changed is unclear. There is a need to distinguish between initiating reform by raising educational
standards and by changing the process of learning (Olson, 2003) brought about by an emerging
culture of learning. Technology, in itself, is not the driver for change (Ip & Fox, 2004). Technology
serves as mediating tools and artifacts, its uses depend upon the culture and perceptions of the
community and the rules governing that culture through which subjects realize the objects of their
activities. It is therefore necessary to look into how the potential affordances of these technologies
are used combined with the drivers of educational reform, specifically, on effecting pedagogical
change. “Changes in beliefs and understanding...are the foundations of achieving lasting reform...
effecting changes in practice requires change in three different dimensions: “ in use of teaching
materials, approaches and beliefs, in what people do and think are essential if the intended outcome
is to be achieved. ” (Fullan, 2007, p. 37). Fullan (2007) also recognize is the reality that changing
beliefs and practice is not easy from the perspective of legislation and policy. He notes that
effective schools and classrooms generally consist of quality teachers who work in an environment
that provides intrinsic rewards for success. A culture of collaboration among teachers and
stakeholders directly influencing educational change seems to be a common theme among studies
on educational reform and practice. Instructional materials developers may look into ways to
effectively and clearly convey meanings, concepts, and ideas to learners ( Casta and Hufana, 2016).
The Larsson and Lowstedt study on two schools suggests that resources, training, clear vision and
change strategy, while enablers of integration of ICT in schools, do not necessarily lead to change,
and that success rests on the common understanding of the affordances of the technology and the
extent to which its members reflect and share on their practice.

Local
For the past decade, there have been calls to reform the Philippine Educational System from
various sectors of society. Some believe that “Philippine Education is in a state of crisis” with lack
of classrooms, lack of funds, poor learning outcomes and increasing drop-out rates as primary
reasons (Abad, 2007; Guieb, 2011; Liu, 2008) In 2007, in its attempt to reform the educational
system, the Department of Education proposed the CyberEd Project, which involves “the use of
satellite technology...computers and television sets in classrooms...to broadcast lectures delivered
by excellent master teachers (is) expected to improve the academic performance of students
particularly in science and math” (Yap & Ambat, 2008, p. 4). The project was halted mainly
because the costs to implement the project may possibly outweigh the gains, and that direct impacts
on the use of ICT in education remains to be unproven (Yap & Ambat, 2008). In 2008, the
Department of Education revised its ICT in Education plan, called the ICT4E, noticeably changing
its perspective of the role of ICT in schools from source of information to enabler of 21st-century
skills among learners.

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Technology, along with school-based management practices, may be the solution to the
Philippine’s goal of Education for All by 2015 (DEPED, 2012b). The EFA goals go beyond
students’ access to content as it focus on identifying and implementing sustainable solutions to
enable improved educational change.

Related Studies
Foreign
In one study using a blended learning platform composed of classroom and e-learning, it was
shown to increase learning by an average of 11% for both procedural and declarative knowledge
(Sitzmann, Ely 2009). There seems to be something almost magical about blending the interactive
and social nature of classrooms with the self-paced environment as each can deliver specific
methodologies better than the other. In addition, e-learning can have attrition or drop-out rate as
high as 20% as it often treats the person as a “lone learner.” For example, in an informal learning
episode a person will interact with an average of ten people. Adding blended learning with social
media, such as Facebook or Twitter and blogs, provides the social aspect that we need when it
comes to learning so that it does not become a lone-learning environment.
A research done by Chen & Jones in 2007 assessed the relative effectiveness of blended-
learning and traditional classroom delivery through comparison. Students and instructors alike
may simply be more comfortable with the classroom environment because it has always existed.
This environment allows the instructor to explain more informally how to work accounting
problems and s/he is not encumbered by the need to explain material using a computer keyboard.
The instructor can perhaps more easily circle numbers or point to items of emphasis while using a
traditional board at the front of a classroom. On the other hand, blended learning approach may
offer incremental value in terms of learning and gaining an appreciation of the concepts in the
field. Perhaps students using this mode of delivery, simply by virtue of using their computer more
extensively in the learning process, use more resources from the web and broaden their
understanding by retrieving more resources such as outside articles illustrating the concepts taught.
When traditional method was compared with gamified teaching method- a BLS approach, it was
found out that students were more satisfied with learning with the gamified teaching method than
the traditional method ( Kijpoonphol & Phumchanin, 2018). This BL endeavors to purposefully
integrate online and traditional learning in order to create an innovative approach with its own
merits (Allen, 2007).
According to the study of Means, et.al 2013, purely online learning has been equivalent to
face-to-face instruction in effectiveness, and blended approaches have been more effective than
instruction offered entirely in face-to-face mode. In 2011, Grgurovic conducted a case study in the
use of blended learning system in an ESL class, he concluded that working on online materials in
the lab helped less attentive students control their learning better than in the classroom. Students
who were not very engaged during class pair work would work on speaking tasks in the lab.
Student survey data showed that students and the instructor shared the view that online speaking
and pronunciation activities added value to instruction because they were helpful and unique.
From the educators’ perspectives, the study of Bijeikienė, Rašinskienė, and Zutkienė
(2011) stated that the English language teachers displayed a generally positive attitude towards
blended learning. At first, they expressed some doubts with regard to the usefulness of the activities
in the virtual environment, such as virtual consultations and discussions, which can again be

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related to their need to improve their overall ICT-awareness, but to a large extent agree about the
efficiency of the blended learning courses in terms of the resources contained there, such as video
lectures, theory presentations, interactive exercises for self-check and others.

Local
Several studies have underscored the benefits of BLS and the integration of information and
communication tool or ICT here in the Philippines. The researcher would like to emphasize various
local readings and studies on this section which have a significant bearing to the present study.
One of them is the study of Robles in 2012 which proved that many students find BLS interesting.
However, one may consider it as best BL model if and only if it works best for students and
teachers and that it addresses their specific needs at the time. Moreover, it has to be flexible enough
to provide a wide range of students’ learning needs and opportunities. This is in parallel with the
results of the study of Alontaga, Valderama, Dijamco, and Mones in 2013. The researchers
concluded that students had positive experience about their blended learning experience in terms
of overall interaction and the three online presences.
Speaking of flexibility, the study of Aguinaldo (2012) emphasized the customization of
BLS according to learners’ needs. The researcher developed a tool to address the issues of online
learning. He merged online and face‐to‐face learning in developing a blended learning
environment tool to utilize the capabilities of both online and face‐to‐face learning. The main
purpose of the tool was to have continuity of learning done in a traditional classroom, to stimulate
social interaction between student‐to‐student and sustain feedback mechanism between faculty‐to‐
student to achieve the complete learning process. The tool was implemented based on the
resources of the university, community and the student.
BLS could be also used in different subjects, the research of Abdon in 2014 proved that
blended learning improved the performance of the students in Algebra.
BLS does not only improve students’ academic performance, it also develops in them the necessary
skills 21st-century learners should possess.

Relevance of Related Literature and Related Studies

The aforementioned literature and studies served as a guide to the researcher. The research designs
of the present study were based on the related literature and related studies accumulated and
reviewed. It also helped the researcher in weighing the findings of the recent study with the
findings of other researchers on similar studies. The comparison between regular and blended
learning classes from the studies helped the researcher understand the experiences that were
observed such as; differences in pupils’ learning styles or behavior during regular classes and
BLLS classes, teachers’ approach in both settings and the positive acceptance of both learners and
educators in BLLS.

Research Methodology
This explains the research design, the setting and the respondents, research instruments, parts of
questionnaire/s, reliability and validity, data gathering and the statistical treatment.

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Research Design
The mixed-methods explanatory sequential design, where the qualitative data set will be used to
clarify and deepen the quantitative findings (Creswell & Clark, 2010; Ivankova, Creswell, & Stick,
2006), was employed in the study. The researcher believes that this method will effectively
distinguish how would the shift from traditional learning to blended learning affect teachers’
pedagogical designs and pupils’ performances.
Grounded theory, a research method introduced by Glaser and Strauss in 1967, was used
in the qualitative phase of this study. Grounded theory focuses on the discovery of theory that
emerges from data collected. The discovery of Grounded Theory was borne out of the
overemphasis of researchers to theory verification and generation solely based on authoritative
sources or logico-deductive thinking. Grounded theory rests on the assumption that theory
grounded on data is more consistent with reality as opposed through arriving at theory generation
or verification solely based on authoritative sources or speculation (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).

Setting and Its Respondents

Elementary School Division of Jose Rizal University was the selected site since the Blended
Language Learning System has been adapted in this institution for the first time this school year
2015-2016 as part of the newly adapted textbook Pupils were taught grammar lessons with the use
of interactive online activities. A total of 48 pupils who got 79% below QG in Q1 from grades 5
and 6, 24 per grade level, were selected as respondents. The six Elementary Language teachers
were invited to participate in this research as well for the qualitative part of this study.

Research Instruments
Qualitative sources of data. The most common data sources for qualitative research identified by
Corbin and Strauss (2008) are interviews, documents and direct observations of phenomena. Thus,
questionnaire was created for all teachers of blended language learning containing the following
items: a) participants profile, b) perspectives on teaching and learning, c) activities in face to face
and online classes, d) perceived changes, advantages and disadvantages of blended learning.
a) semi-structured interviews with English teachers, school principal, parents and
representatives from EnglishTek,
b) observations of regular and blended learning classes and
c) learning activity plans (lesson plans).
Quantitative sources of data. This study used the following sources of data: a) assessment
results and pupils’ grades in regular and blended learning classes, b) quarterly grades of the pupils
from 1st to 3rd quarter and c) comparative analysis of grades prior and after BLLS.

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Figure 4. Screenshot Samples of the

BLLS Website

The BLLS Process. The teachers have 2 options; a) do the online activity first then
classroom activity, or b) classroom activity first, then do the online activity. Teachers decide for
the best option based on the topic. After or before the classroom activity, pupils will go to the
Computer Lab, log-in and click the assigned online activity, it could be any of the activities shown
in Figure 4,it is time pressured and scores are being recorded. While pupils are doing their online
activity, the teacher monitor their scores by clicking on the names of the pupil then the view scores
icon as shown in Figure 4, if the teacher noticed that the pupil is not doing well, assistance will be
given. However, if the pupil shows improvement, just like the scores shown in Figure 5, he or she
will move to the next level or will do another online activity related to the topic but more difficult.

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Pupil A

Pupil B

Pupil C

Pupil D

Pupil E

Pupil F

Pupil G

Figure 5. Screenshot Sample of the BLLS Score Monitoring Page

Figure 6. Screenshot Sample of Pupils’ Scores

Data Gathering Procedure

The collection of both qualitative and quantitative data was required for a mixed methods
sequential explanatory research design. In grounded theory, the researcher assumed to be an
instrument of the research and so it was imperative to discuss prior experience with research and
relationships with participants that influenced the findings. Data collection methods of this type
of research included pre and post-testing of content knowledge and open-ended questionnaires
which aimed to find out opinions of students on various constructs that make-up effective
educational television shows. Semi-structured interviews were also conducted to randomly
selected students and teachers. While the researcher has had prior work experience as an ESL
trainer, as an Online Associate (digital learning), regular classroom teacher (traditional learning)
and prior involvement in the conceptualization of the training program on using the learning
management system among different schools, it was unlikely that these experiences may
significantly affect the results of the study. In fact, these perspectives became an advantage in
that the researcher was able to see situations from different standpoints. These experiences gave

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the researcher some insight on the challenges in school program implementation and evaluation.
Several strategies were employed to limit bias in interpreting the results: a) participants selected
were based on a selection criteria, b) questions asked during the interview were open-ended,
without any misleading questions, which allowed the participants to express their opinions, c)
vague or contextually sensitive responses were clarified and d) data were coded and recoded in
two different time intervals. Consent forms were distributed and the teachers were given time to
ask questions about the research or any of the activities described.
Questionnaires (Qualitative Phase). The researcher scheduled a session with all the
teachers of blended learning. During the session, the researcher described the purpose of the
research, the general content of the questionnaire and their rights as participants. The participants
were given an hour to answer the survey questionnaires.
Class Observations. The researcher observed three classes per teacher: a) regular class; b)
face to face blended learning class and c) online blended learning class. This allowed the researcher
to experience and compare how the teachers teach in three different environments. The
observations were not recorded but copies of the lesson plans for the observed sessions were
requested from the teachers. An observation protocol was used to help the researcher identify the
following areas of comparisons in the three learning environments.
• Lesson Objectives
• Classroom management practices
• Strategies to Improve Student Motivation
• Levels of Questions asked
• Student and Teacher Interactions
• Teaching Strategies
• Teaching Materials / Tools used
• Evaluation
• Semi-Structured Interviews with Teachers
.
The researcher met with the selected teachers for the interview. The researcher used the
interview guide to find out their perspectives on teaching and learning, perceived changes on the
way they teach, perceived advantages and disadvantages of blended learning and some
clarifications on the observations that were conducted. All interviews were recorded and lasted for
a period of about one hour. Ethical Considerations Prior to contact with the teachers, the researcher
followed the protocol for conducting research in the Elementary School Division of the said
institution by submitting letter of permission to both the Vice President for Academic Affairs, Dr.
Miguel M. Carpio, and the ES Principal, Ms. Josephine B. Culala. The researcher adapted to the
schedule of the teachers and school administrators by letting them choose the most convenient
time to conduct the research activities. All participants were fully informed, verbally and in
writing, about the purpose of the research, the activities undertook prior to data collection, and
their rights. They were also told that all information, including documents collected and interview
sheets were used solely for research purposes, their identities were not included in any report, and
that they can withdraw their participation any time without any negative consequences.

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Statistical Treatment of Data

Quantitative Phase. Data collected from the questionnaires were summarized using
Microsoft Excel. Descriptive statistics was used to describe the profile of the respondents,
pedagogical orientations, face to face and online activities and perceived changes in blended
learning. T-test was used for a more comprehensive statistical analysis.

Qualitative Phase. During this phase the researcher used weighted mean and verbal
description for the survey. Interviews were also coded as well as the class observations. The
researcher vividly described all the observations acquired during the interviews and class
observations.

Reliability and Validity. The researcher ensured validity and reliability by following
several strategies as suggested by Merriam: triangulation, repeated observations, participatory or
collaborative models of research and researchers’ biases.

• The researcher used multiple sources of data (lesson plans, semi-structured interviews,
and observations) to verify the findings.
• For all sources of data, the researcher verified initial findings to the participants.
• The researcher involved participants in different stages of the research.
• Interview questions and other instruments were pilot tested to other blended learning
teachers to ensure that the terms used and the questions posed reflected the purpose of
the research.
• The researcher constantly clarified meanings of responses with the participants to
eliminate misinterpretation caused by the researchers’ own biases and background.
• Constructs that were used in instrument development were consistent with literature that
were reviewed and not based on researcher’s biases.
. • Data were continuously collected until redundancy was reached.

Presentation, Interpretation and Analysis of Data

This includes presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data which were drawn from the
respondents. It starts with the presentation of the Quarterly Grades (QGs) of selected grades 5 and
6 pupils from 1st to 3rd followed by the Language teachers’ perceptions regarding BLLS. The
results of the study are presented in tabulation and were interpreted by the researcher.

1. Comparative Analysis of the Respondents’ Academic Performance Level Prior and After
BLS.
A total of 48 pupils from grades 5 and 6, 24 per grade level, were randomly selected and the results
of their QGs were closely monitored by the researcher before and after the implementation of
BLLS.
Language classes from grades 1-6 did not adapt BLLS in 1st quarter, it served as an
intervention in the 2nd- 3rd quarter. Language teachers used the system and had seen development
among their pupils. In order to vividly see the difference of the pupils’ QGs from 1st to 3rd, the
researcher opted to compare them using column charts with 8 pupils per chart.

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Presented in Figures 4.1- 4.3 are the 1st- 3rd QGs of the 24 respondents from 5th grade.
They show that 96% of this population or 23 pupils out of 24 manifested relevant inflation in their
grades from 1st to 2nd quarter, while 80% of the respondents’ QGs from 2nd – 3rd consistently
increased. One of the respondents’ grade in Q1 became 0.15 points lower than Q2, something
which the researcher thinks would not play a significant role in the findings. It is evident that the
increase rate of respondents’ QGs from Q1 to Q2 is higher than the increase rate in their grades
from Q2 to Q3. From this finding, it can be implied that the implementation of BLS in Q2 has
created impact in pupils’ interest in learning grammar. Though the increase in the pupils’ grades
from Q2 to Q3 was just minimal, it still shows that there is a consistent improvement in their
academic performance during the implementation of BLS.

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Figures 4.4 – 4.6 show the comparison of 1st- 3rd QGs of grade 6 pupils, where 21 out of the
24 respondents’ grades increased from Q1 to Q2. However, 2 of them retained their 1st QG in the
2nd quarter while one of the QGs decreased by 1.85 points. Respondents’ QGs from Q2 to Q3 all
inflated, and even the number of pupils with below 80 grades decreased, 14 in Q1 became 8 in Q2
then 4 in Q3.
It can be noted that BLS has positively influenced pupils in learning Language. The
combination of textbook and online activities could help both learners and teachers in successfully
achieving learning goals.

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2. Level of Significance Differences in the Academic Performance of the Respondents Prior

and After BLS.

t-Test: Paired Two Sample for

Means
Q1 Q2
Mean 79.2125 82.57916667
Variance 10.93430851 12.27221631
Observations 48 48
Pearson Correlation 0.670337048
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
df 47
t Stat (Computed) -8.418746577
P(T<=t) one-tail 3.04215E-11
t Critical one-tail 1.677926722
P(T<=t) two-tail 6.0843E-11
t Critical two-tail (Tabular) 2.011740514
Mean Difference 3.30
Standard Deviation 3.13 3.50
Table 3. T-test Results on the Level of Significant Differences of All Respondents
from Q1 to Q2
The researcher used T-test for the quantitative part of this study to determine the
significance difference on the QGs of the pupils who were the said respondents.
Table 3 reveals the T-test result of both 5th and 6th graders respondents. Since the computed
value which is -8.42 is lower than the critical value which 2.01 at 0.05 level of significance, there
is a significant difference in the QGS of the pupils from Q1 to Q2.The mean of all the grades in
Q1 is 79.21%, which is considered as fair performance. However, when BLLS was implemented,
the mean of all QGs became 82.57% in Q2 which is considered as good performance. The
increasing mean per quarter proves that the respondents’ QGs got higher.
This means that with BLLS, the pupils’ performance improved significantly. The mean
difference in Q1 to Q2 is 3.30. Therefore, the difference in the QGs of the pupils from Q1-Q3 was
significant.
t-Test: Paired Two Sample for
Means
Q2 Q3
Mean 82.57916667 84.08958333
Variance 12.27221631 15.0716977
Observations 48 48
Pearson Correlation 0.918147076
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0

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df 47
t Stat -6.797259871
P(T<=t) one-tail 8.29946E-09
t Critical one-tail 1.677926722
P(T<=t) two-tail 1.65989E-08
t Critical two-tail 2.011740514
Mean Difference 1.51
Standard Deviation 3.50 3.88
Table 4. T-test Results on the Level of Significant Differences of All Respondents
from Q2 to Q3
With regard to Q2 to Q3 level of significant differences, Table 4 also shows that the obtained
t-value was 2.01 @ 0.05 level of significance is higher than the computed value which is -6.79.
Therefore, the difference in Q2 grades to Q3 grades was statistically significant. This means that
with BLLS, the pupils’ performance improved significantly. The mean difference in Q2 to Q3 is
1.51 which implies that, though it is not as high as the mean difference from Q1 to Q2, still the
improvement of grades during BLLS was consistent.

3. Language Teachers’ Perceptions in the Implementation of BLS.

Before school year 2015-2016 started, all Language teachers underwent a two-day training
program on the use of Blended Language Learning System. They spent a considerable time in
navigating the BLS website, in evaluating the content per grade level and in incorporating the
online activities to their language syllabi. During the training program, it was noticeable teachers
were ready to welcome the new system.

A. Classroom Observations.
The researcher conducted classroom observations to know the difference in pupils’ learning
behavior prior and after BLS and teachers’ adaptability in the new teaching approach. The
observance of classes also aims to find out how classes went through during BLS. All observations
conducted were unannounced.
Table 5.1 and 5.2 describes observations by the researcher regarding regular and blended
learning classes. It also shows how these classes differ from each other, it includes how pupils
behave during regular and blended learning, the roles of teachers in each set-up, and how learning
targets were achieved.

Language Observations During Regular Observations During Blended

Teacher No. Classes Learning Classes
The teacher started the class by While still in the classroom, the
first calling the attention of all teacher started the class by showing
learners. Pupils’ attention focused the interactive activity to be done
1
on the lesson for 15 minutes then for that time as a motivational task.
shifted to other things such as, Pupils got excited when they
things inside their bags like entered the Computer Lab. While
coloring pens, drawings done at

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home or stickers. Some pupils also doing the online activity, no one
asked what time was it. even noticed that time was up.
The class began with the review The pupils showed excitement
of the past lesson. Pupils were when the teacher told me to prepare
enthusiastic during the review but their passwords for the online
got a little bit noisy when the activity. Although, few still needed
2 teacher asked pupils to read the help in logging-in, those who are
dialogue in the textbook. already knowledgeable, no longer
waited for the teacher’s instruction
but navigated the website and did
the online activity by themselves.
The teacher used the authentic Pupils at first were noisy when
text in the textbook as a they entered the Computer Lab,
springboard for their lesson. It was however, when they were all
evident that pupils were all used to signed-up and started the
language drills. During the interactive activity, they became
3 discussion of the lesson, almost quiet. The teacher checked their
everyone participated. Though, recorded scores online and saw
there were few who were not how their scores gone-up from
expressing their ideas, the teacher practice to work out to challenge.
noticed them and called their
attention.
Table 5. Findings during Classroom Observations- Part 1

Table 6. Findings during Classroom Observations- Part 2

Language Observations During Regular Observations During Blended

Teacher No. Classes Learning Classes
The class started with a drill, When the pupils entered the
when the teacher said time’s up, Computer Lab, they logged-in
many pupils were still writing. right away without being
After checking of papers, the instructed. After doing the online
teacher started the discussion of activity, the teacher asked them to
the lesson and emphasized line-up and went back to the
grammar points which pupils were classroom. Inside the classroom,
not familiar with based on the drill
the teacher introduced the topic
done. Repetitions were necessary and asked for examples. Because
in order for pupils to understand of the online activity, the pupils
the concept. were able to give answers
confidently, even without
4 lectures.
The teacher used a poetry While inside the classroom,
5 flashed on LCD screen as a pupils asked what the online
motivational activity. The pupils activity for the day was. The

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were asked to identify the teacher gave instructions in the

adjectives in the poem. Few pupils usage of the Computer Lab. In the
raised their hands, but the teacher Computer Lab, pupils already
called a pupil who wasn’t raising knew what to do and started the
her hand. She was able to identify online activity. When they
an adjective word correctly. The returned to their classroom, the
pupils then read a dialogue and teacher asked them to do their own
answered the questions about it. “I Can” statements about the topic
The teacher introduced the lesson for the day. Confidently, pupils
using a powerpoint presentation. wrote and design their statements
Pupils obviously are used to this and submitted their works
kind of material since some of enthusiastically.
them looked so familiar with it.

Pupils were asked to group The teacher told the pupils to do

themselves for a collaborative the online activity and grouped
activity. Each was assigned with a themselves into 5 when already
role. The cheerleaders and runners done. When they returned to their
were all active, however, classroom, they had done a
wildcards and other members collaborative activity based on the
seemed to be not interested with online activity that they did.
the group activity. Pupils worked synergistically and
6 everyone participated well.

B. Survey: Perspectives on Teaching and Learning.

After every classroom observation, post-conferences were held in order to discuss highlights done
by the teacher and areas which need improvement. During these conferences, Language teachers
(teacher 1= T1) were given survey forms to answer regarding the implementation of BLS. Below
are the results of the survey.

Table 7. Survey on Teachers’ Perspectives on Teaching and Learning (1)

Perspectives T T Over- Verbal

T3 T4 T5 T6
1 2 all Description

1. The source of content for

students to learn should
come from the teacher or 4 3 4 4 4 4 3.83 SA
books but also from
internet sites.

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2. The objectives that I set

for the class activities are
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 SA
based on the need of my
pupils.
3. Online activities
motivate pupils faster
3 4 4 4 4 3 3.67 SA
than other instructional
materials.
4. Pupils show more
interest during 3 4 4 4 4 4 3.83 SA
interactive activities.
5. Concepts should be
represented through
combination of both 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 SA
lectures and computer-
aided instruction .
6. Teachers nowadays
should be knowledgeable
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 SA
of different computer
applications.

4.0 – 3.3: Strongly Agree (SA), 3.2 – 2.5: Agree (A), 2.4- 1.7: Disagree (D),
1.6 – 0.9: Strongly Disagree (SD), 0.8 – 0: No Reaction (NR)

Table 8. Survey on Teachers’ Perspectives on Teaching and Learning (2)

Over- Verbal
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
all Description
7. The best way to
motivate students is not 3.5
just by giving praises 4 3 4 3 4 3 SA
and rewards but also by
using digital apps.
8. The students are the best
4 3 3 3 4 2 SA
sources of content. 3.17
9. The choice of activities
that teachers should 3.17
ask students to do
4 3 4 3 4 1 SA
should be driven by the
experiences of the
students.
10. Learning, for me, is
4 4 4 4 4 3 SA
about how students 3.83

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learn from their

environment.
11. Concepts should be
represented in real 4 4 4 4 4 3 3.83 SA
world environments.
12. Students are best
motivated when they 3.5
are faced with 3 4 4 3 4 3 SA
challenges such as
online activities.

Tables 6.1 and 6.2 display how the Language teachers rated the survey. All of them strongly
agreed that the source of content for students should be blended
and that concepts should be represented through combination of classroom lectures and computer-
aided instructions. For a fact that they all scored 4in item number 6 which says that teachers should
be knowledgeable of different computer applications, educators nowadays, despite the age, believe
that the influence of online activities affect learners learning. Though, educators are called digital
immigrants, and the learners are digital natives.

C. Interviews on Blended Learning System.

Three Language teachers were interviewed regarding their views on BLLS.
All of them gave a positive feedback regarding the new approach in teaching Language. They
answered all the questions with an optimistic attitude towards BLLS. They were also able to
identify ways on how to improve such approach next school year. All of them think that BLLS
would increase the number of pupils who would love and enjoy learning grammar. Some pupils
think that grammar is boring, but through BLLS there will be a turn of perspective.

Table 9. Language Teachers’ Perceptions about BLLS.

Question
T1 T2 T3

1. How does Technology makes Students with varied It helps a lot

technology, in the teaching and styles of learning especially to those
general, help in the learning process find new ways to learners who are
teaching-learning lighter, especially to assimilate willing to learn
process? the part of the teacher. information and more. It is also an
demonstrate advantage to those
learning. They also learners who are
hone old enough to
communication travel.
skills through varied
media and engage in

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collaborative
learning.
2. What do you I think, its purpose To facilitate a I guess the
think is the purpose is to equipped learn- simultaneous purpose of
of blended ers or pupils with the independent and blended learning
learning?. advancement the collaborative is to give better
world has now and learning experience chances for those
how this technology learners who
improve them don’t like to get
academically. involve in a
classroom setting
alone.
3. How do you Online tools helped me It allow students Online tools
think using online motivate the learners to to access a variety of provide wider
tools help you participate and explore media which support information and
achieve your more on the topic being different learning variety of
instructional discussed. Pupils tried preferences — video activities.
goals? In what their best to get scores for visual learners, However, it
ways do these tools during the activity in podcasts for auditory makes us very
hinder you from which I felt my goal for learners, and hands- dependent and
achieving your the day’s lesson was on activities for lessen our interest
instructional achieved. kinesthetic learners. to think new
goals? ways.
4. What are the Difficulties: Some difficulties Challenges:
difficulties that when it comes to 1. Lack of time.
you have 1. Some learners technology 2. Slow internet
encountered in cannot manipulate adaptation, connection
shifting to blended the computer well. instructors and 3. No electricity
learning? 2. Since pupils students should have
How did you enjoyed a lot, enough time to adapt. Solution:
resolve them? sometimes they do Discussing with 1. Extension of
not want to stop students the purpose time
doing all the of using the 2. Make-up
computer activities. technologies in classes
3. The schedule of the blended learning can 3. We agree to
on line activities, help them to adapt have a specific
overlapped with the more quickly as well. lesson and not to
other grades. have the broad
Solution: topic.
1. I set another day for
the online activities
instead of
Thursday, I made it
Friday.

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2. I restricted pupils to
open all the
activities and I gave
them time limits.
5. What do you I think students learn By implementing In my opinion,
think are the ways more in blended different types of they will learn if
by which students activities or learning learning strategies lessons are
learn more/less because they explore according the need of imparted briefly
when teaching by themselves. They their students such as in a short period
using blended learn to analyze every match developmental of time. It will
learning system? activities that are courses, tutorials, minimize
being assigned instructional videos, boredom and
because of their desire and voice over text, tiresome. I t will
to get high score fun games, and a be an obstacle on
during the activity. variety of other the part of the
They are enjoying at features. learners if the
the same time Personalized and availability of the
learning. engaging content will materials needed
greatly help kids lacks.
learn even the most
complicated topics.
In this way, every kid
gets equal
opportunities to
improve his/her skills
and knowledge.

4. Policies that can be Formulated and Prepared with regard to BLS.

Persons Concern Proposed Policies

For Pupils… Completion of online activities with the alignment of
learning competencies on K-12 curriculum. Pupils should be
given sufficient time in completing online activities through
additional minutes in learning English. Instead of 40 minutes
for Language, 50- 60 minutes would be ample for learners to
manage the online activities.
For Teachers … Maximization training program in the application of
BLS. What some of the teachers have right now are just the
basic skills in BLS. Educators, when well-trained, could be
BLS experts. Training in the usage of BLS online activities,

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in the availability of other sources and resources for BLS and

in acquiring recent computer skills and applications.
For Administrators…

Institutionalization of BLS. Spiraling of lessons and

teaching and learning strategies from grade school to junior
high to senior high, even up to college is necessary to achieve
fully the learning goals of K-12.
For Parents… Inclusion of the online access payment in the tuition fee.
Unlike textbooks, which could be borrowed or handed down
to lower graders, online access couldn’t be. Unfortunately,
some parents paid for the username and password of their
children late of the second quarter. So, pupils without access
rights were not able to completely experience blended
learning.

Summary of Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations

This part discusses the summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations based on the
results collated by the researcher.
The main objective of the study was to find out the effect of Blended Learning System in
teaching Language among the selected grades 5 and 6 pupils of Jose Rizal University.

Summary of Findings
Based on the data presented, interpreted and analyzed in Chapter 4, the researcher came up with
the following answers to specific questions raised.
1. The Level of Academic Performance of Grades 5 and 6 Pupils Prior to BLS.
The results of the pupils’ QGs prior to BLS show poor level of academic performance. out
of 48 pupils, 29 got below 80% QG in Q1. Language Teachers did not make use of the BLS in
the 1st quarter, they used the traditional approach which includes, reading of textbooks, listening
to lectures, discussing of lessons with the use of other instructional materials such as PowerPoint
presentation, realia and role-plays and giving of quizzes written on whiteboards. Motivational
activities done by Language teachers happened just in the four corners of the classrooms and with
digital learners that we have right now, arousing their interest require interactive activities.
2. The Level of Academic Performance of Grades 5 and 6 Pupils after the BLS was
introduced.
The tables presented in Chapter 4 vividly showed how pupils’ 2nd QGs improved. At the start
of the second quarter, Language Teachers introduced BLS to their pupils, passwords were given
and each grade level were assigned a schedule in the use of Computer Labs. During BLLS, pupils
were eager to learn, most of them have even learned by themselves during Computer Lab time.
3. The Significant Difference between the Level of Academic Performance Prior and After
the BLS.
Based on the findings acquired, there is a significant difference between the level of academic
performance prior and after BLS. Respondents’ QGs inflated and did not decrease anymore. The

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mean difference showed that prior BLLS, pupils performed fairly, but during and after BLLS,
pupils performed good, or I could even say, great. BLLS has surely created an impact in the grades
of JRU Elementary School pupils.
4. Language Teachers’ Perceptions in the Implementation of BLS.
Findings revealed that Language teachers in Elementary School of JRU approve BLLS. From
classroom observations, interviews and QG results, educators found the usefulness of such
approach. All of them believe that blended learning is a positive approach that increases pupils’
performance.

Conclusions
From the analysis of the data gathered and as revealed by the findings of the study, the
researcher arrived at the following conclusions:
1. Blended Language Learning System has found to be effective as reflected in the level of
academic performance of the pupils. It does fit the need of the digital natives in learning
language.
2. The pupils’ grades prior and after BLLS had a significant difference with regard the
influence of the said system in the pupils’ English language learning. BLLS helped
significantly in improving the pupils’ performance in learning language.
3. Language Teachers regarded blended learning as advantageous to the school, pupils,
teachers and parents. They strongly agree that technology integration improves pupil
motivation.
4. Institutionalization of BLS has to be proposed to enhance pupils’ English language skills.

Recommendations
In lieu of the findings of the study, the researcher offers the following recommendations:
1. The Language Textbook Committee in the Elementary School should recommend the
continuation of BLS and must implement it on the 1st quarter immediately.
2. English teachers must work collaboratively in attaining a strong BLS foundation. Strong
BLS foundation includes, coordination with IT personnel for speedier internet connection,
with parents for payment completion so that all pupils could experience BLS and with the
admin staffs who are managing the interactive online activities for an enhanced content.
3. Apply the proposed policies so that all pupils could experience learning English language
through BLS and make use of BLS university-wide.
4. A replicate of the study be conducted in the future using a different setting and respondents.

Acknowledgment: The paper is sponsored by Jose Rizal University.

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achievement in English for specific (ESP) class at Islamic education study program in
Indonesia. The Asian EFL Journal, 21 (2.3), 182-199.
Kijpoonphol, W., & Phumchanin, W. (2018). A comparison between traditional and gamified
teaching methods for phrasal verb: a case of grade 10 students. TESOL International
Journal, 13 (3), 56-65.
Mentz, E., & Mentz, K. (2003). Managing technology integration into schools: A South African
perspective. Journal of Educational Administration, 41(2), 186- 200

Published and Unpublished Theses and Dissertations

Abdon, R. P. (2014). Assessment of the impact of blended learning in teaching Algebra at
Malayan Colleges Laguna. Cabuyao, Laguna, Philippines.
Aguinaldo, B. E. (2012). Development of a blended learning environment tool for tertiary
students of Isabela State University. Isabela City, Philippines.
Alontaga, J. Q., Valderama, A. C., Dijamco, T. D. & Mones, W. P. (2013). Examining blended
learning experiences of higher education students

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Bijeikienė, V., Rašinskienė,S., & Zutkienė, L. (2011). Teachers’ attitudes towards the use of
blended learning in general English classroom. Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas,
Lithuania.
Chen, C. C., & Jones, K.T. ( 2007). Blended learning vs. traditional classroom settings: assessing
effectiveness and student perceptions in an MBA Accounting Course. Illinois State
University, USA.
Comas-Quinn, A. (2011). Learning to teach online or learning to become an online teacher: an
exploration of teachers' experiences in a blended learning course.
Recall, 23, 218-232. doi: 10.1017/S0958344011000152
Grgurovic, M. (2011). Blended learning in an ESL: a case study. University of Illinois, Chicago,
USA.
Horn, M. B., & Staker, H. (2011). The Rise of K-12 Blended Learning. In I. Institute (Ed.):
Innosight Institute.
Ivankova, N. V., Creswell, J. W., & Stick, S. L. (2006). Using mixed-methods sequential
explanatory design: from theory to practice. Field Methods, 18(3), 3-20. doi:
10.1177/1525822X05282260
Latchem, C., & Jung, I. (2010). Distance and Blended Learning in Asia. NY: Routledge.
Robles, A.C.O. (2012). Blended learning for lifelong learning: an innovation for college education
students. General Santos City, Philippines.
Stacey, E., & Gerbic, P. (2008). Success factors for blended learning. Paper presented at the Hello!
Where are you in the landscape of educational technology? , Melbourne.
Watson, J. (n.d.). Blended Learning: The Convergence of Online and Face-to-Face Education. In
N. A. C. f. O. Learning (Ed.), Promising Practices in Online Learning: Evergreen
Consulting Associates.
Peralta, S. T., & Adriano, C. T. (2008). Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
Integration in Teacher Education Institutions. Paper presented at the The Third National
ICTs in Basic Education Congress: Teaching the Net
Generation: Curriculum, Pedagogy and the Challenge of 21st CenturyLearning, Cebu City,
Philippines.
http://www.fited.org/congress2008/contents/PERALTA%20&%20ADRIANO/Peralta%2
0&%20Adriano%20PAPER.pdf

Electronic Sources/Websites
DEPED. (2012a). 10-Point Education Agenda. Retrieved from Department of Education Official
Website website: http://www.deped.gov.ph/index.php/programs-projects/10-point-
education-agenda
DEPED. (2012b). Luistro: DEPED is serious on its EFA goals. Pasig City, Philippines:
Department of Education Retrieved from
http://former.deped.gov.ph/cpanel/uploads/issuanceImg/oct5-efa.pdf.
Guieb, M. (2011). Abad cites "deep crisis" in education. Business Mirror. Retrieved from Business
Mirror website: http://www.businessmirror.com.ph/home/nation/19271-abad-cites-deep-
crisis-in-education
Yap, R. H. D., & Ambat, G. H. S. (2008). Revisiting the CyberEducation Project. Philippines:
Senate of the Philippines

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Appendices

Appendix A

Survey on Perspectives of Teachers

in Teaching and Learning

Directions: For each statement, please check if you agree or disagree using a rating scale from “1”
to “4”. A rating of “1” indicates that you strongly disagree with the statement and a rating of “4”
indicates that you strongly agree.

Statements Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4
13. The source of content for students /
to learn should come from the
teacher or books but also from
internet sites.
14. The objectives that I set for the /
class activities are based on the
need of my pupils.
15. Online activities motivate pupils /
faster than other instrctuional
materials.

16. Pupils show more interest during /

interactive activities.
17. Concepts should be represented /
through combination of both
lectures and computer-aided
instruction .
18. Teachers nowadays should be /
knowledgeable of different
computer applications.
19. The best way to motivate students /
is not just by giving praises and
rewards but also by using digital
apps.
20. The students are the best sources /
of content.
21. The choice of activities that /
teachers should ask students to

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do should be driven by the

experiences of the students.
22. Learning, for me, is about how /
students learnfrom their
environment.
23. Concepts should be represented /
in real world
environments.
24. Students arebest motivated /
when theyarefacedwith
challenges such as online
activities.

Appendix B
Questionnaires for Teachers of BLLS
I. PROFILE

Name (Optional):

Gender ______ Male ___/___ Female

Years of Teaching Experience: ______18______ Age: __________44______

1.Have you undergone any training or professional development programs on

teaching in blended learning environments prior to the start of the school year?

____/____YES ________ NO

2. Do you have previous experience teaching in a blended learning environment in a secondary

school before the school year started?

________YES ______/__ NO

If yes, how many months of experience did you have? __________ months

3. Whatareyour previousexperiencesinonline teachingandlearning?

Describeyour experience.

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4. Howdoes technology, ingeneral, help in the teaching-learning process?

5. What doyou think is the purposeof blended learning?

6.Howdoyouthinkusingonlinetoolshelpyouachieveyourinstructionalgoals? In what
ways do thesetoolshinderyou from achievingyour instructional goals?

7. Whatarethedifficultiesthatyouhaveencounteredinshiftingtoblendedlearning?
How didyou resolve them?

8. What do you think are the ways by whichstudentslearnmore/lesswhenteaching using

blended learning system?

Appendix C
Computation of the T-Test Value

t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means

1Q 2Q
Mean 79.2125 82.57916667
Variance 10.93430851 12.27221631
Observations 48 48
Pearson Correlation 0.670337048
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
df 47
-
t Stat 8.418746577
P(T<=t) one-tail 3.04215E-11
t Critical one-tail 1.677926722
P(T<=t) two-tail 6.0843E-11
t Critical two-tail 2.011740514

t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means

2Q 3Q
Mean 82.57916667 84.08958333
Variance 12.27221631 15.0716977
Observations 48 48

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Pearson Correlation 0.918147076

Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
df 47
-
t Stat 6.797259871
P(T<=t) one-tail 8.29946E-09
t Critical one-tail 1.677926722
P(T<=t) two-tail 1.65989E-08
t Critical two-tail 2.011740514

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Social Networking sites and ESL Students Writing Proficiency in English

Jane C. Caliboso*
Isabela State University, Roxas Campus, Roxas Isabela Philippines

Abstract
The good and harm effect of Social Networking Sites on Writing Proficiency had been argued for
years, but a solid ultimate conclusion was never surfaced. Thus, this study aimed to find the effect
of SNSs on students’ Writing Proficiency in English. A total of 28 undergraduates Bachelor in
Secondary Education (BSE) served as the respondents of the study. Descriptive statistics was used
wherein data were collected through a two-part questionnaire aimed at describing the students’ use
of SNSs and identifying the perceived effects of SNSs on students’ Writing Proficiency in English
and an essay aimed at finding out the effect of SNSs on students’ Writing Proficiency in English.
Results of the study revealed that Facebook, YouTube, Google+, Slideshare, Wiki, and Yahoo
were the mostly used types of SNSs and used by the BSE students daily. Data analysis showed
that students used it for educational and personal purposes. This research found that, majority of
the respondents have “good” writing proficiency. Overall, SNSs use offered a new platform that
presented substantial opportunity for the students to learn the English language and improve
Writing Proficiency at anywhere at any time. Further, it is crystal clear in this study that SNSs
affected both negatively and positively the students’ Writing Proficiency in English.

Keywords: Writing Proficiency, Social Networking Sites, Effect of Social Networking

Sites

Introduction
English Proficiency is defined as one’s ability to speak, read, and write in English effectively and
efficiently. It is one of the most demanded skills from the students as it plays a vital role in
enhancing their educational attainment and later helping them to cope up with the demands of the
competitive workplace both in the national and international setting as it now becomes one of the
essential skills to be called competent. In the same way, English as known to be the global language
emphasizes the need for students to have full grasp and high understanding of the English language
to participate and connect with international communication.
In order to be proficient in the English language, the skills underlying it must be developed.
The four basic English language skills are divided into two categories such as receptive skills and
productive skills. Reading and listening are considered receptive skills whereas speaking and
writing are known as productive skills.

*[email protected]

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Writing is one of the four basic skills. The students start learning to communicate through
written form as they begin to interact with others at school level. The writing skill is more
complicated than that of other language skills. Even sometimes a native speaker of the English
language may experience complication in a tricky situation. Basically, the writing skill requires a
well-structured way of the presentation of thoughts in an organized and planned way (Braine &
Yorozu, 1998).
The shaping of an individual’s language proficiency largely depends on the frequency of
his use of the language. It is through the different forms of language practices that the learners can
have actual exposures on the use of language. In learning English as a Second Language (ESL),
aside from the effective language instruction executed by ESL teachers, many researchers agreed
that ESL learners’ exposure on communication outside the classroom that uses English language
as medium of expression would be of great help to learn the language.
With the advent of technology and its undeniable continuous growth, the way how
communication takes place had been drastically changed. People are able to communicate with
one another through their gadgets connected with Internet particularly the use of Social
Networking Sites (SNSs). SNSs are platform for people to share ideas, find information related to
their profession or academic, connect and communicate with other people around the world. The
study of Jabr (2011) found that SNSs are making tremendous effect nearly on every aspect of life.
This is linked with the idea that SNSs reshaped how we do or learn things; learning ESL is no
exemption.
SNSs is believed to have benefits in improving English Proficiency of its users particularly
the students who have embraced these sites as part of their day to day life. This is primarily because
English is the commonly used language when it comes to Internet. Thus, students can learn the
language anytime, anywhere using their smartphones, tablets or computers by logging on to their
SNSs accounts. On the other hand, there is a widespread belief that SNSs are to be blamed for poor
English Proficiency among students. Some researchers claimed that SNSs have negative impact
on students Language Proficiency especially on writing due to excessive use or might be improper
use of the English Language during communication online.
Moreover, SNSs communication seems to build the foundation of the creation of new
words and phrases that are not part of the Standard English. The short language created and used
in instant messaging seems to drastically deteriorate the students’ vocabulary. This series of new
jargon is called Internet slang which is commonly used on the internet and seen in chat-rooms
mainly to quicken communication or express emotions. However, since students learn language
through observation and imitation, the frequent use of Internet slang can lead to imitate improper
language particularly those who lack English Proficiency. Eventually, this faulty behavior might
be evident in the academic writing and speaking of the students in which will definitely stultify
the Standard English.
When it remains that these students will remain unchecked, they will once again be a source
of problem most especially to those students who chose to become teachers will be contributory
to the poor performance of their pupils and students, and worst will hamper the endeavors of
parents and children in achieving their dreams because of malpractice in the use of the English
language. As Henry Brooks Adams once said, a teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where
his influence stops.

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Education Institutions indeed have the greatest role in developing the English language
proficiency of their students because the society expects much from their graduates. Being one of
the delivering Higher Education Institution in the region, the Isabela State University is committed
to develop highly trained globally competent professionals; to generate innovative and cutting –
edge knowledge and technologies for people empowerment and sustainable development; engage
in viable resource generation programs; and maintain and enhance stronger partnerships under
good governance to advance the interest of national and international communities.
With the aim of achieving the university’s mission, the Isabela State University particularly
the Roxas campus installed an internet fiber within the campus in order for its employees and
students to be updated with the current trends and to have an access to different Social Networking
Sites that could be used both in the teaching and learning process.
With the above phenomenon in the campus, the researcher came up with a study to prove
whether the students’ participation in the Social Networking Sites affect their studies most
particularly their writing skills in English.

Statement of the Problem

This study aimed to determine the effect of SNSs on the students’ Writing Proficiency in English.
Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:
1. Which type/s of the Social Networking Sites is/are mostly used by the BSE students?
2. What is the extent of usage of SNSs among the BSE students in terms of:
• length of use
• frequency of use
3. What are the purposes of the BSE students in using Social Networking Sites?
4. What are the perceived effects of SNSs on students’ Writing Proficiency in English?
5. What is the students’ writing proficiency of the BSE students?
6. What is the significant difference between the writing skills of the BSE students when
grouped according to hours and years of using Social Networking Sites?

Methodology
Research Design
This study made use of the descriptive method of research in finding out the effect of SNSs on
students’ writing proficiency in English.

Respondents of the Study

Total enumeration was used in choosing the respondents of the study. There were 28 2nd Year
Education students of Isabela State University –Roxas Campus who served as respondents of the
study.

Research Instruments
A two-part questionnaire with some items from study of Emmanuel (2010) was adopted and
modified to gather the needed data. Part I included questions about the use of SNSs among the
Education students and Part II was used to find out the perceived effects of SNSs on students’
writing proficiency in English.
Moreover, a writing activity in the form of essay was used to find out the effect of SNSs

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on the Writing skills of the students. The essay about the environment was composed of two
paragraphs with three to five sentences in each paragraph.
An interview was also conducted to further validate the respondents’ answers in the
questionnaire.

Data Gathering Procedure

The questionnaire was administered during the vacant time of the respondents. Then, the
researcher personally retrieved the questionnaire from the respondents after it was answered.
Moreover, the researcher requested from the English professor of the respondents that an essay
regarding the environment will be written by respondents during their English class as a part of
their activity in the subject. The researcher checked the essay using a scoring guide. Finally, an
interview was conducted to the randomly chosen respondents to validate further the respondents’
answers.

Analysis of Data
Frequency counts, percentage, rank, and mean were used to analyze the responses of the
respondents on the use of SNSs and on the essay. The weighted mean was also used to analyze the
responses of the same students about the perceived effects of SNSs on students’ Writing
Proficiency in English.
The following arbitrary levels of description was used in describing the purpose of using
SNSs among the students and in finding out the perceived effects of SNSs on students’ writing
proficiency in English.
Perceived Effects
Interval Descriptive Equivalent
3.75 – 5.0 Strongly Agree
2.75 – 3.74 Agree
1.75 – 2.74 Disagree
1.00 – 1.74 Strongly Disagree
Moreover, the essay was checked based on criteria presented below. The criteria
determined the total errors committed by the respondents in terms of a.) Subject – Verb Agreement
(S Rule), b.) Simple Tense (Present, Past, and Future), c.) Preposition ( in, on, and at), and d.)
Spelling. The following rating scale was used to find the writing proficiency of the students in
terms of their grammar skills.
Number of Errors Description
0-5 Excellent
6-10 Good
11-15 Fair
16 above Needs Improvement

Finally, the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using the SPSS Version 23 was used to find
the significant difference between the writing skills and the extent of usage of SNSs. The data was
tested at .05 level of significance.

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Results and Discussion

Table 1 presents the types of Social Networking Sites used by the respondents.

Table 1. Types of Social Networking Sites Used by the Respondents

TYPE of SNSs FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
(n=28) (100%)
FACEBOOK 28 100
TWITTER 6 21.43
INSTAGRAM 6 21.43
YOUTUBE 27 96.43
YAHOO 16 57.14
GOOGLE+ 24 85.71
SKYPE 9 32.14
SLIDESHARE 19 67.86
BLOG 2 7.14
WIKI 18 64.29

Table 1 shows that all the students used at least two or more types of SNSs. Results revealed
that the most used types of SNSs used by the respondents are Facebook (100%), Youtube
(96.43%), Google+ (85.71%) Slideshare (67.86%), Wiki (64.29%), and Yahoo (57.14%). In
contrast, Skype (32.14%), Twitter (21.437%), Instagram (21.43%), and Blog (7.14%), are the least
used SNSs among the students.
The result is in line with the findings of researchers about the type of Social Networking
Sites used. Church and Oliveira (2013) as well as Haq and Chand (2012) back this assertion that
Whatsapp and Facebook are the most popular and largest social network sites used by students.
This is also supported by AmofaSerwa and Dadzie (2015), who found Facebook as mostly used
among pupils in school. Hargittai (2008), studied a sample of 1,060 students and found that overall
88% of the students used social network sites and found Facebook as the most popular service
among these students, with almost four in five using it, and over half of the overall sample doing
so repeatedly.

Table 2.a. presents the respondents’ length of using Social Networking Sites.
Table 2. a. Respondents’ SNSs Length of Use
SPAN FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
(n=28) (100%)
1-2 years ago 0 0
3-4 years ago 10 35.71
5-6 years ago 13 46.43
7 above years ago 5 17.86

Table 2.a. reveals that majority of the respondents (46.43%) have been using the SNSs for 5-6
years ago, 35.71% have been using SNSs for 3-4 years ago, and 17.86% have been using SNSs for
7 and above years ago. None of the respondents has been using the SNSs for 1-2 years ago.

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Table 2.b. reveals the respondents’ frequency of using SNSs in a day.

Table 2.b. Respondents’ SNSs Frequency of Use in a Day

TIME FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

(n=28) (100%)
Below 1 hour 7 25
1-2 hours 13 46.43
3-4 hours 6 21.43
5-6 hours 1 3.57
6-7 hours 1 3.57
Others 0 0

Table 2.b. presents that most of the respondents (46.43%) reported that they used SNSs for
1-2 hours in a day. In other sense, the students allocated time in a day in using or logging in to
SNSs particularly on Facebook as the earlier data showed that it is the most used SNSs by the
students. Meanwhile, 25% of the respondents indicated that they used SNSs for less than an hour
in a day while 21.43% of them confirmed that they used SNSs for 3-4 hours in a day. Only one
(3.57%) of the respondents responded that he used SNSs for 5-6 hours and 6-7 hours in a day
respectively.
Table 3 presents the purposes of the respondents in using Social Networking Sites.
Purpose of SNSs Use Types of Social Networking Sites
Faceb Twit Instag You Yahoo Google Skype Slide Blog Wiki
ook ter ram tube share

PERSONAL
1. To learn about people I meet socially 28
2. To find past and new friends 28
3. To post and share photos, videos or files 26 1 1
4. To communicate with friends and family 28
5. To download videos, movies, and songs 1 23 3
6. To watch videos, movies, and songs 1 1 25 1
7. To connect to people of similar interest 28
8. To stay updated with entertainment and current news 18 2 5 2 1
9. To play games 4 24
10. To shop online 23 5
EDUCATIONAL
11. To connect with my classmates about 28
Homework

12. To improve my vocabulary and grammar 25 1 2

13. To get information and announcements from the faculty 27 1
14. To post and submit my requirements 3 10 13 2
15. To search information about my homework 27 1
16. To find materials related to my course and major 26 1 1
17. To read educational online published books 26 1 1
18. To create group chat to discuss projects outside classroom 28

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19. To communicate with teacher about school matters outside 28

classroom
20. To post my outputs and to get comments/suggestions from 28
friends.

As presented in table 3, the respondents responded that they used different Social
Networking Sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, You tube, Yahoo, Google, Skype, Slide
share, Blog, and Wiki both for personal and educational purposes. Moreover, Facebook, You tube,
and Google were the kind of Social Networking Sites mostly used by the respondents in
accomplishing their purposes.
Facebook being the top most used SNSs by the respondents was used for following
purposes: to learn about people they meet socially, to find past and new friends, to post and share
photos, videos or files, to communicate with friends and family, to watch videos, movies, and
songs, to connect to people of similar interest, to stay updated with entertainment and current news,
to play games, to shop online, to connect with my classmates about homework, to get information
and announcements from the faculty, to post and submit their requirements, to create group chat
to discuss projects outside classroom, to communicate with teacher about school matters outside
classroom, and to post their outputs and get comments/ suggestions from friends.
Similarly, according to 2017 social media management platform Hootsuite and United
Kingdom-based consultancy “We Are Social Ltd.” Facebook continues to dominate the internet
as the top social media platform with over 2.17 billion users, followed by YouTube with 1.5 billion
users, and messaging services WhatsApp and FB messenger with 1.3 billion users each.
Table 4 shows the perceived effects of Social Networking Sites on respondents’ writing
proficiency in English.
Table 4. Perceived Effects of SNSs on Respondents’ Writing Proficiency in English
STATEMENTS WEIGHTED DESCRIPTIVE
MEAN EQUIVALENT
1. My vocabulary database is increased by 4.04 Strongly Agree
reading materials online that are written
in English language.
2. I learn new words from the posts of my 3.86 Strongly Agree
friends online.
3. My writing ability gets developed 4.07 Strongly Agree
through communicating with my friends
from English-speaking countries via
online.
4. I enhance my writing ability through 4.14 Strongly Agree
watching videos related to learning
English language.
5. I enhance my writing skill through 4.04 Strongly Agree
reading online materials written in
English language.
6. I find the meaning of the English words 4.14 Strongly Agree
I don’t understand through using SNSs.

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7. I improve my knowledge about new 4.21 Strongly Agree

terminologies.
8. I learn modern writing pattern and 3.96 Strongly Agree
techniques from SNSs.
9. My written ability is affected with the 3.57 Agree
usage of abbreviations, short form and
initialisms that are frequently used in
SNSs.
10. I commit spelling errors on my written 3.43 Agree
outputs due to exposure in internet slang.
11. My grammar gets distorted in actual 3.64 Strongly Agree
writing and speaking practice.
12. I waste my time that leads to less 3.18 Agree
language learning.
13. I used improper vocabulary in my 3.11 Agree
academic writing and speaking.
14. My mode of writing is influenced by 3.25 Agree
SNSs language styles.
15. I learn to use fowl languages because of 3.04 Agree
the comments I read from the posts.

As noted in table 4, the respondents “strongly agree” that they improve their knowledge
about new terminologies (4.21), they enhance their writing ability through watching videos related
to learning English language (4.14), they can find the meaning of the English words they don’t
understand through using SNSs (4.14), their writing ability gets developed through communicating
with their friends from English-speaking countries via online ( 4.07), their vocabulary database is
increased by reading materials online that are written in English language ( 4.04), they enhance
their writing skill through reading online materials written in English language (4.04), they learn
modern writing pattern and techniques from SNSs (3.96), and they learn new words from the posts
of their friends online (3.86).
Moreover, table 4 presents also the negative impacts of SNSs towards students’ Writing
Proficiency in English. The respondents “strongly agree” that their grammar gets distorted in
actual writing and speaking practice (3.64). Meanwhile the respondents reported that they “agree”
on the following statements: their written ability is affected with the usage of abbreviations, short
form and initialisms that are frequently used in SNSs (3.57), they commit spelling errors on their
written outputs due to exposure in internet slang (3.43), their mode of writing is influenced by
SNSs language styles they waste their time that leads to less language learning (3.25), they waste
time that leads to less language learning (3.18), they used improper vocabulary in their academic
writing and speaking (3.11), and they learn to use fowl languages because of the comments they
read from the posts.
This is probably for the reason that they usually use acronym and initialism when
communicating online mainly to avoid repetition and to save space and time. Thus, they have
experienced the inclusion of SNSs language or internet slang in academic writing without
realization.

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These findings are similar with the findings of the study “The potential value of social
networking sites as an educational tool” as summed up by Hoffman (2009) in a presentation to the
Technology Colleges and Community when she states “Social networking is a tool, with both its
advantages and problems for usage in teaching and learning” (p. 98). This sentiment is echoed by
Hamid, Waycott, Kurnia, and Chang (2010) who studied the use of online social networking for
higher education and conclude that, despite the potential benefits they have identified, harnessing
social technologies offers both opportunities and challenges.
Table 5 presents the Errors committed by the respondents in the essay activity.
Table 5. Respondent’s Errors in the Essay
Criteria Total Errors Committed Rank
Simple Tense 86 1
S-V Agreement 58 2
Preposition 22 3
Spelling 13 4

Table 5 reveals that Simple tense ranked 1st in the errors committed by the respondents in
the essay. The Subject-Verb Agreement ranked 2nd, Preposition ranked 3rd, and Spelling ranked
4th among the errors committed by the respondents in the essay.
Relative to this, a study conducted by Mingle (2015) revealed that majority of respondents
used Whatsapp and Facebook for making friends and chatting. In addition, majority of respondents
experienced negative effects such as poor grammar and spelling, late submission of assignment,
less study time and poor academic performance due to the heavy participation on social media
networks.
Table 6 shows the writing proficiency in English of the respondents.
Table 6. Respondents’ Writing Proficiency in English
Number of Errors Frequency Percentage Descriptive Equivalent
(n=28) 100%
0-5 10 35.71 Excellent
6-10 15 53.57 Good
11-15 1 3.57 Fair
16 above 2 7.14 Needs Improvement

Table 6 shows that majority of the respondents (53.57%) have “good” Writing Proficiency
in English, 35.71% have “excellent” Writing Proficiency in English, 3.57% have “fair” Writing
Proficiency in English, and 7.14% “needs improvement” in their Writing Proficiency in English.
This is in line with the findings of numerous researchers who have outlined a number of
student benefits in relation to education as a result of social network participation. Yunus et al.
(2012), indicates that students gained more vocabulary and improved their writing skills as a result
of their participation on social networks such as Facebook and Twitter. This is also points out in
the assertion made by Bulusan (2016) that “Social Networking Sites are helpful in the students’
lives because it provide them knowledge and information.
Table 7.a. presents the relationship between the respondents’ writing skills and hours of
using Social Networking Sites.

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Table 7.a. Difference Between Respondents’ Writing Skills and Hours of SNSs Use
Mean Square F Sig.
s/v Between Groups 1.961 2.051 .143
Within Groups .956
Total
s/t Between Groups 6.744 1.230 .321
Within Groups 5.484
Total
prep Between Groups .164 .393 .683
Within Groups .417
Total
spell Between Groups .021 .057 .945
Within Groups .367
Total

In Table 7.a., the computed value is greater than .05 level of significance, therefore the null
hypothesis is accepted. This means that there is no significant difference between the respondents’
writing skills and the hours of using Social Networking Sites.

Table 7.b presents the relationship between the respondents’ writing skills and years of
using Social Networking Sites.
Table 7.b. Difference Between Respondents’ Writing Skills and Years of Using SNSs
Years of Using SNSs
Mean Square F Sig.
s/v Between Groups .411 .351 .709
Within Groups 1.172
Total
s/t Between Groups 1.913 .323 .727
Within Groups 5.921
Total
prep Between Groups .161 .385 .688
Within Groups .418
Total
spell Between Groups .538 3.359 .119
Within Groups .160
Total

In table 7.b., the computed value is greater than .05 level of significance, therefore the null
hypothesis is accepted. This means that there is no significant difference between the respondents’
writing skills and the years of using Social Networking Sites.

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Interview:
Ten out of the 28 respondents were randomly selected for an interview. They were assigned
according to number: from Student 1-10.
The following were the answers gathered from the interviewees. Common answers were
transcribed as one.
On the question “Do you use Social Networking Sites?” All of the respondents said “yes,”.
This was followed up by the question, “What type of Social Networking Sites you used? All of the
respondents answered, Facebook, You tube, Yahoo, and Google. In addition, students 1, 5, 7, 8,
said they were also using twitter, and skype. Students 2, 3, 9 added that they were also using slide
share and Instagram. Student 4,6, 10 added that they were also using Blog and Wiki.
They were asked how long have they been using the Social Networking Sites? Students 1,
4, 5,7,8 answered 3-4 years. Students 2,3,6,9 said 5-6 years. Student 10 admitted she was using
SNSs for more than 7 years.
When asked for their reasons of using Social Networking Sites, the following answers
came up: All the respondents used SNSs to connect and communicate with their friends and family.
Moreover, students 2,5,8 said that they used SNSs to discuss their assignments and projects with
friends and to post photos. Students 1,4, admitted that they used SNSs to play on- line games.
Student 3 admitted too that she used SNSs to shop online. Students 6, 9, said they were using SNSs
to download and to watch videos, and movies. Student 7 mentioned that he used SNSs to improve
his grammar. Student 10 said she used SNSs to read educational materials.
They were asked if Social Networking Sites have affected them. All the respondents said,
“yes”. It was followed up the question, what are the effects of Social Networking Sites? Students
1, 2, 4, 6, 7, answered they learned new words because of the reading materials written in English.
Student 3 admitted that she learned business terms since she was fond of shopping on line. Students
5, 9 mentioned that tend to use shortcuts and initials when writing. Students 8, 10, said their
vocabulary increased because of the comments they read from posts of friends and family.
What do you think will help you better improve your writing proficiency in English?
Student 1 responded that “Reading more posts from Facebook (laughs)”. On the other hand,
student 2 replied that “I -allow ng teacher ang paggamit ng internet” (the teacher allowed the use
of internet. Student 3 suggested on ‘more activities”. Student 4 likewise responded that “We should
be allowed to use taglish. (laughs)” (to be allowed to use Tagalog and English). Moreover, student
5 answered “Practice pa ng practice kase para masanay” (to practice more to be able to be used
with the language). Similarly, Student 6 also answered “Read, read, and read, then write, write
and write”. Student 7 suggested “Turuan pa kami ng grammar” (teach us grammar). There was a
comment from Student 8 on “Good teachers” which was validated by Student 9 response on “Mas
mabait and matyagang teachers” (kind and diligent teachers). And finally, student replied that
“Continuous reading of materials written in English” syempre galing sa internet (laughs). (of
course from the internet).
From the interview, it can be observed that the respondents used Social Networking Sites
particularly Facebook to communicate with family and friends, to post photos, and to discuss
assignments and projects with friends. Moreover, they used SNSs both for personal and
educational purposes. It can be noted also that the SNS have both positive and negative effects to
the respondents. Finally, SNSs was believed to be of help in further improving the respondents’
writing proficiency in English.

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Conclusion
A lot of benefits abound in the use of social networking sites such as sharing information and ideas,
improving knowledge about new terminologies, enhancing writing ability, etc. Despite these
benefits that come with the participation of students on social networking sites, its misuse could
affect negatively on their writing performance. The students use of social networking sites must
be for educational and personal purposes.

Recommendations
Students should balance their time in engaging themselves into Social Networking Sites. They
should use it as a tool for improving their Writing proficiency and their overall academic
performance than for personal purposes alone to ensure the acquisition of its pros and avoid its
negative effects on them that may lead to the destruction of their effectiveness in using the English
language in various communications. The teachers should emphasize the proper use of punctuation
marks in written discourse. Moreover, proper use of conjunctions should also be considered. In
the course syllabus, it is encouraged to use social media to improve the writing performance in
English. It may be of interest for future researchers to include other writing criteria and writing
activity to generate better and more independent data about the use of Social Networking Sites
among the students and its impact on their Writing proficiency in English.

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Impact of Covid-19 on English Language Teaching in Yemen: Challenges and

Opportunities

Farooq A. AlTameemy*
Assistant Professor, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, KSA

Yasser Alrefaee**
English Department, Faculty of Education and Sciences/ Radaa, Al-Baydha University,
Yemen

Abstract
This study examined the effect of COVID-19 on English language teaching as well as the steps
undertaken by the Ministry of Higher Education in Yemen to cope with the challenges imposed
by the spread of the pandemic throughout the country. To this end, a mixed-method design in
which quantitative and qualitative approaches were used for collecting and analyzing the data of
the study; a questionnaire was developed and sent online to the participants for the purpose of data
collection. The sample of the study consisted of 120 students from selected Yemeni universities.
The obtained data were analyzed via SPSS software in which the frequencies and percentages of
the obtained responses were calculated. The analysis of the data revealed that English language
teaching underwent an abrupt change because of the unexpected circumstances that were caused
by the COVID-19 pandemic, and several changes were also made to the curriculum, students'
performance evaluation, and pedagogy. Besides, the findings showed that Yemeni students faced
several challenges including poor Wi-Fi connection, lack of access to some learning websites, and
the absence of some equipment necessary for online learning. Regardless of these challenges, most
of the participants reported that they can manage to do their final evaluation online which indicates
that if the online teaching methods are implemented properly, the online learning of the English
Language during the pandemic period will be successful in the Yemeni universities. The present
study provides recommendations which can be useful for EFL learners and teachers, decision-
makers, teaching English and perhaps the entire teaching process in Yemen.

Keywords: COVID-19, Online learning, Teaching Pedagogy, Language Teaching/learning,

Technology Tools

*[email protected]
**[email protected]

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Introduction
Technology has become part and parcel of English language teaching and learning processes
worldwide. In fact, using technology in ELT classrooms has gone through so many developments.
Initially, teaching English language involved the use of cassette recorders, TV and so forth. Later
on, more advanced technologies have been used for teaching purposes with a variety of more
improved audio-visual aids including projectors, laptops, interactive smartboards, smartphones,
etc. At the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, English Language Teaching
has utilized technological tools to become a natural part of it. Any English language teacher would
associate a variety of these tools to various tools to use in his/her teaching based on various factors
like what level the students are , intended learning outcomes, syllabus and pacing schedule etc.
Various Technology tools helped teaching evolve and extended a richer and a more sophisticated
learning and teaching experience. Such technologies have been developed to deal with the teaching
needs which often change from time to time based on current teaching methods, changes of
teaching and learning beliefs, or certain events that take place in different parts of the world. For
instance, the spread of the Covid-19 pandemic in every nook and cranny of the world and its
sequences such as lockdown, quarantine, and travel ban necessities the use of technology to pursue
teaching and learning.
The year 2020 brought a radical improvement in the teaching-learning process as a
consequence of the Covid-19 spread which forced those working in the academia like educators,
teachers, students, and others working in the field to adapt themselves to a new, yet the innovative
approach of teaching and learning i.e. e-learning/online learning. Educators worldwide started
looking at the teaching process from a different perspective and such a shift and adaptation was
profound in English Language Teaching.
The new teaching/learning environment is quite different from the one provided by the
face-to-face one. For example, the comfort of social gathering in one class is missing and the in-
class communication and clarification of facts is not there anymore. This all was replaced by
another more formal mode of teaching and learning, dealing with the exception of the knowledge
and needs of students differently. Online teaching definitely brought a lot of educational benefits.
Yet, that was not without challenges and difficulties to both teachers and learners.
The current study aims to:
1- Examine the effect of COVID-19 on English Language Teaching in selected Yemeni
universities.
2- Identify the steps undertaken by the selected Yemeni universities to cope with the
challenges of Covid-19 and continue the English language teaching.

Literature Review
Higher Education Transition to Remote Learning
In line with Bozkurt and Sharma (2020), online learning involves spatial distance and an
obligation. This means that different strategies have to be employed to approach the case with
different priorities. Similarly, Hodges et al. (2020) defined emergency remote learning as the
adoption of temporary instructional delivery to substitute delivery mode as a result of pandemic
circumstances. It encompasses the application of fully remote learning and teaching and learning
way out for education that is supposed to be delivered face-to-face. The main reason behind these
situations is to come up with a design of an educational system that could allow quick access to

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education during the Covid-19 pandemic (Hodges et al., 2020). Emergency distant
learning/teaching takes place outdoors. Emergency remote learning which has greater similarities
with e-learning occurs online as well. Online teaching is usually enhanced through technology like
learning management systems, video conferencing software, and discussion boards. Both
instructors and students link up through two-way communication technology though distance and
time separate both of them. The success of online learning includes making assignment guidelines
clear, providing ongoing feedback, and using online resources effectively.
The attempt of institutions of higher education to adopt online teaching practices can
facilitate teaching flexibility at any place and at any time, yet, the rate of occurrence of this shift
is staggering and unprecedented. This sudden shift from face-to-face to emergency distant learning
has caused students, faculties, and teaching staff several challenges. Hence, emergency distance
learning/teaching presents adjustments that universities, colleges, and the people have to deal with
(Saykili, 2019). For instance, instructors are not ready enough to deliver online teaching and thus
they find it difficult to make use of digital tools online resources as well as applications to continue
their online teaching (Trust, 2020).
Furthermore, universities have few chances of learning the manner technology is applied
in teaching involving the adaption process, evaluation, and application of technology in the
improvement of learning activities. Due to this, a large number of the instructors were not prepared
enough to come up with distant education understandings with technology when districts and states
began the closure of schools due to Covid-19 (Trust, 2020). Similarly, the adoption of emergency
distant learning brings up several issues especially in regards to students learning, student data
accessibility, issues of internet connection, and the digital divide. Thereby, the movement to
emergency distant learning and teaching has floodlit and worsened the digital divide (Trust, 2020;
Agormedah, et al., 2020). In this connection, Taylor-Guy and Chase (2020) maintained that there
is a hindrance of students' cohesiveness and interaction of learner and instructor in the real-time
video in emergency remote learning, leading to student dropout and disengagement.
According to Saavedra (2020), developed countries have higher chances of gaining a lot
due to the introduction of remote teaching, however, this does not apply to all countries. For
instance, Adam (2020) designated that only individuals with the advantage will benefit from
remote learning. Apparently, the society’s most susceptible members are the ones who feel the
effect of the Covid-19 pandemic (Guterres, 2020). It is clear that both developing and developed
nations have already been anguished by breaks to schooling.

Internet Infrastructure in Yemen

In 1995, Yemen was connected to the outside world through three seas and four land cables
(Aldowah, Ghazal, & Muniandy, 2015; Al-Bashiri, 2021). This service was provided by a single
provider, TeleYemen, which has been owned by the country’s International and Internet Gateways.
The (Dial-Up) telephone lines in Yemen have been the sole tool for users to have access to the
Internet.
Yemeni people nowadays live in a bad situation due to the ongoing war throughout the
country, which has heavily affected the utilization of the internet. Besides, mobile data in Yemen
is considered as one of the most expensive services in the world, and the most expensive country
in the Arab world, according to the report Cable. (21) cited in Al-Bashiri, 2021,p.9).

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From the above diagram, it is shown that the Internet in Yemen is very expensive and thus
using this service in education is so costly. Furthermore, the speed of the Internet is very slow and
bad which places Yemen at 207th in the world ranking as the slowest internet connection in the
world for the third year in a row (Hananto, 2019).

Works on E-learning system challenges

In both developing and developed countries, many universities around the world are facing
challenges with the implementation and adoption of e-learning systems. However, in developed
countries, the problem is not that big because most of their learners have accepted and are willing
to use e-learning systems and a great step has been made already towards the implementation of
e-learning (Almaiah, et al. 2016). According to Eltahir (2019), the digital divide is a key barrier
that hinders the adoption and implementation of e-learning in developing countries.
The study reviewed several studies concerning the challenges that hinder the adoption of e-learning
techniques. It was evident from the reviews that the main challenges could be categorized into four
groups: cultural, technological, individual, and course challenges. In addition, it was also clear that
these challenges do vary according to the country because of differences in culture, readiness, and
context. According to Aung & Khaing, (2015), poor infrastructure networks, weakness of
developed content, and lack of ICT knowledge were the key factors that hindered the adoption of
e-learning in developing countries.
In a study, conducted in Pakistan, by Kanwal & Rehman, (2017) , the results revealed that
internet experience, computer self-efficacy, and system characteristics were among the major
challenges that hindered the implementation of e-learning. Similarly, a study that was conducted
by Kisanga and Ireson (cited in Mulhanga & Lima, 2017) revealed that the lack of technical
support, lack of IT skills, and poor interface design are the main challenges facing the utilization

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of e-learning projects. According to Mulhanga and Lima (2017), political, economic, and cultural
barriers are the reasons for the failure of the adoption of e-learning techniques in many learning
institutions.
Moreover, Kenan, et al., (2013) analyzed the social impact and cultural issues which
influence the e-learning performance of Higher Education institutes in Libya. They found that for
e-learning to be implemented in the official sector, it is necessary to do comprehensive strategic
planning. Moving education into the adoption of technology needs the utilization of operative
implementation strategies and plans (Danwa, & Wenbin, 2010). Employing any form of
transformation and changes in how people work can cause some challenges for an association. It
was found that managing employee behavior during the transition is behind up to 70% of the cost
to employ a main organizational change (Kenan, et al. 2013). Chen and Tseng (2012) also
identified four main categories of challenges that face the implementation of online learning; these
include technical challenges, cultural challenges, management challenges, and implementation
challenges. Regardless of all the above challenges, none of them talked about the challenges that
are experienced by the user during using e-learning systems.
According to Al-Araibi, Naz’ri, and Yusoff (2019) who associated the issues related to
technology with the success of e-learning systems, approximately 46% of e-learning projects are
not successful in developing countries, about 39% are partially failed and about 16% are
successful. Hence, following the above findings, together with other studies, many researchers in
the information technology field have carried out studies so as to identify the challenges and come
up with solutions for implementing e-learning techniques successfully (Al-Araibi et al. 2019;
Esterhuyse & Scholtz 2015).

Methodology
Design of the Study
This study adopted a mixed-method design in which quantitative and qualitative approaches were
used for collecting and analyzing the data. Although one data collection instrument was used, the
collected data were both quantitative and qualitative in that the questionnaire included closed-
ended and open-ended questions. This design is particularly adopted because it is useful for
collecting data from a big number of participants and thus helps achieve the objectives of the
present study.

Data collection instrument

The present study made use of survey design with the main aim to obtain answers to several
questions which are arranged with care and handed out to the participants. As stated previously, a
questionnaire developed by the researchers was used as the main instrument for data collection. It
was made up of two sections. The first section was a closed-ended and involved answer based on
a five-point Likert scale varying from “very dissatisfied" (VD), dissatisfied (D), neutral (N), and
satisfied (S) to "very satisfied" (VS). This section contained four items that addressed the devices
the learners used to access online learning and how affordable they are. The second section
involved three open-ended questions which aimed to collect the participants’ views concerning the
challenges they faced in the adoption of the e-learning systems and the extent to which the
technology helped them in learning the English language.

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Validity and reliability of the questionnaire

It is common knowledge that validity is concerned with the extent to which the questionnaire
measures what is intended to measure. To ensure that the questionnaire used in this study is valid,
the questionnaire along with the title of the study as well as the objectives of this study were given
to Yemeni professors to provide their own feedback on this questionnaire. The feedback offered
by the validators was significant and thus was taken into account and some items were thus
modified and amended accordingly.
A reliability test was also done for the questionnaire. The data collected from the
questionnaire were analyzed through the SPSS package. The average indicator was 0.8 which
according to Howitt and Cramer (2005) indicates that the employed questionnaire in this study is
reliable. According to them, any reliability result which is above 0.7 indicates that the
questionnaire is reliable. The calculated index of Cronbach's alpha reliability for the questionnaires
ranged from 0.857 to 0.906 and the overall indicator was at 0.875 as shown in (Table 1) below.

Table 1: Cronbach’s Alpha

Students’ access to online learning devices Cronbach’s Alpha
Online learning devices to be used (5 items) 0.906
Able to use online learning devices 0.870
efficiently (5 items)
Access to a constant internet connection for 0.857
online learning (3 items)
Capable of purchasing internet data/ bundle 0.879
for online learning (3 items)
Overall indicator of 16 items 0.875

Population and sampling

The population of the study included the EFL students in the faculties of education in two
universities, namely, Sana’a University and Science and Technology University. The reason why
these two universities are particularly selected is that those two universities are considered the best
universities in Yemen. Another reason for the selection is that these two universities represent the
universities in the two sectors in Yemen, namely, the private and public sectors; Sana’a University
is a public university while Science and Technology University is a private university. It is hoped
that selecting two universities from both sectors provides a clear picture of how different
universities with different facilities and potentials could deal with the challenges of teaching
English online during Covid-19 in Yemen.
In terms of the sample of the study, a total of 120 EFL students were selected randomly
from all fourth-level students enrolled in the faculties of education in the two selected universities.
The selected sample represents 30% of the whole population of the study. Fourth level students in
the faculties of education in the selected universities are also particularly selected because they are
supposed to be more proficient and thus they might provide in-depth explanations for the open-
ended questions which in turn enrich the analysis of data of the study.

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Data Analysis
The obtained data were analyzed via the SPSS package in which frequencies and percentages were
used to measure the students’ responses obtained from the close-ended questions. In terms of the
open-ended questions, the obtained responses were coded and then explained qualitatively in a
way that helps achieve the objectives of the study. The next section presents the findings of the
study.

Results and Discussion

This section provides the obtained findings as well as the discussion of these results in relation to
those found in the literature.

Devices/mediums used by the participants to access online learning

The study sought to determine what kind of online learning devices that learners had access to
during the pandemic. The study also aimed to identify how effectively the students used the devices
and their internet connection accessibility. Table one below presents the results related to the
access of students to the devices of online learning.

Table 2: Access of students to devices of online learning (n=120)

Variable Sub-scale f %
Online learning Smartphone 91 75.8
devices to be used Desktop 2 1.7
Laptop 10 8.3
Tablet/iPad 3 2.5
I don't have any of 14 11.7
them

Able to use online 48 40

learning devices Smartphone 2 1.7
efficiently. Desktop 39 33
Laptop 3 2.5
Tablet/iPad 28 23.3
Not sure
Access to a constant 17 14.2
internet connection Yes 68 56.7
for online learning No 35 29.2
May be

Capable of 11 9.2
purchasing internet Yes 88 73.3
data/ bundle for No 21 17.5
online learning May be

The findings in Table 2 revealed that the majority of participants indicated that they could
access and use smartphones (n=91; 75.8%) in the COVID-19 pandemic period. The laptop was

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also found to be the second option utilized by the participants. However, some of the respondants
indicated that they do not have a desktop, smartphone, or laptop (n=14; 11.7%) and that they could
not attend virtual lectures during the pandemic. In terms of their use of the devices, most of the
learners reported that they could use smartphones effectively (n=48; 40%) in the course of online
learning, and this was followed by the laptop (n=39; 33%), though, 23.3% of the learners were not
sure about the extent to which they could use the online learning devices effectively. The level of
transition of learners to remote learning during the pandemic could be hindered by their inability
to access online learning devices. These findings go hand in hand with the works done by Rush
University (2020) which revealed that the digital divide within students was the main barrier
towards students' transition to online learning.
Furthermore, a large number of the learners (n=68; 56.7%) indicated that they did not have
constant internet access to remote learning while 35(29.2%) and 17(14.2%) of the learners reported
that they were capable of accessing constant internet access respectively. This could be attributed
to the fact that a large number of respondents (n=88; 73.3%) believed that they were not able to
afford to purchase the internet bundles for online learning whereas 11(9.2%) of them indicated
that they were capable of affording to buy internet bundles for remote learning. The transition of
learners and participation in online learning and teaching needs access and application of
computing devices and having constant access to the internet, and this could be expensive to
students. These findings are in line with those found by Houlden and Veletsianos (2020) who
claimed that educators had similar concerns for learners who are incapable of having easy access
to Wi-Fi or computer devices in the course of the pandemic period.
The inability of EFL learners to access online learning devices and connectivity of the
internet could develop the digital divide because of economic disparity within EFL learners. These
findings are in congruence with the findings obtained in some studies , to mention but a few, Isaacs
(2020), Dube (2020) and Shehab, et al. (2020) in which it was pointed out that approximately half
of the EFL learners globally do not have access to computers and approximately 44% of the
learners do not have internet connectivity at their homes. About 92% of learners do not have
household computers in sub-Saharan Africa whereas 83% of them cannot access internet
connectivity. According to UNESCO 2020 report, approximately 57 million students stay in
regions that have poor mobile networks.
Likewise, another study conducted in Southern Asia revealed that over 80% of some
countries had instant access to the internet but Vietnam and some African countries had lower than
35% access to internet connectivity. Even though people in other regions had access to the internet
and electronic devices, internet speeds were also a key challenge in those regions (David et al.,
2020; Jalli, 2020). Approximately 25% of families in Italy do not have an internet connection in
the course of this period of the pandemic (UNESCO, 2020).
Moreover, Thomas, Wilson, and Park (2018) contended that the “digital divide” is still a
great challenge among learners because the use of the internet is not advancing. People
experiencing an internet connection that is not reliable for use in online learning during the
pandemic period may be left behind (Graham & Pasi, 2020). The adoption and implementation of
e-learning systems by sectors of education during the COVID-19 pandemic may worsen education
equality (Ziyu, 2020) and this may also influence the smooth transition of learners to remote
learning during the pandemic period.

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Benefits and Opportunities of e-Learning

This section summarizes the participants’ responses regarding the benefits and e-learning. The
analysis of the data shows that one of the greatest substantial facets of online learning during the
closure of the institutes mostly was relying on independent learning by both teachers and learners.
Teachers had to base their teaching on certain theories that students would attend an online course
and get thorough readiness to be benefited from material provided, ( AlTameemyet al., 2020;
Rapanta, et al., 2020; Yeniçıkan, 2020; Zitouni, et al.,2021). Afterward, these students would do
and attend particular lessons or language items online. Consequently, it enhances self-education
learning among them who already have gained enough knowledge to rely on themselves and also
they urge others to try to develop this technique by themselves independently to find solutions for
problems that they face. The participants argued that it is not learning online only encourages
independent learning among the learners to take a certain assessment of learning authority in their
hands, but also it established a good ground for improving learning skills,( Jacobs, et al., 2020).
The students are self-motivated to learn and to do their assignments but also developed a self-
evaluation towards their studies. They claimed that it is unnecessary to mention the study skills
that they are a part of successful language acquisition and are qualities that were considered as the
important requirements for getting any job that the students choose in the future. Plus, they look
great on a curriculum vitae.
Furthermore, the participants maintained that online learning established a sense of
carefulness among them as they had a sense of truthfulness related to their tasks, submissions,
assignments deadlines. Online learning also provides these students with a program that enables
them to identify their ability to rely on themselves and fulfill the rules of teaching-learning with a
high sense of truthfulness. According to them, this was clear from their on time for online
submission of the assignments that was principally adhered to by these EFL learners. Moreover,
the findings of the study also showed that such a kind of learning equipped a various level of
assistance to the learners who are slow in learning by giving them sufficient time to deal with the
pace of the lesson. Interestingly, almost all the class conversations were recorded while the teacher
delivers the lesson, which allowed them to refer back to the recording to get more clarifications
for any doubt they might have during the lesson to better understand the lesson or language item
taught. In this way, online learning significantly is of great help for these slow learning students
to cope with the subject matter taught and gave them a sense of accomplishment which would be
achieved in a regular face to face classroom due to various limitations such as the shyness to ask
any questions or time limit. Besides, it is revealed that some EFL learners even had their parents
sitting with them during the lessons and constantly assisting and encouraging them to comprehend
the concepts being taught and be proactive and vocal in contributing to class activities and
discussions.
Furthermore, the results of the study demonstrated that one more positive aspect of online
learning is that it provides a platform of greater flexibility in their study schedule about other
possible responsibilities they had planned. EFL learners now can easily plan their course work
around their schedule because fortunately, the online lessons did not necessitate them to travel,
which meant that EFL learners saved a lot of time spent on traveling and were able to complete
other planned or unplanned tasks. It is also found that online learning also resulted in cost reduction
as a solid amount of budget is spent on transportation whether it is public or private. According to
the participants, flexibility also comprises the learning environment which an EFL learner chooses

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in the most convenient place at his home, let it be their living room, or the bedroom, or their study
domain. It can also be carried out on their daily routine while listening to the podcast of their
teachers.

Challenges and Drawbacks

This section is concerned with the challenges and drawbacks based on the participants’
perspectives. The findings of the study revealed that online learning has been considering getting
its popularity in the past decades. Nevertheless, the beginning of 2020 has witnessed extensive
utilization as well as an increasing reliance on it because of the extraordinary situation during the
spread of Covid-19. As supplementary means employed sporadically based on the needs of the
learning outcomes, online learning is found to be the main entity of learning and teaching language
that not just provides many advantages but also exposed the difficulties encountered by the
participants and their EFL teachers alike.
Moreover, the findings of the study revealed that one of the principal difficulties
encountered by the participants is the flexibility to computer-based education in an effective
classroom. It was found that it was not a simple task for them to make a shift from conventional
face-to-face teaching to e-learning and it might lead to resistance from EFL students regarding the
adaptability to this fresh learning experience. Nevertheless, as online learning should be adopted
nowadays, EFL teachers must develop a positive impression of virtual learning on the minds of
EFL learners. They claimed that they must feel comfortable with the idea that e-learning is far
more stimulating and presents a totally diverse learning experience altogether. According to them,
training must be offered before the actual classes. They must also be provided with sufficient time
to discuss with their peers the topics they study so that they could attend e-learning with more
empathy and engage themselves ineffective learning in good mood.
The results of the study also showed that another problem that emerged from e-learning is
computer literacy for a few participants. It is found that some participants are well qualified to
utilize a computer, yet some others, using computers in an effective class or learning fresh ideas
could be an actual nightmare. They claimed that the lack of essential computer skills makes it so
hard for them not just in managing computers but also shows less interest in the current way of the
teaching-learning process. To solve this problem, the participants confirmed that it is vitally
significant that before teaching carried out on an effective level, they should be provided with
courses and training so as to improve their essential computer skills, such as Microsoft Word
(saving files and making folders ), creating PowerPoint presentations, how to upload and access
files if software such as Moodle is being used, and so forth. Once they are provided with the needed
skills, they can manage to contend with e-learning and engage in learning taking place. They
applauded that the more they learn effectively, the more they must get familiarise to fresh and
stimulating methods of learning that effective language teaching develops.
One more aspect that the participants find it difficult is the challenge of technical hitches.
According to them, this issue is a difficult problem facing the process of the online learning and
teaching. The majority of EFL learners encounter the issue of poor network connection. Such a
hitch becomes complicated due to the location in which some of them live is not covered or the
connect is very slow. Thus, it is challenging for those learners to attend online learning. To sort
out such an issue, those EFL learners students should utilize their smartphones to have access to
their virtual classes, which is fiscally not viable at all. The participants pointed out that there is no

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simple answer to such a problem except that they go and live in places where a good network could
be found at least for learning purposes.
Moreover, some more challenges were found from the analysis of the data of the present
study. One of such challenges is that enthusiasm was a matter for some participants. For several
reasons ranging from private to fiscal to professional, some participants claimed that they did not
have enough self-motivation though it is the essential component for successful learning to happen
whether it is the online or conventional classroom. The lack of self-stimulation among some
participants led to the inability to learn through such an advanced technological medium of
education. Some participants stated that they could not improve a positive attitude to encourage
themselves to attend online learning and teaching. Therefore, they fell behind in all aspects of
language learning and can not get the positive results that online learning has to provide. Another
issue was that some of the participants cannot regulate their time. Online learning involves many
post-session activities if students need to understand the ideas better. It was hard to withstand some
participants' interest for the period of the online classes. Accordingly, it was least anticipated that
those respondents could regulate time post online classes.

Suggestions for Effective Online Teaching and Learning

Although online learning has become a significant component of the current century with its excess
of the proposed benefits to both teachers and students, the selected faculties and perhaps the
faculties of education must have practical resolutions to sort out these difficulties imposed by such
mode of language teaching and learning. An adjustment in the attitude, as well as technology
education, must be enhanced among the EFL learners to enhance online learning ( Metruk, 2020).
This will assist them to increase their confidence to cope with the shift from the conventional
methods- face-to-face contact to –e-learning in an easy way. An extra time could be exclusively
given as an office hour on a weekly basis. This office hour is aimed to explain any confusion that
students have. This must not be considered as a formal communication or contact. Teachers could
offer additional resources as well as activities to ensure that EFL learners know the requirements
of the classes taking place on a weekly basis. The slides of lectures with audio recordings could
be presented to the EFL learners so that they could access and utilize them at their suitable time.
If online resources are employed, it must be made sure that such materials are congruent with the
learning outcomes and suit the capabilities of the EFL learners. In addition, EFL learners must
have the feeling that they belong to a certain society. Consequently, it is commanding that even
though teaching is online, pair or group activities could be offered so that EFL learners feel content
that they are working and acquiring knowledge. It is well-known in EFL pedagogy that EFL
learners perhaps learn effectively when they rehearse with peers. Consequently, peer tutoring
could be used as a method of assistance that could be offered to slow learning students. While such
materials and activities could be utilized as supplements, the essential online classes must
concentrate on the significant notions of language learning and the improvement of language skills
together with the strategies engaged in improving such skills.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The present study investigated the influence of Covid-19 on language teaching and learning in
Yemen. The results of the study showed that that English language teaching underwent some kind
of shift because of the unexpected circumstances caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Such

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changes were made to the EFL curriculum, students' performance evaluation, and EFL pedagogy.
Furthermore, the findings revealed that EFL Yemeni students encountered several challenges
among which are poor Wi-Fi connection, lack of access to some learning websites, and the absence
of some equipment necessary for online learning. The present study provided some
recommendations which can be useful for EFL pedagogy and particularly online EFL teaching in
Yemen.
It is shown that yet e-learning learning has come into severe demand because of Covid-19,
it was in vogue as an additional part of conventional learning in the selected universities.
Therefore, e-learning or some sort of blended learning should be adopted. With several
technological applications such as Zoom, Google Classroom, Microsoft Teams, Moodle, etc., a
fresh kind of blended learning-teaching has emerged which will associate the features of online
learning with that of conventional method- face-to-face interaction. Such a kind of teaching would
also provide many chances to the students to involve in the learning process effectively, and also
it provides them with sufficient time to redirect their learning. Whether it is fully held online or by
using the blended model of teaching and learning, both EFL teachers and students obtain superior
significance and importance. They are the ones who commence the process accurately, from the
early stage-, planning the curriculum, to developing activities that were based on the curriculum
and learning outcomes to carrying out the classes. Alvi, et al. ( 2021) stated that interaction
between teacher and student should be adopted to reassure the development of higher-order
thinking skills, active learning, and self-directed learning in students. Online assessments should
be both formative and summative. This is the theatrical stage for learners and teachers. They must
do their role to its proper extent for effective EFL learning and teaching-.
This study has some limitations which should be highlighted. For example, this study
adopted one data collection instrument (i.e questionnaire). Therefore, future studies should
triangulate the data collection instruments using for example interviews and other means for data
collection. Besides, the sample of the study is relatively small and thus future studies should
include a large number of participants from more universities. Factors such as gender, level of
study, major, and so forth are ignored in this study. Therefore, researchers should investigate how
EFL online teaching has different impacts on EFL students concerning these factors. Finally, the
current study is concerned with only EFL teaching and learning, and thus similar studies on other
specializations should be carried out in different parts of the world to the significance of online
teaching in the current age.

Acknowledgment
This publication was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Prince Sattam bin
Abdulaziz University, Alkharj, Saudi Arabia.

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Prospective Reading Teachers’ Digital Reading Habit: A Cross-sectional

Design

Bernadeth T. Abequibel
Integrated Laboratory School (High School Department), Western Mindanao State
University, Normal Road, Baliwasan, Zamboanga City Philippines

Criselda D.R. Ricohermosa

Western Mindanao State University – Pagadian Campus, Pagadian, Zamboanga del Sur
Philippines

Ericson O. Alieto*
College of Teacher Education, Western Mindanao State University, Normal Road,
Baliwasan, Zamboanga City Philippines

Cheryl P. Barredo
College of Liberal Arts, Western Mindanao State University, Normal Road, Baliwasan,
Zamboanga City Philippines

Rochelle Irene G. Lucas

Department of English and Applied Linguistics, De La Salle University, Taft Avenue,
Manila Philippines

Abstract
This empirical investigation intended to determine the digital reading habit of prospective reading
teachers with age range of 17 to 40, and mean age equals to 20.46 (Standard Deviation [SD] =
2.95). Moreover, this cross-sectional investigation employed a descriptive-quantitative-
correlational design to determine whether a gender difference exists on the digital reading habit of
the respondents and whether a significant relationship could be drawn between the polychotomous
variable socioeconomic status (SES) and the digital reading habit (DRH), the main contruct
investigated in this research. The data drawn from 328 respondents were collected through the
utilization of an adapted survey-questionnaire with determined reliability of Cronbach’s alpha =
0.97. Analyses of the data evidenced that the respondents are of ‘satisfactory’ digital reading habit.
In addition, it is disclosed that there significant difference on the DRH of the respondents of the
study across the dichotomous variable gender with male to be noted to have better DRH. Moreover,
the investigation established that there is a positive and significant relationship between the DRH
of the respondents and their SES. Implications are provided.

Keywords: Digital reading, reading habit, technology, gender, socioeconomic status

*[email protected]

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Introduction
Technology is a game changer. It has influenced most, if not all, dimensions of man’s activity. In
fact, Kaman and Ertem (2018, p.1) claimed that ‘the rapid spread of technology affects educational
life’. In addition, Rillo and Alieto (2018) maintained that in this present age marked by both
technology and globalization, education and communication have not remained how they were.
Similarly, Delos Reyes, De Vera and Medriano (2018) claimed that communication (receiving and
responding) using online platforms has recently become easy due to the advancement in
technology leading to the creation of wireless internet. Illustrative of this claim is reading which
as a process is realized through the interpretation of symbols with the end goal of comprehending
meaning from the said symbols which in most times are written texts (Buslon & Alieto, 2019).
This practice previously occurred on printed texts until the emergence of digital media which led
to the possibility of reading through digital device screens (Maden, 2018). This is part of the
process known as the digitalization of education (Ivić, 2019) which makes technology increasingly
necessary in the lives of people.
Certainly, the practice of reading on print is slowly substituted with reading through digital
screens. This is validated by the growth in popularity of e-books (Foasberg, 2014 as cited in
Eijansantos et al., 2020). In point of fact, present modern-time learners are noticed to do more
reading using their mobile phones, laptops and other forms of technological device in comparison
to reading print media such as books, magazines and the likes. Supportive of this is the claim of
Kaman and Ertem (2018) who maintained that learners coming from modern societies are
interacting with information and communication technologies. There are obvious reasons seen to
explain this. One is that digital readers are spared from the difficulty of carrying bulky books and
other printed materials. Another is that the ease of being able to view and share digital materials
is a great plus. Since files are easily transferred or sent to others, sharing and exchanging of
materials become a breeze which is not possible with print ones. One more reason is that since
digital reading materials are electronically stored, they post no trouble in storing and keeping them
as opposed to printed ones which take up so much space as regards keeping and storage. These
arguments relate to the conclusion of Maden (2018, p.1) that electronic texts provide ‘essential
savings in terms of time, space and energy’.
In the years to come, digital reading would become more prevalent and perhaps completely
substitute most print reading practices in school. Therefore, teachers must learn to adapt to this
change in an educational practice. This is greatly true among future reading teachers. However,
despite being an essential concern, a limited number of researches were conducted involving
prospective reading teachers. This investigation is based on the perspective that the digital reading
habit of teachers relates to students’ digital reading habit (DRH). Thus, there is a need to provide
empirical data relative to prospective teachers’ reading habit. This investigation identifies a
respondent gap. Upon survey of literature, no investigation on digital reading habit was conducted
towards pre-service teachers. An exception is the study of Maden (2018) which investigated the
construct among Turkish pre-service language teachers. Thus, this study intends to fill the gap
through the conduct of the investigation on digital reading habit directed towards prospective
reading teachers who are essential respondents in the investigation of the variable. The reason seen
is that these respondents who sooner or later would be reading teachers inside the classroom would
greatly determine the digital reading habit of their own learners. Thus, the study would provide
baseline data that would be important for future research on the same construct. Additionally, this

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study aimed to draw differences on the digital reading habit of the respondents across gender and
socio-economic status. Furthermore, the study also intended to determine whether a significant
relationship could be drawn between the variables DRH and SES.

Review of Related Literature

Digital reading habit
The existence of digital reading could be attributed to the emergence of technology and the
internet. These two have made possible the practice of present-day learners to access, read and
share information with ease and haste. Thus, students are noted to use technology to their
advantage (Walsh & Simpson, 2013). This means that more and more students are finding the
utilization of technology beneficial and suited to their needs. To an extent, students have been
reported to prefer doing activities digitally instead of writing and reading written materials (Tolani,
McCormac, & Zimmermann, 2009). This implies that the present-time learners are adept in the
use of technology and have developed in them the so-called digital literacy. Further, it is speculated
that the students over the years are changing their attitude and preferences over different
educational practices which implies that teachers should consider modifying their approaches in
different educational practices in consideration of the characteristics of the students in this digital
era. Therefore, technology and education are inseparable as education , today, needs technology
for it to be delivered and realized. Against this, countries are claimed to enter an era demanding
the publication of electronic books (Ivić, 2019). This means that the demand for digitalizing school
materials such as books among others shall continue to rise as years come because digitazing is
the call of the time.
Digital reading could simply be defined as the performance of reading activities on
electronic devices such as, but not limited to, cellular phones, ipads, personal computers, tablet
computers and laptops; therefore, digital reading habit is reading habit with electronic technology
as platform and not printed materials. Studies such as that of Kaman and Ertem (2018) found that
using digital text and allowing digital reading positively impacts learners fluency and lessens
reading flaws. The same investigation found that students are excited in performing reading
digitally which led the authors to recommend to teachers the practice of digital reading in class.

Digital Reading Habit and Gender

Bacang, Rillo and Alieto (2019) claimed that gender, as a social construct, is determined by
society. This means that what makes a male and a female is largely dependent on what the people
in the community dictates. As such, they tend to appropriate their actions and reactions in
congruence with society’s expectation (Berowa, 2016). Therefore, society possesses the power
and influence to shape thoughts and perception of people as what is masculine and feminine, what
makes a male and a female. Morever, it cannot be denied that people are distinguished by gender
(Zainurrahman, 2019).
The understanding about gender has evolved over time. In early times, it was perceived
limitedly;but, as time goes by it was understood beyond biological and physical characteristics.
Presently, the understanding of the construct of gender according to Zainurrahman (2019, p.1)
includes ‘behavior, thinking style, economic and political role, and language use’.
Through the years, the influence of gender on varied constructs has been investigated and
is central to various research. As proof, Zainurrahman (2019) explained that gender and language

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is an intriguing discussion among and between scholars. Moreover, the establishment of gender
difference was sought across different investigations. Illustratively, scholars have realized
investigations and sought to determine whether gender gaps exists in attitude towards languages
(Alieto, 2018; Alieto & Rillo, 2018; Buslon, Alieto, Pahulaya, & Reyes, 2020). Another example
is the study of Berowa (2018) which tried to determine the relationship between English anxiety
vis-à-vis gender and year level variables that may contribute in language learning success or
failure. Likewise, Robles and Torres (2020) investigated the relationship between gender and
attitude towards peer-correction strategy in ESL writing classes. Another is the psycholinguistic
investigation of Devanadera and Alieto (2019) which explored the difference on the types of
lexical production between male and female children. An addition to the list is the discourse
analysis of Bacang, Rillo and Alieto (2019) which investigated the influence of gender on the use
of rhetorical appeals, hedges and boosters. Still in discourse analysis, Torres (2020) used a corpus
of 20 blind audition video-clips to compare male and female celebrity coaches in their politeness
strategies. Additional proof is the study of Torres and Alieto (2019a) which determined the attitude
of pre-service teachers toward Philippine English grammar and lexical items between males and
females. Further example is the research work of Rosales (2019) which explored the attitude of
higher education institution faculty members toward the accreditation process between male and
female faculty members.
Additional is the empirical study of Berowa, Ella and Lucas (2019) which investigated the
difference in the perceived offensiveness of swear words across gender. Additions are the studies
of Torres and Alieto (2019b) and Torres (2010) which investigated the gender difference on two
psychological construct, motivation and self-efficacy. One more example is the study of Ramos,
Miñoza and Alieto (2019) which investigated whether or not sex (used interchangeably with
gender in this study) influences students’ skill in writing composition. And yet another one is that
of Eijansantos (2018) who investigated two different forms of language—verbal and non-verbal—
in the respondents’ use of language in their postings with a split analyzed between the two genders.
Torres et al. (2020) looked at the gender difference on humor styles and perceived offensiveness
among college students. Another is that of dela Rama et al. (2020) which explored the gender
divide in the attitude toward online teaching, technological competence and access.These
examples are far from being exhaustive; however, provide an essential implication that gender
seems to be an ever-present variable in the study of language, and education related constructs.
In this study, the concept and understanding of gender is limited to the categorization of
being male and female. This present study intends to supply empirical data relative to gender
difference as regards the extent of digital reading habit. Analysis of the influence of gender on the
main construct of the study is not the core of this research; however, the investigation of digital
reading habit conducted juxtaposed with the construct of gender is understood taken to provide a
clear understanding about identified independent variable of the study.
Moreover, studies on DRH and gender disclosed conflicting results. In Abidin,
Pourmohammadi, Varasingam, and Lean (2014) gender was reported to have neutral effect on
digital reading habit. However, the recent study of Ramos (2020) claimed that gender differences
exist with females having ‘better’ digital reading habit than males which corroborates with the
finding of Fatiloro, Adesola, Hameed, and Adewumi (2017).

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Digital reading habit and socioeconomic status

Socioeconomic status (SES) could be indexed by many factors. Commonly, the financial resource
of the family is noted to determine SES. However, in Destin, Hanselman, Buontempo, Tipton and
Yeager (2019), parental education is a gauge to measure SES. Moreover, Bora and Ahmed (2018)
maintained that there is no single basis for the measure of SES. The authors explained that there
are various measures used by different researchers to size up the SES – income, occupation status,
social background and educational achievement.
Analysis of different educational, language and language-related variables alongside with
the respondents’ SES has been carried out by different researchers. Example is the investigation
of Delgado and Kassim (2019) which investigated the gender difference on mathematics anxiety.
Another illustration is the study of Devanadera and Alieto (2019) which investigated the difference
in lexical production of Tagalog-speaking children across SES. One more study proving the point
is Dölek and Hamzadayı (2018), with a quantitative approach, which compared the writing skills
of the students with different SES. Additional example is the study of Berowa, Devanadera and
David (2018) which examined the influence of SES on the attitude of Vietnamese students in the
Philippines toward English. Added to this list is the quantitative exploration of Miñoza and
Montero (2019) which investigated the relationship between intermediate students’ reading
comprehension and their SES. Finally, Rosales (2020) investigated the differences of reading
comprehension among respondents across socioeconimic groupings. The inclusion of SES as an
essential variable in the investigation of various factors proves its importance as a research
construct.
Digital reading is realized through the use of either a mobile phone and other digital
devices, for instance, in the analysis carried out by Baguio and Eijansantos (2021) of the
broadsheets—expectedly more commonly read in print—which were solely read digitally and later
on analyzed digitally, too. Without these gadgets and devices, digital reading could not be
performed. Therefore, one must bear possession of the mentioned instrument prior to being able
to read digitally. It is then supposed that digital reading is associated with the capacity to purchase
electronic devices and internet connection; thus, against this contention, it is interesting to
determine difference on DRH across socio economic status.

Researh Questions
The current research study on the digital reading habit of prospective ESL reading teachers
purposed to answer the following questions:

1. What is the digital reading habit of the respondents?

2. Is there a significant difference on the digital reading habit between the male and female
respondents?
3. Is there a significant relationship between the respondents’ digital reading habit and their
socioeconomic status?

Methodology
Research Design
The current investigation utilizes a descriptive-quantitative research design to determine the digital
reading habit of prospective reading teachers and to determine differences across the variables

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gender and socioeconomic status. This study is claimed to be quantitative as it aimed to quantify
the digital reading habit of respondents through the gathering and collection of quantitative data.
Moreover, in order to determine whether or not there exists a difference on DRH across gender
and SES, statistical techniques were performed. Johnson (2000 in Somblingo & Alieto, 2019)
explained that a descriptive research is a type of investigation that intends to describe a
phenomenon such as in this study which intends to characterize the digital reading habit of the
prospective reading teachers. In addition, if the investigation would involve analysis of data which
would require simple statistical treatment, the study is classified as descriptive (Abdon et al., 2019;
Pattern & Newhart, 2017 cited in Tanpoco, Rillo & Alieto, 2019).
Moreover, a research with regard to the time data collection was performed could be
determined either as longitudinal or cross-sectional. For this study, as data collection was
conducted within a relatively short period of time, it is determined to be cross-sectional (Setia,
2016 in Perez & Alieto, 2018).
Furthermore, the collection of data was realized through the utilization of a survey
questionnaire which took inspiration from the claim of Dillman, Smith and Christian (2009 cited
in Alieto, 2018) that using questionnaires to gather data from a large sample size is a practical and
efficient approach.

Participants of the study

The respondents of this study are prospective reading teachers from the southern part of the
Philippines. The Philippines is essentially influenced by its colonial past with the Americans.
According to Antonio, Bacang, Rillo, Alieto and Caspillo (2019), the greatest influence of
Americans is the educational system of the country having English as medium of instruction; thus,
it is noted that the Filipinos consider English as a second language, making Filipino learners as
English as second language (ESL) learners.
Moreover, in this study, the sample size includes 328 respondents – 27.7% (91) of which
are males. This data implies the large majority of the sample size are females suggesting that the
teacher-education course attracts more females than males. In addition, as regards age, the range
is 17 to 40 with mean age equals to 20.46 (Standard Deviation [SD] = 2.95).
In relation to the respondents socioeconomic status (SES), the majority reported to belong
to middle SES (166 or 50.6% of the total sample size). On the other hand, the least number of
participants claimed to be of high SES (53 or 16.2%). Furthermore, 109 or 33.2% identified
themselves to be of middle SES. From this data, it could be inferred that the teacher-education
course appeals more to students coming from the low and middle class as compared to those
coming from high SES.

The research instrument

The use of likert questionnaire is noted to be a classic technique in data gathering as determined
by Ubalde and Rosales (2018 cited in Ricohermoso, Abequibel & Alieto, 2019); hence, in this
study a four-point likert scale (1 for never; 2 for seldom; 3 for mostly; and 4 for always).
The study adapted the digital reading habit questionnaire of Maden (2018) which originally
was of 26 items divided into two sections, the reading psychological dimension (with eight items)
and daily use dimension (with eighteen items).

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Essential modifications were made in the original research tool. One of the modifications
is that out of the 26 items, only 16 were included in the final form of the questionnaire. Ten items
were not included as some were noted to be inappropriate as regards the context of the present
study. Another modification is the equal distribution of items across the two mentioned
dimensions; thus, each dimension of the DRH contains eight items.
The alteration in the original questionnaire was deemed major; therefore, the instrument
was subjected for pilot testing. Alieto (2019) explained that pilot testing is beneficial at multiple
levels. It is a means of determining the comprehensibility of the instructions provided. Pilot testing
also addresses semantic issues of the questionnaire and increases validity. Moreover, through pilot
testing, reliability of the instrument could be determined.
The instrument was administered to 50 prospective language teachers who did not form
part of the sample size of the current study.The respondents of the pilot testing were also asked to
provide feedback as regards the form and structuring of the questionnaire. Comments were
minimal and limited to font styles and size of the prints on the questionnaire.
Cronbach’s alpha test was used to determine the reliability of the questionnaire. The tool
yielded a reliability of 0.97. George and Maller (2003) claimed that as a rule of thumb if the value
of Cronbach’s alpha is greater than 0.9 it is considered as ‘excellent’, if the value of the Cronbach’s
alpha is greater than 0.8 it is considered ‘good’, if it is greater than 0.7 it is regarded as ‘acceptable’,
if greater than 0.6 it is remarked as ‘questionable’, if greater than 0.5 it is noted as ‘poor’, and if
less than 0.5 it is claimed to be ‘unacceptable’ (p.231); thus, the tool is noted to be of ‘excellent’
reliability. Therefore, all the 16 items of the instrument were included in the final form of the
questionnaire.

Procedure
Securing permission for access to the target population is an essential component of data gathering
– such practice relates to ethics in research. Towards this end, letters were composed and sent to
seek approval of the administration of the research instrument to determined respondents. Upon
the grant of permission, the researchers calendared as scheduled for the administration of the
instruments. A venue was determined to convene the respondents for their voluntary participation
in the study.
The respondents were provided with the research tool; however, prior to responding to the
instrument, the respondents were first acquainted with the directions on how to answer. Very
limited discussion was provided about the study being conducted so as not to influence the
prospective language teachers.
On the average, the respondents are able to complete the form within fifteen-minute time.
Moreover, respondents were encouraged to individually submit the questionnaire to the
researchers on site. This was to allow the researchers double check the entries and lessen the
number of questionnaires disqualified for analysis due to double entry and no response.

Method of Analysis
The data drawn from the collected questionnaires were first coded for analysis using SPSS. For
the nominal variable gender, the code 1 for female and 2 for male was used. For the ordinal variable
socioeconomic status, the code 1 for low, 2 for middle and 3 for high was employed.

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For the determination of the digital reading habit of the respondents, the responses were
coded as follows: 1 for never, 2 for seldom, 3 for mostly, and 4 for always.
To give interpretation to the mean score of the tabulated responses, table 1 was used for
the said purpose.

Table 1
Digital Reading Habit Scale
Range Descriptor Interpretation
3.25 4.0 Always Very Satisfactory Digital Reading Habit
2.5 3.24 Mostly Satisfactory Digital Reading Habit
1.75 2.49 Seldom Fair Digital Reading Habit
1.0 1.74 Never Poor Digital Reading Habit

Statistical Treatment
Considering the objectives of the study, both descriptive and inferential statistics were used.
Descriptive statistics such as the arithmetic mean or simply mean (M) and standard deviation (SD)
were used to determine the DRH of the respondents.
On the other hand, the inferential statistics known as t-test for independent sample would
be used to analyze significant difference on the DRH of the respondents across the dichotomous
variable gender. Further, one-way Analysis of Variance (one-way ANOVA) was used to analyze
the data and draw possible significant difference on the digital reading habit of the respondents
across the polychotomous variable socioeconomic status.
In addition, to determine whether or not a significant relationship could be drawn between
the respondents digital reading habit and socioeconomic status, the parametric inferential statistical
tool known as Pearson Product Moment Coefficient (also known as Pearson r) was employed.

Results and Discussion

Digital Reading Habit of the respondents
The responses from the survey questionnaire were coded for analysis. Descriptive statistics (mean
[M], standard deviation [SD]) were utilized to determine the DRH of the respondents. Table 2
provides the result of the analysis.

Table 2
Respondents’ digital reading habit
Variable M SD Description Interpretation
Digital Reading Habit 2.66 0.39 Mostly Satisfactory Digital Reading Habit
Scale: 3.25 to 4.0 – Always (Very Satisfactory Digital Reading Habit); 2.5 to 3.24 – Mostly
(Satisfactory Digital Reading Habit); 1.75 to 2.49 – Seldom (Fair Digital Reading Habit); 1.0 to
1.74 – Never ( Poor Digital Reading Habit)

Table 2 discloses that the respondents of this study are, on the average, of ‘satisfactory’
digital reading habit which means that they are engaged in digital reading. Detailed analysis of the
data show that none of the respondents was noted to be of ‘poor’ digital habit. On the other hand,
33.3% of the respondents reported to have a ‘fair’ digital reading habit. Morever, 56.6% claimed

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to have a ‘satisfactory’ digital reading habit. The remaining 10.1% of the respondents reported to
have a ‘very satisfactory’ digital reading habit. It can be inferred from the data that the influence
of technology and the internet has greatly influenced the practice of reading performed by the
present-day learners. However, a good number of respondents remain to perform digital reading
to a limited extent although the majority are to a good extent doing digital reading. This also
implies that although reading can be performed in a new platform – digital and online – the
traditional text reading is still appreciated and done. As previously enumerated, digital reading is
opted because such practice saves learners from the hassle of carrying reading materials which
post concerns in handling and keeping; however, reading digital materials is not without an issue.
One great concern, since gadgets depend on power, is the battery life of the cellphones, laptops,
ipads and others. If the gadgetts run out of charge, digital reading cannot be performed which is
not an issue in doing print reading. Another advantage of doing print reading is it could be
performed almost anywhere (along the hallway, in parks etc.). However, the same does not hold
true with digital reading as such practice be ideally done in places where a power outlet is readily
available because the devices are power-dependent; therefore, places such as the cafes, computer
shops among others become a common place for doing digital reading.These are some main
reasons why print reading remains to be appreciated by the respondents which is alluded to explain
this finding of the study.

Digital Reading Habit across gender

To answer the question whether or not males significantly differ on their digital reading habit, the
data gathered and collected were analyzed. The inferential statistics one-way analysis of variance
was used to determine the significant difference in the construct investigated across the
dichotomous variable gender. Table 3 presents the analysis.

Table 3
Gender difference in the digital reading habit
Variables M SD Sig.
Digital Reading Habit Gender Male 2.79 0.43
0.000*
Female 2.61 0.35
* significant at alpha = 0.01

Table 3 gives that difference on the DRH of the respondents when data are grouped
according to gender (male and female). The p-value (0.000) is less than alpha=0.05 which means
that there is a significant difference. This suggests that the male respondents in this study differ
significantly with their female counterparts in regard to their DRH with males having ‘better’ DRH
as evidenced by the mean score (M). This implies that gender is a factor influencing DRH – an
empirical support this study provides. In this study, gender role plays a significant part in
determining the DRH of the prospective reading teachers. It is supposed that the male participants
of this study engaged in greater extent of digital reading compared to the female respondents of
the study due to multiple reasons.

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This result counters the claim of Abidin et al. (2014) that gender was reported to have
neutral effect on digital reading habit which means that females and males do not significantly
differ in the DRH. On another hand, the result mirrors the findings of Ramos (2020) and Fatiloro
et al. (2017) that gender is an influencing variable. However, in these previous studies females
were found to be of ‘better’ DRH while the study found the opposite.
One speculation is the attitude towards the new technological platform. Okazaki and
Santos (2012) conducted a study regarding adoption of an e-learning tool. The study found that
gender difference exists. It was disclosed that the male respondents were likely to adopt new
technological platforms as they perceive these innovations user-friendly and useful; however, the
female counterparts were not as positive and as accepting. Hence, it is argued that the adaptive
attitude of males noted in previously reported literature is the same reason explaining the
significant difference on the DRH.
Another supposition seen is that males are technologically adept as compared to females
(Goswami & Dutta, 2016). This means that the males are more technological proficient than
females which results to male being more explorative and confident in the use of the online
platform. The females, on the other hand, are reserved and restrained which limits their exploration
and engagement. Supportive of this, researchers Li and Kirkup (2007) claimed that males across
contexts are more confident of their skills in the use of technology while women are prone to
nervousness in the use of technology (Jackson, Ervinn, Gardner & Schmitt, 2001).

Correlation : Digital reading habit and socioeconomic status

To determine whether or not a significant relationship can be drawn between the respondents’
DRH and SES, the data were analyzed, after determining the normality of distribution, using the
inferential statistics known as Pearson Product Moment Coefficient (Pearson r). Table 4 gives the
analysis.

Table 4
Significant relationship between the respondents digital reading habit and SES
Variables r- value Sig. Inter.
Digital Reading Habit Socioeconomic status 0.118 0.033 Significant
* significant at alpha = 0.05

Table 4 presents the analysis on the significant relationship between the prospective
teachers’ DRH and SES. The data (p-value = 0.033 < alpha = 0.05) revealed that there is a
significant relationship between the investigated variables. This means that the SES of the
respondents influences their DRH. Moreover the relationship is noted to be positive (r-value =
0.118). This finding supports the report of Ramos (2020) which found a positive significant
relationship between DRH and SES. This means that the respondents with extensive DRH are the
ones with high SES. Conversely, the respondents with poor DRH are the ones with low SES. This
is an expected result. For digital reading to be done, one must own not the kind of phone that can
simply perform basic functions like call and text; instead, the kind that has memory for the storage
of files; the kind that is touch screen and can be used for mobile internet. These kinds of phone
cost a large sum of money; thus, the basic requirement of owning a phone for doing digital reading
is claimed to be expensive. As such, it becomes a practice reserved for those who can afford; thus,

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because access to technology is far from being universal, digital divide exists across economic
statuses of people (Harris, Straker & Pollock, 2017). This gap explains the result of the study
showing that those who have better financial capacity are the ones with extensive digital reading
habit.

Conclusion
In consideration of the results of the study, the following conclusions are made: One is that the
majority of the respondents are extensively engaged in digital reading. As supported by the data,
the respondents of the study are of ‘satisfactory’ digital reading habit which means that they are
most of the time reading materials digitally. Second is that gender, in the context of this study,
plays an essential role influencing respondents DRH with males to prefer and do more digital
readings as compared to females. In other words, this result supports trends and claims that there
is gender divide in the use and acceptance of technology and innovative platforms in which males
are more accepting and positive compared to females.Third is that SES significantly associates
with the DRH of the respondents with those of financial capacity doing more digital readings than
those otherwise. Digital reading entails expenses on the part of the learners as regards owning a
device and having internet access; therefore, there is a greater financial implication in the practice
of digital reading as compared to print reading.

Implications
The study provided essential understanding about the respondents’ DRH. Moreover, from these
findings, implications can be drawn. First, there is a preference for digital reading in this present
time. This preference should not be neglected instead capitalized by teachers in the giving of
requirements, homework, readings and including submission of outputs. The digital platform must
be explored and utilized by teachers as an additional avenue in which supplemental instructions
could take place.
Second, the gender divide must be further explored to clearly understand the different
reasons placing females behind males in the practice of digital reading. The study simply provided
speculations in the absence of supporting data.
However, it is definite that quest for equality remains a battle to be won. If reading teachers
remain apprehensive in the adoption of technology and latest technological-drive modes in the
delivery of education, it is feared that such apprehension shall be transferred by the teachers
themselves to their own students.
Last, efforts must be exhausted to make access to internet and technology free. The result
of the study relating the relationship between the SES and DRH of the respondents points to the
idea known as digital divide caused by financial resources available to learners.
Therefore, teachers must be mindful not to provide digital reading tasks that would place
those of low SES at a disadvantage. Although there is a pressing need to develop the digital reading
habit of present day learners, moreso with the future reading teachers, a balance should be struck
in consideration of those who are facing financial difficulties. In addition, educators must find
means and ways to provide access and use of technology to students with minimal or at no cost to
the students at all.

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